Child Development and Pedagogy PYQs

Learning is a comprehensive process that refers to a change in behavior, knowledge, and skills as a result of practice and experience.

• It is difficult to give a precise definition of learning so every psychologist has different beliefs about the derivation of the word 'learning' and they have defined it in different ways.

Key Points

Some well-known definitions of learning are as follows:

 

Hence, it could be concluded that the above-mentioned definition of learning is given by J.P. Guilford.

A model of teaching is a plan, an instructional design to provide authentic experiences to students to facilitate learning. It can be used for effective teaching, development of instructional material, and development of curriculum.

• There are different kinds of teaching models in fashion to facilitate effective learning such as 'Basic teaching model', 'Synectics teaching model', 'Advance organizer teaching model', etc.

Key Points

Let's Understand in Brief:

Hence, it could be concluded that a - IV, b - III, c - I, d - II is correct in the context.

There are different kinds of teaching-learning approach to facilitate effective learning and Problem-solving is one of them. It is a learner-centered approach that emphasizes learner's active involvement in the learning process.

• In this approach, teachers create a problematic situation for students and then assist them in perceiving, defining, and stating the problems in a fear-free classroom environment.

Key Points

Steps involved in the problem-solving method:

• Identification of problem
• Accumulation of data.
• Formulating a hypothesis.
• Testing the hypothesis.
• Making a generalization.

​Hence, it could be concluded that 'Identification of problem' is the first step of the problem-solving approach.

 

Aims of problem-solving method:

• To develop divergent thinking among students.
• To boost student's understanding of the concept.
• To promote the use of critical and imaginative thinking.
• To help students to gain the ability of scientific problem-solving.
• To make students able to utilize creativity in the decision-making process.

Learning refers to the modification of behavioral patterns. It is a comprehensive process that refers to a change in behavior, knowledge, and skill as a result of practice and experience.

Key Points

• Learning of children will be most effective when development of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains of children will take place.
• These domains are proposed by Benjamin Bloom in his taxonomy. It is a set of three hierarchical models that refers to the classification of educational learning objectives.

Important Points 

Let's Understand these domains in the context of child's learning:

• Cognitive domains: In this domain, a child deals with knowledge and hence, learns to create, evaluate, analyze, etc.
• Affective domains: This domain comes into play when the child grows in emotional areas such as feelings, attitudes, etc.
• Psychomotor domains: It is concerned with acquiring skills that require the integration of mental and physical movements.

Hence, it could be concluded that the learning of children will be most effective when development of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains of children will take place.

Teaching takes place at three levels progressively- memory level of teaching, understanding level of teaching, and reflective level of teaching. 

• Teachers must keep in mind the developmental stage of the learners so that desired educational objectives can be achieved.

Important Points

Three identifiable levels of teaching-learning:

• Memory level: It is that where simple processes of recall and recognition are insisted.
• Understanding level: It is one where seeing of relationship or insight is stressed.
• Reflective level: It is that where critical thinking or problem solving is the chief concern.

Key Points

Presentation step is prominent in the syntax of the teaching model of memory level and understanding level. It is the most important step as it gives the major status to the subject matter.

In the Presentation Step:

• The teacher introduces new knowledge in an interactive manner before the learners.
• The teacher tries to connect the previous knowledge of the learners with a new set of knowledge.
• The teacher believes that when any topic is presented properly to the students they learn them in a coherent way.

Hence, it could be concluded that the presentation step is prominent in the syntax of the teaching model of memory level and understanding level.

Development refers to an increase in structure for better and enhanced functioning of organs. It is a wide and continuous process that starts from the pre-natal stage.

Key Points

In the pre-natal stage, baby develops inside the mother's womb and becomes a mature one by passing through three different stages of prenatal development.

The three stages of pre-natal development include:

• Germinal period: First 2 weeks after conception.
• Embryonic period: 8 weeks from conception.
• Fetal Period: 9 weeks until birth or 38 to 40 weeks.

Hence it could be concluded that development starts from the pre-natal stage.​ 

Additional Information

Key Points

Robert Mills Gange, an American educational psychologist. He had written a book named 'The Conditions of Learning'. 

• In this book, he has proposed a hierarchy of learning in which learning tasks are organized in a hierarchy based on their complexity level.

This learning hierarchy is divided into eight intellectual levels and nine events of instruction. It implies the idea that:

• there are different kinds of levels of learning which require different kinds of instruction.
• an individual has to first master a lower intellectual level in order to acquire higher intellectual level skills.

Hence, it could be concluded that 'The Conditions of Learning' book is written by R.M. Gagne.

Additional Information

Childhood refers to the period of the human lifespan, ranging from birth to puberty. It consists of many developmental stages and 'adolescence' is one of them.

'Adolescence' comes from the Latin word 'Adolescere' which means 'to grow to become mature'. It a stage which lies between the age of '12 to 19 years'.

The above-mentioned statement is stated by Stanley Hall, father of scientific research in adolescence. He introduced the terms 'storm and stress' in 1904 in the context of adolescence.

According to Stanley Hall:

• Adolescence is a turbulent time charged with conflict and mood swings.
• The time period of transition from childhood and adolescence is of great stress.
• Adolescence fails to think clearly and it creates great frustration and stress in their lives.

Hence, it could be concluded that "Adolescence is the period of great stress, strain, storm and strike" is the statement of Stanley Hall.

Micro-teaching is defined as teaching in miniature where it is scaled down in size of the class time and task with focus on a specific teaching skill.

Key Points

• The concept of micro-teaching is a training concept that can be applied at various pre-service and in-service stages in the professional development of teachers.
• Microteaching sessions involve one student teacher, the class instructor (or school supervisor who provides feedback to the student-teacher), and a small group of peers.
• These sessions allow student teachers to practice and polish their teaching techniques in a simulated environment before putting them into practice with students.
• In the Indian model of micro-teaching, developed by NCERT the duration of Micro Teaching is as under:
• Teach - 6 minutes
• Feedback  - 6 minutes
• Re-plan - 12 minutes
• Re-teach - 6 minutes
• Re-feedback - 6 minutes
• Total - 36 minutes

There are six steps of micro-teaching which are as follows -

Hence, it could be concluded that total time taken in the Indian Model of Micro Teaching is 36 minutes.

‘Plateaus’ are often seen in the pattern of development, indicating periods of no apparent improvement. Learning plateau is arrested growth in learning as it is a long flat and horizontal stretch in the learning curve which:

• represents a stationary stage, where apparently no progress in learning is recorded.
• represents a period in the learning process where no improvement occurs even with any number of practices.

Key Points

According to Lee Ross, "Plateaus of learning is a characteristic feature of the learning process indicating a period where no improvement in performance is made". Ross spoke about the learning capability of humans.

• He stated that after someone starts learning about something, the advantage of knowledge is sharp which is much like the edges of the plateau.
• Also after learning a tremendous amount, the quantity of learning becomes unchanged.
• Here the advantage of knowledge is insignificant just like the tabletop of the plateau.

Hence, it could be concluded that the above-mentioned statement was stated by Ross.

There are many theories in psychology which are related to different schools of psychology such as cognitive, humanistic, behavioristic, gestalt, etc.

These theories are propounded by eminent psychologists to provide a framework to understand different aspects of human behavior.

Here option (1) is correct in the context:

• Thorndike regarded adaptive changes in animal behavior as parallel to human learning. Animal Intelligence is a report of Thorndike's contribution to the comparative psychology of learning.
• A Schedule of Reinforcement is modeled by Skinner.It states which behavior will be reinforced. In some cases, the behavior might be reinforced every time it occurs. And in some cases, the behavior might not be reinforced at all.
• The Law of Pragnanz is one of the principles of Gestalt principles of perception. Pragnanz refers to that which is intuitively satisfying. More clearly this relates to fullness/completeness.
• Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development is primarily based on two biological tendencies: Organization & Adaptation. Adaptation is the technique by which humans connect the original experience with a new experience.

Hence, it could be concluded that all pairs are correctly matched in option (1).

Development refers to an increase in structure for better and enhanced functioning of organs.

• It is a wide and continuous process, thus there are some principles that need to be followed for a better understanding of the concept.

Key Points

• The above-mentioned idea is associated with the "Principle of Continuity".
• This principle defines that development is a continuous process from the womb to the tomb and continues gradually until reaching its maximum growth.

Important Points

• Other principles of development include:
• Development is cumulative.
• Development is the process of interaction.
• Development follows uniformity of pattern.
• Development is predictable and sequential.
• Development rate varies from person to person.
• Development proceeds from general to specific.

Hence, it could be concluded that the above-mentioned process is related to the Principle of continuity.

The 86^th amendment to the Constitution of India in 2002 provided the right to education as a fundamental right.

• A new article 21A was added which made the right to education a fundamental right for children between 6-14 years.
• Changes in Article 45 of the Directive Principle of State Policies were made.
• It made education for all children below 6 years a Directive Principle of State Policies(DPSP).

Hence, it could be concluded that through 86^th Amendment of the Constitution education has become a fundamental right.

Additional Information

Instinct Theory of motivation was propounded by William McDougall. According to this theory, instinct drives all behaviors and McDougall saw instinct as purposive and goal-directed.

Key Points

In this theory, McDougall suggested that:

• All organisms are born with natural biological tendencies that assist them to survive.
• Every person has instincts in a greater or lesser degree that are prime determinants of behaviour.
• Eg: Infants have an inborn rooting reflex that helps them in seeking out a nipple and obtaining nourishment.

Hence, it could be concluded that the 'Instinct Theory of motivation' was propounded by McDougall.

Additional Information

• Development: It is a broad term that includes a series of qualitative and progressive changes. These qualitative changes lead to the enhancement of various abilities and enable one to function effectively.
• Emotions: These are the feelings generated as an effect of experiences, or relationships of an individual with others. They are instinctive reactions that come naturally to all and contribute to the personal and social adjustments of an individual.

According to Cole and Bruce, childhood is a unique stage of emotional development.

• Emotional development relies solely on the process of socialization and proceeds in a stepwise manner.
• Basic emotions such as fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, surprise, anger, and interest, are present since birth.
• During childhood, mood tantrums are pretty common.
• Toddlers have a tendency to have fast temper swings. While their emotions may be very intense, these emotions additionally have a tendency to be pretty short-lived.
• One might be stunned at how an infant can go from screaming hysterically about a toy at one second to sitting in the front of the TV quietly looking at a favorite show simply moments later.
• Children at this age are very possessive and have difficulty in sharing.

Hence, it could be concluded that 'Childhood' is called 'A unique stage of emotional development' by Cole and Bruce.

Intelligence refers to the capacity to acquire and apply knowledge. It is the ability to solve problems, learn from experiences, and apply knowledge to deal with new situations.

• There are many theories related to intelligence. These theories are propounded by eminent psychologists to provide a framework to understand different aspects of human intelligence.
• The theory of Multiple Intelligence which consists of eight different kinds of intelligence is propounded by an American psychologist 'Howard Gardner'.

This theory emphasizes that:

• intelligence is of several kinds rather than dominated by a general factor.
• intelligence can't be tied to a single domain as each individual has his/her own abilities.
• how cultures shape the potential of the human using Intelligence as a multi-dimensional set of complex abilities.

Important Points

The following table will provide a complete idea of Howard Gardener's 8 types of Intelligence.

 

Hence, it ould be concluded that 'Howard Gardner' has given the concept of multiple intelligence.

Additional Information

Learning disability refers to the neurological disorder that causes cognitive impairment. Dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, etc are the example of learning disability.

Key Points

Dyslexia has difficulty in Reading/Spelling as dyslexia is the most common learning disability which makes learners:

• confuse with the same shapes and sounds of alphabet.
• unable to read, interpret, and understand letters and words.
• bewilder in identifying and relating speech sounds with letters and words.

Hence, it could be concluded that Dyslexia has difficulty in Reading/Spelling.

Additional Information

Other Disabilities in Brief:

Inclusive Education refers to the inclusion of all children in the education system, regardless of their differences and disabilities.

• It values the diversity, each child brings to the classroom and facilitates all with equal opportunities to learn and grow.

Key Points

Teachers are the implementers of education and are the most important resources in educational settings. They also play a vital role in an inclusive classroom by:

• encouraging children to learn.
• devoting extra time to teach the learning disabled.
• paying attention to differently abled children.
• fostering the potential of every child to grow and bloom.
• addressing the diverse learning needs of every student.
• making adequate seating arrangements according to the child's requirement.

Hence, it could be concluded that 'not paying attention to differently abled children' is not the role of the teacher in an inclusive classroom.​

Questioning refers to the most effective strategy to arise curiosity and inquisitiveness too. Asking questions makes the classroom's ambiance more interactive.

Key Points

In the class, questioning by students should be encouraged as it could enhance their cognitive competencies in the following ways:

• Questions inspire learners to look out for information that aligns with their pursuits and might consequently promote lifelong learning.
• Asking questions allows learners to link between various pieces of information which can assist them in structuring essays and debates.
• Questioning boosts their confidence-up, makes them able to put forth their views, and helps the children to make the best of their educational experiences.

Hence, it could be concluded that in the class, questioning by students should be encouraged.

The term growth and development are often used interchangeably with each other. Let's understand:

• Growth: It refers to a quantitative change which results in an increase in height, weight, and length of the child.
• Development: It refers to a qualitative change which results in an increase in structure for better and enhanced functioning of organs.

Key Points​ Growth of a child is mainly related to 'Physical Development' which refers to physical changes that occur in humans throughout life.

• Growth talks about the quantitative changes, for instance, an increase in size and structure.
• The child not only becomes larger in stature, but the size and structure of the internal organs and the brain also increases.
• Physical growth goes on from birth onwards, in tissues, muscles, bones, height, weight, strength, brain, and in fact, in every physical aspect, function, or formation.

H ence, it could be concluded that the growth of a child is mainly related to  'Physical Development'.

Additional Information