Child Development and Pedagogy PYQs

Lecture Method: It is a method of teaching whereby the teacher attempts to explain facts, principles, or relationships to help students to understand. It is an autocratic method where;

• The teacher is an active participant, the students are passive listeners.
• The teacher talks more or less continuously to the class.
• The class listens, writes, and notes facts and the ideas for remembering and to think them over later.
• Usually, the students do not converse with the teacher during a lecture by the teacher.
• It is a one-way method.
• A few questions may be asked by the students to clarify a point but no discussion is usually held.

 

The Democratic Method is called the student center method because in this type of method students actively participate in the teaching-learning process. These methods are:

• The discussion method is a method of considering various facts about the topic under consideration; understanding of these facts by studying their relationships and drawing out conclusions of the facts and their relationship studied. A discussion method of teaching is a democratic method.
• Project Method: The project method of teaching is one of the modern methods of teaching in which the curriculum content is considered from the child's point of view and is related to his needs and interest in the context of real-life situations.
• Participatory Method: In this learning is focused on increased student participation, so it is basically student-centered.

Hence, we conclude that the Lecture method is not the democratic method of teaching-learning.

Benjamin Bloom's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models that refers to the classification of educational learning objectives. In the taxonomy, Bloom identified three domains of learning which include cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.

 

These three domains have been divided in a way that proceeds from the simplest process to the complex.

• Cognitive domains: In this domain, a child deals with knowledge and hence, learns to create, evaluate, analyze, etc.
• Psychomotor domains: It is concerned with acquiring skills that require the integration of mental and physical movements.
• Affective domains: This domain comes into play when we grow in emotional areas such as feelings, attitudes, etc. It includes how we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.

Key Points

Let's Understand the Levels of Affective Domain in Brief:

• Receiving: When a learner shows sensitivity to certain stimuli.
• Responding:  It is defined as the tendency to respond to an object or stimuli.
• Valuing: It refers to the acceptance of behavior and commitment to it. One values certain behaviors not by desires but by commitment.
• Organizing: It refers to organizing the value system which is attained when one develops one’s code of conduct or standard of public life.
• Characterizing: It deals with behavior as per values or attitudes a child has imbibed; children show teamwork.

Hence, it could be concluded that the is knowledge is not related to the affective domain of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives.

NOTE: Knowledge is related to the cognitive domain of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives.

There are three different levels of teaching and teaching takes place at three levels progressively- memory level of teaching, understanding level of teaching, and reflective level of teaching. Teachers must keep in mind the developmental stage of the learners so that desired educational objectives can be achieved.

Key Points

There are three levels of teaching effectively:

1. Memory level:

• ​It involves memorizing factual information.
• It is the least thoughtful method since it encourages rote memorization.
• The teacher focuses on the recall, recognition, and retention of learning.
• It is mostly employed by the teachers at the primary classes to teach basic skills such as rules of grammar, arithmetic, spelling, etc.

2. Understanding level: ​This level focuses on comprehension and understanding of the meaning of the topic being studied. It involves breaking down complex topics into a logical sequence of steps.
3. Reflective level: It implies the highest level of thoughtfulness on the part of the learners. It involves the method of the scientific method of understanding a problem. It makes use of the ‘problem-solving approach to find a solution to a difficult problem. This level of teaching is usually employed at the college/university level.

Hence, it becomes clear that the Motivation level is not the level of teaching.

Learning: Learning is the total of an individual’s life experience acquitted through the socialization process.

Key Points

• Learning is the modification of behavior through experience and training.
• It is an association between stimulus-response  (S-R) is based on the Law of contiguity (things occurring closer in time and space get associated).
• It is an association between stimulus and response (S-R) is based on the law of effect (effect of reward and punishing)
• It exceeds a mere acquisition of factual information or mastering of skills, as it also includes the total of an individual’s life experiences which are relatively permanent in nature and have survived values for him.

Hence, we can conclude that learning is an association between stimulus and response.

Progressive Theory of Education: It is defined as change or movement in the direction of the end; and, conversely, movement in any other direction toward any other end is regressive.

Key Points

• This theory stated education through experience or experiment or solving problems.
• It emphasized the value and importance of experience, experiment, purposeful learning, freedom, etc.
• The problem-solving method is based upon the progressive theory. This theory stresses that students should test ideas through active experimentation.
• Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through experiencing the world.

Additional Information

 

Hence, we conclude that the Problem-solving teaching method is based on progressive theory.

Creativity is defined as something different from intelligence and as a parallel construct to intelligence, but it differs from intelligence in that it is not restricted to cognitive or intellectual functioning or behaviour. 

Key Points

Elements of Creativity

Creative thinking as involving divergent thinking, which emphasizes fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration. These elements of creativity are:

 

Hence, we conclude that the correct sequence of elements of creativity is Fluency, Flexibility, Originality, Elaboration.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development: 

Freud proposed a five-stage model of development of personality. According to him, the core aspects of one’s personality developed by the age of five and remain unchanged throughout. Further, he stated that to move from one stage to another, a child needs to resolve conflicts of each stage successfully.

Key Points

 

Hence, we conclude from the above information that At the age of 4 - 5 years, a male child develops a more profound attachment towards his mother as compared to his father is known as the Oedipus complex.

E. L. Thorndike, an American psychologist, is known as the founder of modern educational psychology.

• He propounded 'Trial and Error Theory' which represents that learning is the result of associations forming between stimulus and responses.
• "Mistakes teaches individual" statement is based on 'Trial and Error Theory'.

Based on the Trial and Error Learning Theory, Thorndike gave certain secondary laws of Learning.

Key Points

The all eight secondary laws of learning are:

 

Hence, we conclude that the Law of action-reaction is not included in Thorndike's secondary laws of learning.

Transfer of learning: It refers to the influence of learning one task on the learning of another. Transfer of learning is considered to be the basis of curriculum development as it provides a foundation for the arrangement of the sequence of skills to be learned. This transfer could either be positive, negative, or neutral. 

Key Points

Types of Transfer of Learning:

 

Additional Information 

Other Types of Transfer of Learning:

 

Hence, we can conclude from the above information that if a person is getting help from his previous experiences of driving a scooter during the learning of car driving, then it shows Positive Transfer of Learning.

Learning disabilities refer to certain kinds of disorders in the basic psychological processes of an individual. These disorders are mainly caused by nervous system dysfunction (brain or neurological damage impending one's motor or learning abilities) and also by genetic factors.

Key Points

Dysphasia

• A language disorder that affects a person's ability to communicate.
• It can occur suddenly after a stroke or head injury or develop slowly from a growing brain tumor or disease.
• Aphasia affects a person's ability to express and understand written and spoken language.
• Once the underlying cause is treated, the main treatment for aphasia is speech therapy.

Additional Information

Types of Learning Disabilities:

• Dyslexia: Dyslexia is a disability in reading, difficulty in understanding words and letters recognition.
• Dyscalculia: It is a disability to solve mathematic problems such as addition, subtraction and so on.
• Dysgraphia: It is the difficulty in writing such as forming words and letters.
• Dyspraxia: It is the difficulty in coordination between mind and motor skills.

Hence, we conclude that disability-related with communication is ​Dysphasia.

Mental Retardation is a term used when a person has certain limitations in mental functioning and in skills such as communicating, taking care of himself or herself, and social skills. These limitations will cause a child to learn and develop more slowly than a typical child.

Key Points 

Approaches for the education of 'Mentally Retarded' children:

• Individualized Instruction: Instructions of teaching materials should be based on the principle of self placing. It should be the educational ability of the child and then match the learning materials with that ability. They can learn better if teaching is adapted to the needs of these children.
• Systematic Instruction: Educable mentally retarded children lack a high level of generalization and usually unable to learn material incidentally without instruction as the average children do. Thus learning materials should be presented to the educable mentally retarded in sequential order following systematic and hierarchical procedure.
• Special Learning Principle: (a) Principle of simple, complex, (b) Principle of known to unknown, (c) Principle of use to disuse, (d) Principle of repetition, (e) Principle of reinforcement and reward.
• Assessment: The mentally retarded children must have a special diagnosis including medical, social-psychological, and educational evaluations before starting the remedial teaching. It should be made on a periodic basis.

Hence, we conclude that Individualize instruction is the best suitable approach for the education of 'Mentally Retarded' children.

Growth refers to an increase in physical dimensions of an individual, e.g., an increase in height, weight, etc. or various parts and organs of the body.

• It implies an increase in size or general bodily growth.
• It is a biological process like an individual’s physical attributes, inherited diseases, temperament level.
• The increase is limited by biological factors and is influenced by environmental factors, such as ethnicity, climate, diet, and many other factors.

Development refers to enhancement in the functioning of the human body. It entails changes in structure, form, or shape.

• "Development implies qualitative change”. This means that development is just not adding inches to one's height or refining one’s ability but it is a complex process that involves the integration of many structures and functions.
• Development is evaluated by improvement in the performance of the human body.
• Development is always gradual, progressive, and diversified in form according to different periods of growth.

Learning: Learning is the total of an individual’s life experience acquitted through the socialization process.

• Learning is the modification of behavior through experience and training.
• It exceeds a mere acquisition of factual information or mastering of skills, as it also includes the total of an individual’s life experience which are relatively permanent in nature and have survived values for him.

Education is a goal-oriented process. There may be the individual goals of learner, the institutional goals or the social goals. Depending upon the nature of goals, the goal-oriented education can be defined as:

• Excellence in Education
• Value addition in Education
• Fitness of Educational outcomes
• Conformances of Educational out-put to planned goals

Hence, we can conclude that Development is not a quantitative process, it is a Qualitative process.

Psychological assessment is the appropriate understanding of the psychological attributes or characteristics of an individual or group of individuals using objective techniques of measurement. 

Key Points

• Aptitude is a child's relative fitness of which one essential aspect is his readiness to acquire proficiency, his potential ability, and another in his readiness to develop an interest in exercising that ability. Ability means, the power to perform responsive acts.
• Aptitude is symptomatic or indicative of one’s potentialities. z Aptitude is the result of the interaction of heredity and environment.
• An individual is born with certain potentialities. After that, the environment helps or hinders the expression of these potentialities.

Additional Information

• Interest: Interest is an aspect of behavior, not an entity itself. Experimentally an interest is a response of liking, an aversion is a response of disliking.
• Value: Value is the characteristic of a thing or activity which helps in the conservation and furtherance of our life.
• Motivation: Motivation is the way in which urges, desires, aspirations, and strivings or needs direct, control, or explain the behavior of human beings.

Hence, we conclude that the Child's specific ability and specific potentiality in a particular field is known as Aptitude.

Compare and Contrast the Piaget and Bruner's theory of Cognitive Development

• Piaget and Bruner were two influential theorists of cognitive development and both agreed that cognitive development took place in stages but the proposition of their theories is different.
• Piaget and Bruner both said that ‘a child should be introduced to the “knowledge getting process” as a move towards acquiring active knowledge.

Key Points

 

The above information given in the table shows that the Piagets Pre-operation stage of cognitive development is similar to Bruner's Iconic stage of cognitive development because at this stage, the child thinks symbolically and imaging things but he/she does not use the symbols for conversation.

Personality refers to the different aspects of a person's character such as his/her interest, behaviour, cognition, etc. It is a system that has both psychological and physical aspects, which interact between themselves.

• The interacting factors include at the physiological level are the endocrine system and the various glands in the system.
• As for the interacting factors in the psychological aspects include traits, emotions, intellect, temperament, character, and motives.
• According to trait theory, personality is made up of different traits. Traits are the building blocks and human behaviour can be described in terms of these traits.
• A trait generally is a description of behaviour, for example, friendliness, social, assertive, etc.

Trait approach got maximum impetus from the work of Cattell, Eysenck, and Allport. 

Key Points

Let's Understand in Brief:

Important Points

Sigmund Freud had proposed the 'Psycho-analytical Theory of Personality Development' which was not related to the trait.

According to his theory:

• Human behavior is determined largely by unconscious motives.
• Our actions are determined by thoughts and feelings contained in the unconscious mind.

Hence, it could be concluded that Freud is not related to the trait theory of personality.

Problem-solving is a process of overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere with the attainment of a goal. 

• It is a mental process and is part of the larger problem process that includes problem finding and problem shaping.
• Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions, problem-solving has been defined as a higher-order cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of more routine or fundamental skills.
• It is the framework or pattern within which creative thinking and reasoning take place. It is a basic skill needed by today's learners.
• There are several elements that work as an obstacle in the development and process of problem-solving such as anxiety, negative mental set, frustration, low self-efficacy, etc.

Key Points

Insight is not an obstacle in problem-solving as insight :

• is the solution to a problem arrives ‘all of a sudden’ flash of insight when a person is struggling.
• enhances an individual's ability to perceive and understand something or someone instinctively.
• doesn't rely on behavior or observation, it is the sudden realization of a problem's solution using intuition.

Hence, it could be concluded that 'Insight' is not an obstacle in problem-solving.

Emotion is a mental state or a feeling such as amusement, hatred, happiness, anger, surprise, love, and fear which can be caused by the situation an individual is going through.

Key Points

• Amusement is an emotion as it is the state or feeling of experiencing something funny and entertaining.
• Emotions are experienced as positive feelings, negative feelings, and undesired reactions to any stressful situation, these often impact decision-making.
• Emotions activate and direct behaviour in the same way biological and psychological motives do. Human beings are often more aware of our emotions than our underlying motives.
• Emotions can sometimes interfere with motivated behaviour. For example, an irritated child will not be able to focus on completing his homework.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that 'Amusement' is an emotion.

Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories System (FIACS)

• This (FIACS) technique was developed by Dr. Ned A. Flander.
• It is an observation technique that records classroom interaction in ten categories.
• This system measures only the verbal behavior of teachers.
• Interaction analysis is primarily concerned with analyzing the influence patterns of the teacher and distinguishes those acts of the teacher which increases pupils' freedom of action from those acts that decrease it.

Description of Categories:

In the Flanders ten category system, all the events that occur in the classroom are classified into three major sections:

1. Teacher-talk,
2. Student-talk,
3. Silence or confusion.

These sections are subdivided in order to make the total pattern of teacher-pupil interaction more meaningful.

1. Teacher talk is divided into two sub-heads viz., indirect influence, and direct influence.

1. Indirect influence consists of four observation categories:
2. accepting feeling
3. praising or encouraging
4. accepting ideas
5. asking questions
6. Direct influence is divided into three categories:
7. lecturing
8. giving directions,
9. criticizing or justifying authority.

2) Student talk consists of only two categories:

1. responding to the teacher
2. initiating talk

3. the last category which is silence or confusion used to handle anything else that is not the teacher or student talk.

Hence, it could be concluded that Flander is basically linked with 'FIACS'.

Teaching Skills are defined as a group of teaching acts or behaviors intended to facilitate students learning directly or indirectly. It is employed extensively in daily teaching.

• A few of the essential skills employed by a teacher are communication, creativity, questioning, explaining, reinforcing, classroom management, etc.

Key Points

Benefits of Questioning:

• Questioning skill works at it best when it:  
• develops sensitivity towards listening.
• is used through encouraging methods.
• encourages questioning among students.
• arises curiosity and inquisitiveness in children.
• develops divergent and critical thinking in learners.
• The purpose of questioning is to get a clear idea about how much the students have learned and understood the lesson.
• It helps the teacher in assessing the understanding level of students.
• Asking quality questions from time to time can monitor student’s progress of learning and instil confidence in them
• Questions can be rephrased in many different ways to encourage them to answer.
• It helps the teacher in knowing which student is facing difficulty and in which specific lesson so that he/she can provide more clarity.​

Important Points

Increasing the number of questions with yes or no is not correct regarding 'Questioning skill' as it refers to a close-ended question which:

• allows a learner to choose one answer from a limited list of possible answers.
• requires one-word answer thus minimize the subjective inference and judgment.

Hence, it could be concluded that 'increasing the number of questions with yes or no' is not correct regarding 'Questioning skill'.

Projective techniques of personality measurement are the tests which are designed to:

• reveal those central aspects of personality that lie in the unconscious mind of an individual.
• evaluate a person's interests, attitudes, pattern of thought, etc while giving responses to ambiguous test materials.

Key Points

There are different kinds of Projective techniques of personality measurement and 'Thematic Apperception Test' is one of them.

• Henry Murray, an American psychologist, created history by constructing the 'Thematic Appreciation Test'.
• In this test, ambiguous pictures or test materials are given to participants.
• This test can uncover a person’s true personality, and their capacity for emotional control.
• It is designed to reveal and evaluate a person's interests, attitudes, observation power, pattern of thought, etc while giving responses to ambiguous test materials.

Hence, it could be concluded that the 'Thematic Apperception Test' is a projective technique of personality measurement.

Additional Information

• Rating scale: In it, either the psychologist or the client assigns a numeric rating on some specific behaviour. On the other hand, in a frequency count, the frequency of certain behaviours in a specified time limit is counted.
• Observation: It requires the psychologist to observe the client while engaged in ordinary, daily-routine behaviour, at home, school, workplace or any other natural setting.
• Interview: A method of personality assessment in which the interviewer asks questions to the clients and the client is allowed to answer either in a structured or an unstructured fashion