Child Development and Pedagogy PYQs

Intelligence Quotient is abbreviated as IQ. IQ is a measurement of a person’s intelligence and it is measured in number. The average IQ of a person is 100.

An individual’s Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is determined by the formula:

\({\bf{Intelligence}};{\bf{Quotient}};\left( {{\bf{IQ}}} \right) = \frac{{{\bf{Mental}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{MA}}} \right);}}{{{\bf{Chronological}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{CA}}} \right)}} \times 100\)

where Mental Age is based on your intellectual development.

Chronological Age is the number of years a person has lived.

Given: CA = 5 years∴80=MA10×100∴80=MA10×100

MA = 8 years

\(\therefore IQ = \frac{{{\bf{8}}}}{{5}} \times 100\)

IQ = 160

Hence, the IQ of a child will be 160 and the child IQ will lie in above 130 IQ Range and having the Very Superior Intelligence (Gifted).

Mental retardation, as a developmental disability, has attracted considerable public attention. Its general debilitating character has made it a distinct category of disability. Individuals with mental retardation, face considerable difficulty in their lives in adapting to the demands of day-to-day life.

Classification of Mental Retardation:

Based On IQ: There are mainly three methods of classification of mental retardation. They are medical, psychological, and educational. The psychological and educational classifications are more commonly and widely used than medical classifications. 

• Educational Classification: This system uses the term educable, trainable, and custodial depending on the educational needs of retarded children.
• The IQ ranges of educable mentally retarded (EMR), trainable mentally retarded (TMR), and the custodial mentally retarded (CMR) are given below:
• | Levels of MR | IQ Range of MR | Educators | | --- | --- | --- | | Mild Retardation | 50-70 | Educable Mentally Retarded | | Moderate Retardation | 35-50 | Trainable Mentally Retarded | | Severe Retardation | 20-35 | Custodial Mentally Retarded | | Profound Retardation | Below 20 | Custodial Mentally Retarded) |

Important Points

• Educable Mentally Retarded (EMR): The educable mentally retarded children are those who can be taught the basic academic subjects.
• Trainable Mentally Retarded (TMR): The trainable mentally retarded are those children who can be taught functional academics with an emphasis on self-help and vocational skills.
• Custodial Mentally Retarded (CMR): The custodial mentally retarded are those children who require constant and special care especially in a residential institution.

Hence, we conclude that the 35 – 50 IQ range is called a trainable IQ level of mentally retarded children. So the answer is 36-49.

Rorschach inkblot Test: Hermann Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist, devised the Rorschach Inkblot Personality test in 1921. This test is most frequently used for the projective test

• The test consists of a standard set of 10 cards with inkblots printed on them.
• The Rorschach test is a measure of both intellectual and non-intellectual personality traits.
• In the series of 10 cards five are achromatic, two cards are black and red, and the remaining three cards are polychromatic in combination of green, blue, orange and pink blots.
• Conducted by the examiner to determine important aspects of each response into a coding system under four categories; Location, Determinant, Content, and Popularity.
• It consists of the following categories of scoring the protocol:-
• Total number of responses (R)
• Human responses (H)
• Animal responses (A)
• Anatomical responses (At)
• Sex responses (Sex)
• Movement responses (M)
• Rejection of images (Rej.)
• Most typical responses (MT)
• Typical responses (T)
• Atypical responses (AT).
• In the test, the subjects are asked to simply state whatever each inkblot looks like to them.
• Responses are scored by the psychologists using predetermined categories, on key factors such as color and shape, movement.
• These blots are frequently used for personality description, diagnosis of mental disorders, and for behaviour predictions.
• The whole procedure of The Rorschach Test is a combined set of three components, viz., performance proper, inquiry, and scoring.

Hence, we conclude that Rorschach inkblot test is used to measured Personality traits.

Forgetting: Forgetting is a failure to retrieve information from long-term memory stores. Much of the information is lost but enough remains so that we have a sketchy record of our lives. Sometimes what we think is forgotten in real sense is not forgotten because it was never encoded and stored in the first place. 

Causes of Forgetting:  Many students complain that they do not remember the contents after attending the class or forget after reading .the text. This happens due to :

• Mental Conflict: Many times we forget as memory does not match events that had occurred. This happens due to the constructive processes i.e. during encoding, the to-be-remembered information, interference due to similar material.
• Under-learning, some information does not reach short term memory from the sensory register.
• Defective methods of remembering: Inadequate encoding and rehearsal, the information may not have been transferred from short term to long term memory.

NOTE: Desire to learn is helpful in remembering the information for the long term.

Hence, we conclude that the desire to remember is not the cause of forgetting.

Statistics: In the singular sense, Statistics refers to what is called statistical methods which means the science which deals with the techniques for collection, classifying, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of statistical/numerical data information. In simple language, it means the subject of Statistics like any other subject such as Mathematics or Economics. 

• This definition lays emphasis on five important aspects, which in fact, constitute the very scope of the subject called Statistics or Statistical Methods. These are:
• Collection of Data: In any statistical inquiry, the collection of data is the first basic step. They form the foundation of statistical analysis, and therefore utmost care should be taken in collecting data in Primary and Secondary form.
• Classification of Data: It follows editing. It involves arranging data according to some common characteristics.
• Presentation of Data: Presented the data in the form of diagrams and graphs to facilitate the understanding of various trends as well as the process of comparison of various situations.
• Analysis of Data: It is the most important step in any statistical inquiry. A major portion of this course in Statistics is devoted to the methods used for analyzing the collected data to derive some policy conclusions.
• Interpretation of Data: It is the last but very crucial stage of a statistical inquiry or investigation. It is a job in itself that requires a high degree of aptitude, skill, and experience.

Additional Information

 

Hence, we conclude that the science which deals with the methods of collecting, classifying, presenting, comparing, and interpreting numerical data is called Statistics.

Psychology test are used to measure the unique traits of an individual to know his ability, aptitude, contrast with their personality, intelligence, emotions etc. 

Key Points

Raven's Test:

• It was intelligence test developed by John C raven in 1983.
• It is non verbal test of inductive reasoning, designed to measure spearman  'g' factor or general intelligence.
• It consists of 60 multiple choice items and can be administered on children from 5 year old toolder adults.
• The test contains visual geometric designs with a missing piece.

 

16-PF

• This test developed by the British Psychologist Cattell is based on 16 source traits of personality.
• Cattell has used factor analysis to arrive at the 16 factors of personality.

 

TAT (Thematic Appreciation Test)

• This test is used to measure the personality traits , developed by Morgan and Murray.
• TAT consists of 30 black and white picture card depicting picture in ambiguous situations, plus one blank card.

 

Draw a man test

• It is to measure personality traits, and developed by GoodEnough .
• This test emphasizes on the child's ability to observe accurately and think conceptuallly.

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​Thus, it can be concluded that Raven;s test is odd one out. It is used to measure the fluid intelligence.

The median of a set of numbers is the middle number in the set (after the numbers have been arranged from least to greatest) -- or, if there are an even number of data, the median is the average of the middle two numbers.

Example 1:

Find the median of the set : {3,10,36,255,79,24,5,8}

There are 8 numbers in the set, and they are arranged in ascending order. {3.5.8.10.24.36.79.255}

 find the average of the middle two numbers, 10 and 24.

= (10 + 24)/2 =17

Similarly, Example 2:

Find the median of the set: { 2,5,8,11,16,21,30 } 

There are 777 numbers in the set, and they are arranged in ascending order.  The middle number (the 44 th one in the list) is 11. The median is 11.

Key Points

In the given problem, arrange the observation in the ascending order. {7,8,9,10,11| and total number of observation is 6 , which is even.

3^rd abd 4^th observation are 9 and 10.

average of 9 and 10 is the median of the set.

(9+10)/2

=19/2

=9.510 + 242=342=111

The Gestalt theory of learning also named Learning by Insight is the contribution of German psychologists who were studying the nature of perception.

Key Points

• Gestalt Theory of Learning (Learning by Wholes) or Learning by Insight states that perceptual phenomena are only experienced as wholes or Gestalts.
• Translation of Gestalt is „configuration‟ or more simply „an organized whole in contrast to a collection of parts‟.
• Gestalt psychologists consider the process of learning as a Gestalt – an organized whole.
• A thing cannot be understood by the study of its constituent parts but only by the study of it as a totality, is a basic idea behind this theory.
• Learning, according to Gestalt Theory, is not by random steps, not by trial and error, not by conditioning but by insight, introspection, and understanding.
• The Gestaltians tend to place far more emphasis on the intrinsic organizing capacity in the brain of the individual and emphasis the dynamic interaction of the elements in the entire perceptual field.
• Gestalt theory of learning essentially consists of problem-solving by understanding the relative position of the elements in the entire perspective or situation.

Additional Information

 

Hence, we conclude that the theory of insight is propounded by Gestalt Psychologist.

Emotions expressed by humans can be divided into two broad categories and are called positive and negative emotions. Examples of emotions include the following: Interest, enthusiasm, boredom, laughter, empathy, action, curiosity, anger, rebellion, irritation, etc.

According to William McDougall’s concept of emotions instincts and emotions were both innate patterns.

• As per McDougall, the primary emotions were fear, disgust, wonder, anger, subjection, elation, tenderness. According to him, each instinctual tendency has a corresponding emotion.
• William McDougall(2003) analyses an instinctive behavior, in three aspects:
• Cognitive or (knowing or perceptive) aspect.
• Affective or (feeling or emotional) aspect.
• Conative or (doing or behavior) aspect.
• The occurrence of some form of arousal in the emotion gives rise to a cognitive search for an explanation of arousal.
• In the opinion of McDougall, feelings arise and are conditioned by the degrees of success and failure of one's own efforts, whereas emotions are aroused by some object or person deemed responsible for one’s success or failure in some particular situation.
• Emotion is not just a feeling gone violent but itself a singular experience.

Hence, we conclude that According to McDougall, every instinct is associated with emotion.

Perception is the process through which we interpret and organize the received information so as to produce our conscious experience of objects and their relationship.

• We feel something in sensation when the stimulus is present and when the meaning is added to them it becomes perception.
• In this process, physical energy; such as light, sound waves, heat; emanating from objects is transformed by the concerned sense organs into a code and transferred to and interpreted by the brain.
• The line between the two terms sensation and perception, therefore, is somewhat arbitrary.
• The sensation typically refers to the direct reception and transmission of messages, whereas perception refers to the active process of integrating and organizing these sensations.

 

Hence, we conclude that giving the meaning to sensation on the basis of past experience is called Perception.

Problematic children are those children who are difficult to raise or educate. They have a tendency to disrupt class as they are not self-controlled. Also, they are infamous for their anti-social behaviour.

• Teacher have to tackle many problems associated with students as children with numerous problems of behaviour are found in every educational programme.

Key Points

In the above-mentioned situation, the teacher should provide counselling to the child as it will help the teacher to:

• become more vigilant towards the child.
• recognize the root of the child's problem.
• better relate to child's unacceptable behaviour.
• assist the child with proper guidance in the right way.

Hence it could be concluded that if a teacher finds a problematic child in the class, he should provide counselling to the child. 

NOTE: Remaining options are inappropriate in the context as they could lead to low self-esteem and anxiety in learners.

Co-curricular activities refer to the activities that complement the classroom learning experiences of students, its organized inside or even outside of the school premises. The overall development of a child demands co-curricular activities to be included in the curriculum.

Key Points

Co-curricular activities are mostly related to the all-round development of students as co-curricular activities make learning meaningful by:

• ensuring the overall development of learners.
• providing a practical approach towards the topics.
• making learners apply theoretical concepts practically.
• stimulating interest in activities beyond routine classwork.

Additional Information

Co-curricular activities include:

• Social welfare activities
• Visiting parks and museums
• Excursion and sports activities
• Involvement in poster making and dramas
• Participation In Science Clubs And Associations, etc.

Hence, it could be concluded that co-curricular activities are mostly related to all-round development of students.

There are many learning theories in psychology that are related to different schools of psychology such as cognitive, humanistic, behavioristic, etc. These theories are propounded by eminent psychologists to provide a framework to understand different aspects of human behavior.

Key Points

Some of the famous learning theories include:

 

Hint

B.S. Bloom has not propounded any learning theory rather he has proposed a taxonomy which is a set of three hierarchical models that refers to the classification of educational learning objectives.

Bloom's Taxonomy Identified Three Domains of Learning:

1. Cognitive Domain: It involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. The six major categories of objectives which come under the cognitive domain are Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation
2. Affective Domain: It includes how we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.
3. Psychomotor Domain:  It includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas.

Hence, it could be concluded that B.S. Bloom has not propounded any learning theory.

Stagnation stands for the retention of a child in a class for a period of more than one year. Gradually when a student takes more than one year to pass a class it is considered a case of stagnation.

Key Points

• Stagnation is one of the most acute problems of tribal education. Absenteeism leads to stagnation and both naturally lead to wastage.
• Formerly stagnation used to occur due to lower achievement in the examinations. It means those who fail to secure minimum marks in the class tests will not be sent for the terminal examination and such candidates will have to remain in the same standard for one more year.
• But this practice is now stopped, whether a student secures minimum marks in the class tests or not he/she is eligible to sit for terminal examinations. At present minimum attendance is prescribed for students for promotion.

Hence, it could be concluded that retention of a child in a same class for more than one year is the meaning of stagnation in education.

Microteaching is a teacher training technique used to measure the attainment of teaching skills by the teaching of a small unit of content to the small group of students in a small amount of time.

• Micro-teaching is one of the most influential innovations in teacher education. It emerged as a partial solution to some of the inadequacies of the traditional teacher-training program.
• The concept underlying micro-teaching assumes that teaching consists of various skills. Teaching practice becomes effective only on the acquisition of specific skills.

Key Points

• Testing of previous knowledge comes under the skill of introduction as in this skill:
• the teacher tests the previous knowledge of the students by asking them questions.
• the teacher connects the child with their own experiences by encouraging discovery learning.
• the teacher tries to connect them with the new chapter by activating their previous knowledge.

Hence, it could be concluded that testing of previous knowledge comes under the skill of introduction. 

Additional Information

Other Skills of Microteaching:

• Skill of writing instructional objectives
• Skill of introduction a lesson
• Skill of Blackboard writing
• Skill of fluency in questioning
• Skill of probing questioning
• Skill of explaining
• Skill of demonstration
• Skill of reinforcement
• Skill of Achieving closure

B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist, propounded the "Theory of Operant Conditioning" which is also known as "Theory of Reinforcement" and "Instrumental Conditioning  Theory".

• This theory refers to the learning process where learning takes place through rewarding a certain behaviour or withholding reward for undesirable behaviour.
• Skinner emphasizes that a person or animal tends to ‘repeat’ behaviour which has been ‘rewarded’ (positively reinforced), or tends to ‘stop’ which has been ‘punished’ (negatively reinforced).

SKINNER’S EXPERIMENT WITH RAT:         

• Skinner developed a special apparatus known as skinner’s box.
• This box has a grid floor, a system of light or sound produced at the time of delivery of a pellet of food, in the food cup, on the pressing of the lever.
• Skinner placed a hungry rat in the box.
• In this experiment, pressure on the bar in a certain way, by the rat could result in the production of a click and emergence of a food pellet.
• The rat was rewarded for each proper pressing of the lever.
• The rat repeated this process and ultimately learned to press the lever a desired by the experimenter.

Hence, it could be concluded that 'Operant Conditioning Theory' is also known as 'Theory of Reinforcement'. 

Additional Information

Jerome Bruner, an American psychologist has made crucial contributions in the field of human cognitive psychology.

He has identified three stages of cognitive representation which includes:

Enactive stage: 

• It refers to the representation of knowledge through actions.
• Learning by doing is the main principle
• They learn by physical actions and storing things in memory

Iconic stage: 

• It refers to the visual summarization of images.
• The learner stores sensory images which are visual ones

Symbolic stage: 

• It refers to the use of words and other symbols to describe experiences.
• The experience stored in memory in the form of symbols i.e. language

Let's Have a Look:

Hence, it could be concluded that the intuitive stage is not part of Bruner's Cognitive Development Theory.

Professor H. C. Morrison (1871- 1945), (the University of Chicago) has described five steps in his teaching model at the understanding level which include:

Key Points

 

Hence, it could be concluded that the correct sequence of five steps in Morrison's teaching model at the understanding level is Exploration, Presentation, Assimilation, Organization, and Recitation.

B.S. Bloom has proposed a taxonomy which is a set of three hierarchical models that refers to the classification of educational learning objectives.

Bloom's Taxonomy Identified Three Domains of Learning:

1. Cognitive Domain: It involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills.
2. Affective Domain: It includes how we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, etc.
3. Psychomotor Domain:  It includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas.

Important Points

The cognitive domain involves mental skills which are categorized into six levels of learning that serve in the development of intellectual skills and acquisition power. 

The cognitive domains as per Bloom's taxonomy:

• Remember: Retrieving the relevant knowledge from long-term memory.
• Understand: Construct meaning from instructional messages, including oral, written, and graphic communication.
• Apply: Carry out or use a procedure in a given situation.
• Analyze: Break material into its constituent parts and determine how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose.
• Evaluate: Make judgments based on criteria or standards.
• Create: Put elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure.

Hint

NOTE: Valuing is related to affective domain and it refers to the acceptance of behavior and commitment to it. One values certain behaviors not by desires but by commitment.

Hence, it could be concluded that valuing is not related with the cognitive domain.

A learning curve visualizes changes in pupil overall performance over time. The line graph displays opportunities across the x-axis, and a measure of student performance along the y-axis.

• A good learning curve which is also known as 'experience curve', reveals improvement in pupils' performance as opportunity count (i.e., exercise practice with a given knowledge component) increases.

Key Points

• LEARNING CURVE was first defined by Hermann Ebbinghaus in 1885.
• By learning curve, learners can relate his/her development through the method visually presented in the graph.
• There are 3 varieties of the curve of learning i.e. concave curve, convex curve, and concave and convex curve/Combination type curve.

Let's Understand in Brief:

 

Hence, it could be concluded that longitudinal is not the curve of learning.