General Awareness PYQs

The correct answer is All courts within the territory of India.

Key Points

• Article 141 of the Indian Constitution explicitly mandates that the law declared by the Supreme Court shall be binding on all courts within the territory of India.
• The term law declared signifies the ratio decidendi, which refers to the legal principles or the core reasoning upon which a judicial decision is based, rather than the final order itself.
• This provision is fundamental to the doctrine of precedents (stare decisis) in India, ensuring uniformity, certainty, and predictability in the judicial administration across various states and union territories.
• The binding nature of these judgments extends to all High Courts, District Courts, and Subordinate Courts, which are legally obligated to follow the interpretations of the Apex Court.
• While the Supreme Court binds all other courts, it is not bound by its own previous decisions, as established in the landmark **Bengal Immunity Co.

v. State of Bihar** case, allowing it to overrule past judgments for the sake of justice.

 Additional Information

• Nature of Supreme Court Judgments:
• Ratio Decidendi: The binding part of the judgment that creates a legal precedent for lower courts to follow in similar cases.
• Obiter Dicta: These are remarks or opinions expressed by judges 'by the way' that do not form the basis of the decision. While not legally binding under Article 141, they carry strong persuasive value.
• Prospective Overruling: The Supreme Court has the unique power to declare that a particular judgment will only apply to future cases and not affect past transactions.
• Related Constitutional Articles:
• Article 129: Designates the Supreme Court as a Court of Record, meaning its proceedings are recorded for perpetual memory and it has the power to punish for its contempt.
• Article 142: Grants the Supreme Court inherent power to pass any decree or order necessary for doing complete justice in any cause or matter.
• Article 144: Directs all authorities, including civil and judicial authorities, to act in aid of the Supreme Court.

The correct answer is Masaki Kashiwara.

Key Points

• Masaki Kashiwara, a distinguished mathematician from Kyoto University, was officially announced as the recipient of the Abel Prize 2025 on March 26, 2025.
• The Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters awarded him for his fundamental contributions to algebraic analysis and representation theory, fields where he has been a visionary for over five decades.
• The citation particularly emphasizes his pioneering development of the theory of D-modules and his groundbreaking discovery of crystal bases, which provide an algebraic language for studying systems of linear partial differential equations.
• By receiving this honor, Kashiwara became the first Japanese mathematician to win the Abel Prize since its establishment in 2003.
• The award ceremony was held on May 20, 2025, at the University of Oslo, where King Harald V of Norway presented the prize to the laureate.
• His work, specifically the Sato-Kashiwara theory, bridges several mathematical disciplines, including microlocal analysis, symplectic geometry, and algebraic geometry.

 Additional Information

• Abel Prize Overview:
• It was established by the Government of Norway in 2001 to commemorate the 200^th birth anniversary of Niels Henrik Abel, a legendary Norwegian mathematician.
• Managed by the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, it is often termed the Nobel Prize of Mathematics because the traditional Nobel categories do not include mathematics.
• The prize includes a monetary reward of 7.5 million Norwegian kroner.
• Other Notable Laureates:
• Luis Caffarelli: Awarded the prize in 2023 for his contributions to the regularity theory of nonlinear partial differential equations.
• Avi Wigderson: Received the prize in 2021 (shared with László Lovász) for foundational work in theoretical computer science and discrete mathematics.
• Karen Uhlenbeck: Honored in 2019, she was the first woman to receive the Abel Prize for her achievements in geometric partial differential equations and gauge theory.
• Michel Talagrand: Awarded the prize in 2024 for his research in probability theory and functional analysis.

Concept:

Microplastics are tiny plastic particles less than 5 mm in size that pose a significant threat to global ecosystems. While aquatic and terrestrial plastic pollution is well-documented, atmospheric transport of these particles to remote and protected regions is a recent area of critical research. Detecting these particles in pristine environments like the Sundarbans signifies that even uninhabited, protected natural fortresses are no longer safe from human-induced pollution.

Given

• Year of study: 2025
• Pollutant type: Airborne microplastics
• Location: Sundarbans mangroves (specifically the Chula Kathi Protection Camp)

Calculation/Explanation

In January 2025, a team of scientists conducted an intensive eight-day winter campaign in the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve. Using high-volume air samplers, they detected an average of 10 ± 6 microplastic particles per 100 cubic metres of air. The study, published in the international journal Science of the Total Environment, provided the first evidence of atmospheric microplastics in a protected natural ecosystem in India.

The research was led by Abhinandan Ghosh and Dr. Gopala Krishna Darbha from the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Kolkata. Their findings revealed that tiny fibres and fragments, predominantly made of industrial polymers like polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE), were being transported through the air from urban sources into the remote mangrove forests.

Comparing this information with the provided options:

• IISER Kolkata: The institute that conducted the study.
• IIT Kharagpur: Not the primary institute for this specific atmospheric study.
• NIO Goa: Focused on oceanography, not the lead on this airborne study in the Sundarbans.
• WII Dehradun: Focused on wildlife, not the primary authors of this environmental chemistry paper.

Final Answer: IISER Kolkata

The correct answer is New York, USA.

Key Points

• The 69^th session of the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW69) was convened at the United Nations Headquarters in New York, USA, from 10 to 21 March 2025.
• The primary focus of this session was the review and appraisal of the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, marking the landmark 30^th anniversary of its adoption in 1995.
• This comprehensive review, commonly referred to as Beijing+30, evaluated the progress made toward gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls globally, while identifying remaining structural gaps.
• The session also addressed the outcomes of the 23^rd special session of the General Assembly and discussed strategies to overcome challenges hindering the achievement of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
• The Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) serves as the principal global intergovernmental body exclusively dedicated to the promotion of women’s rights and the shaping of global standards on gender policy.

 Additional Information

• Commission on the Status of Women (CSW):
• It was established by ECOSOC resolution 11(II) on 21 June 1946 as a functional commission of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).
• The annual sessions are traditionally held at the United Nations Headquarters in New York, bringing together Member States, UN entities, and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs).
• Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995):
• Adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women, it is considered the most progressive blueprint for advancing women’s rights across 12 critical areas, including poverty, education, health, and violence against women.
• The 30-year appraisal at CSW69 aimed to mobilize political will and resources to address emerging global issues such as climate change and the digital divide.

The correct answer is Bal Gangadhar Tilak.

Key Points

• Bal Gangadhar Tilak, a leading figure of the Extremist faction of the Indian National Congress, authored the seminal work Gita Rahasya (The Secret of the Gita) between 1910 and 1911.
• The book was written while Tilak was serving a six-year prison sentence in Mandalay Jail, Burma (modern-day Myanmar), following his conviction for sedition.
• Originally composed in the Marathi language and published in 1915, the work is formally known as Shrimadh Bhagavad Gita Rahasya or Karma Yoga Shastra.
• Tilak provided a revolutionary interpretation of the Bhagavad Gita, shifting the focus from Sanyasa (renunciation) to Karma Yoga (the path of selfless action) to inspire the masses during the Indian Independence Movement.
• He argued that the Gita teaches the performance of duty and Nishkama Karma (action without desire for results) as a moral obligation for social and political justice.
• Commonly revered as Lokmanya (accepted by the people), Tilak utilized cultural and religious symbols, such as the Ganesh Chaturthi and Shivaji Jayanti festivals, to mobilize nationalist sentiment.

 Additional Information

• Bipin Chandra Pal:
• Regarded as the Father of Revolutionary Thoughts in India, he was an integral part of the Lal-Bal-Pal triumvirate.
• He played a crucial role in the Swadeshi Movement and authored works such as The Soul of India and The New Spirit.
• Aurobindo Ghose:
• Initially an extremist leader and editor of Bande Mataram, he later transitioned into a spiritual philosopher in Pondicherry.
• His literary contributions include Essays on the Gita, The Life Divine, and the epic poem Savitri.
• Lala Lajpat Rai:
• Known as Sher-e-Punjab (Lion of Punjab), he was a prominent leader of the Arya Samaj and the Indian National Congress.
• He is famous for writing Unhappy India and The Story of My Deportation, and for his martyrdom during the Simon Commission protests in 1928.

Therefore, the correct option is 2.

The correct answer is Dadu Mian.

Key Points

• The Farazi Movement (or Faraizi Movement) was founded by Haji Shariatullah in 1818 in East Bengal to advocate for radical religious, social, and political changes within the Islamic community.
• Dadu Mian (whose real name was Mohammad Mohsin) was the son of Haji Shariatullah and took leadership of the movement in 1840, significantly expanding its influence during the 19^th century.
• Under Dadu Mian, the movement shifted from pure religious reform to a powerful agrarian uprising against the exploitation of zamindars (landlords) and British indigo planters.
• He organized a disciplined paramilitary force and established a parallel government in parts of Bengal, popularizing the revolutionary doctrine that land belongs to God and therefore no tax should be paid to human masters.

 Additional Information

• U Kiang Nongbah:
• A legendary freedom fighter from the Jaintia Hills (present-day Meghalaya).
• He led an armed uprising against the British in 1862 following the imposition of the House Tax.
• Majnu Shah (Maznoom Shah):
• A prominent leader of the Fakir-Sannyasi Rebellion that occurred in Bengal during the late 18^th century.
• He led groups of wandering Fakirs in raids against the British East India Company factories and treasuries.
• Birsa Munda:
• A tribal freedom fighter and folk hero who belonged to the Munda tribe.
• He spearheaded the Munda Rebellion (also known as Ulgulan or the Great Tumult) in the Chhota Nagpur region between 1899 and 1900 against British colonial rule and the Dikus (outsiders).

The correct answer is Stockholm Conference, 1972.

Key Points

• The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE), held in Stockholm, Sweden, from June 5 to June 16, 1972, was the first global conference to make the environment a major international issue.
• The event was attended by representatives from 113 countries and led to the adoption of the Stockholm Declaration, which established 26 principles for environmental management and 109 recommendations for international action.
• One of the primary outcomes of the summit was the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the leading global environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda.
• The conference emphasized the link between economic development and environmental integrity, laying the groundwork for the concept of sustainable development.
• To mark the start of this historic event, the United Nations General Assembly designated June 5 as World Environment Day, which has been celebrated annually since 1973.

 Additional Information

• Rio Conference, 1992:
• Commonly known as the Earth Summit or UNCED, it took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
• It resulted in landmark agreements including Agenda 21, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
• Johannesburg Summit, 2002:
• Known as the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) or Rio+10, it focused on the implementation of the goals set during the 1992 Earth Summit.
• Key themes included poverty eradication, water sanitation, and sustainable energy.
• Doha Climate Meeting, 2012:
• The COP 18 meeting resulted in the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, extending its commitment period until 2020.
• It addressed the Loss and Damage mechanism for developing countries vulnerable to climate change.

The correct answer is Ten Degree Channel.

Key Points

• The Ten Degree Channel is a major water body in the Bay of Bengal that acts as a physical separator between the Andaman Islands to the north and the Nicobar Islands to the south.
• It derives its name from its geographical location on the 10° N latitude line, which runs directly between the two island groups.
• The channel is approximately 150 kilometers (93 miles) wide from north to south and is deep enough to facilitate international shipping and maritime traffic.
• Specifically, it separates Little Andaman (the southernmost island of the Andaman archipelago) from Car Nicobar (the northernmost island of the Nicobar archipelago).
• This channel is ecologically significant and serves as a vital corridor for marine biodiversity in the Indian Ocean region.

 Additional Information

• Palk Strait:
• It is a strait located between the Tamil Nadu state of India and the Jaffna District of Sri Lanka.
• It connects the Bay of Bengal in the northeast with the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar in the southwest.
• Duncan Passage:
• This is a narrow strait in the Indian Ocean, measuring approximately 48 kilometers (30 miles) in width.
• It separates Rutland Island (part of the Great Andaman group) to the north from Little Andaman to the south.
• Nine Degree Channel:
• Located in the Arabian Sea, it is part of the Lakshadweep archipelago.
• It separates the island of Minicoy from the main Lakshadweep islands (specifically Kalpeni and Suheli Par) and lies on the 9° N latitude.
• Eight Degree Channel:
• This channel separates the Minicoy Island of India from the Maldives.

The correct answer is 64.3%.

Key Points

• The Sustainable Development Goals − National Indicator Framework (SDG NIF) Progress Report 2025 was released by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) on June 29, 2025, to commemorate National Statistics Day.
• This report provides a comprehensive review of India's progress toward the 2030 Agenda using 284 national indicators developed in consultation with various ministries and NITI Aayog.
• Under SDG Goal 1 (No Poverty), Indicator 1.3.1 tracks the proportion of the population covered by social protection floors/systems, which includes benefits for children, the unemployed, older persons, and the vulnerable.
• According to the data snapshot provided in the report, social protection coverage in India experienced a significant surge from 22.0% in 2016 to 64.3% in 2025.
• This massive expansion indicates that nearly two-thirds of the Indian population is now receiving at least one form of social protection benefit, reflecting the government's push for inclusive growth.

 Additional Information

• The expansion of social protection is attributed to several large-scale government initiatives:
• Aadhaar-linked identification: The use of encrypted Aadhaar as a unique identifier allowed for a more accurate count of beneficiaries across multiple schemes.
• Major Welfare Schemes: Programs such as MGNREGA (employment), PM-POSHAN (nutrition), Ayushman Bharat (health), and the e-Shram portal for unorganized workers have significantly widened the safety net.
• Global Recognition: The International Labour Organization (ILO), in its World Social Protection Report 2024-26, also noted that India's social protection coverage effectively doubled in the last few years.
• Future Projections: While the 2025 report recorded 64.3%, preliminary data for the 2026 Progress Report suggests a further increase to approximately 65.3%.

The correct answer is United Nations Development Programme.

Key Points

• The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) serves as the global development network for the United Nations, facilitating change and connecting countries to knowledge and resources.
• It was officially established on November 22, 1965, following the merger of the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance (EPTA) and the Special Fund.
• Headquartered in New York City, the organization operates in approximately 170 countries and territories to eradicate poverty and reduce inequalities.
• The UNDP is the primary body responsible for assisting nations in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, by the year 2030.

 Additional Information

• Human Development Reports (HDR):
• The UNDP is widely recognized for publishing the annual Human Development Report, which introduced the Human Development Index (HDI).
• The HDI is a composite statistic used to rank countries by level of human development, focusing on longevity, education, and per capita income.
• Governance and Leadership:
• The agency is led by an Administrator, a position currently held by Achim Steiner. The Administrator is the third highest-ranking official in the United Nations.
• The UNDP Executive Board, consisting of representatives from 36 nations, provides intergovernmental support and supervision for the activities of the organization.
• Focus Areas:
• It focuses on three main pillars: Sustainable Development, Democratic Governance and Peacebuilding, and Climate and Disaster Resilience.

The correct answer is Gandharva.

Key Points

• In ancient Indian musicology, Gandharva refers to a highly structured, formal, and sacred musical tradition that was believed to be of divine origin and pleasing to the gods.
• As detailed in the Natyashastra by Bharata Muni and the Dattilam by Dattila, this genre was defined by the strict union of three elements: Svara (notes), Tala (rhythm), and Pada (meaningful text).
• It was considered Anadi-Nidhana (eternal) and was categorized as Marga music, representing a spiritual path intended for liberation (Moksha) rather than mere entertainment.
• The name is derived from the Gandharvas, who are celestial beings and divine musicians in Hindu mythology, highlighting the genre's association with the heavens and ritualistic worship.
• Unlike later evolving styles, Gandharva music was rigid in its rules, ensuring that the sanctity and specific spiritual vibrations of the hymns were preserved through centuries.

 Additional Information

• Gana:
• While often used as a general term for singing, in the context of ancient treatises, Gana referred to the broader practice of musical performance that eventually allowed for regional and creative variations, moving away from the strict Gandharva rituals.
• Dhrupad:
• This is one of the oldest surviving forms of Hindustani Classical Music, characterized by its austere and grand nature.
• Although it has roots in ancient Vedic chanting and Prabandhas, it flourished significantly later during the medieval period under patrons like Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior and Emperor Akbar.
• Prabandh:
• A structured musical composition that was highly popular between the 11^th and 14^th centuries.
• It served as a vital evolutionary link between the ancient Gandharva style and modern classical forms, with Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda being a famous example of this literary-musical structure.

The correct answer is Pradhan Mantri Jan Vikas Karyakram (PMJVK).

Key Points

• The Ministry of Minority Affairs announced support to several central universities in October 2025 to establish Centres of Excellence (CoE) focused on promoting and preserving heritage and classical languages.
• This significant initiative is being implemented under the Pradhan Mantri Jan Vikas Karyakram (PMJVK), which is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) designed to improve socio-economic conditions and basic amenities for minority communities.
• The project aims to facilitate advanced research, digitization of ancient manuscripts, and the development of specialized degree and diploma courses in languages like Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, Pali, and Prakrit.
• Key academic institutions designated for these centres include Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI), Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), the University of Delhi, and the Central Institute of Buddhist Studies (CIBS) in Leh.
• This move is aligned with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, which emphasizes the preservation of India's linguistic diversity and the integration of traditional Indian knowledge systems into modern higher education.
• The PMJVK scheme, formerly known as the Multi-sectoral Development Programme (MsDP), has been restructured to prioritize high-impact projects in education, health, and skill development within Minority Concentration Areas (MCAs).

 Additional Information

• Pradhan Mantri Virasat Ka Samvardhan (PM VIKAS):
• An integrated scheme focusing on the livelihood, skilling, and entrepreneurship of minority communities, particularly for traditional artisans and craftspersons.
• It converges several previous initiatives including Seekho aur Kamao, USTTAD, Hamari Dharohar, Nai Roshni, and Nai Manzil.
• National Minorities Development Finance Corporation (NMDFC):
• A Schedule C Government Company incorporated in 1994 that provides concessional loans for self-employment to individuals from notified minority communities.
• It operates through State Channelising Agencies (SCAs) to provide micro-credit and educational loans.
• Maulana Azad National Fellowship (MANF):
• A fellowship scheme that provides financial assistance to students from notified minority communities to pursue higher research programs like M.Phil and Ph.D. in Indian universities.

The correct answer is Promoting gender-specific vocational training and education.

Key Points

• Vocational training provides rural women with specialized skills in sectors such as agro-processing, handicrafts, textile manufacturing, and digital literacy, facilitating their entry into the workforce.
• Gender-specific education acknowledges and addresses the unique socio-cultural barriers women face, such as limited mobility and domestic responsibilities, by providing flexible learning schedules and local training centers.
• Economic empowerment through skill development leads to a multiplier effect; women tend to reinvest a higher portion of their income into their family's nutrition, health, and children's education.
• Empowering women enables them to participate in local governance and decision-making bodies like Gram Sabhas, ensuring that community development projects are inclusive and address the needs of all demographics.
• By shifting from unpaid subsistence labor to income-generating activities, women contribute directly to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and reduce the poverty gap in rural regions.

 Additional Information

• Women's Empowerment:
• Defined as the process of increasing women's self-worth and their ability to determine their own choices and influence social change.
• It involves five core dimensions: economic, social, political, psychological, and physical autonomy.
• Self-Help Groups (SHGs): Often serve as the primary platform for delivering vocational training and microfinance to rural women.
• Community Development:
• A holistic process focused on improving the social, economic, and environmental conditions of a specific locality.
• Integration of women into the rural economy is a prerequisite for achieving Sustainable Development Goal 5 (Gender Equality) and Goal 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth).

The correct answer is Dravidian style.

Key Points

• The Dravidian style of temple architecture is native to South India and reached its zenith under the patronage of dynasties such as the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, and the Vijayanagara Empire.
• The most striking feature of this style is the Gopuram, which is a monumental, multi-storied gateway tower decorated with intricate sculptures of deities and celestial beings.
• In the Dravidian style, the temple complex is always enclosed within a high boundary wall (Prakara), and the Gopurams serve as the grand entry points into these enclosures.
• The main tower over the sanctum is called the Vimana, which is shaped like a stepped pyramid that rises geometrically, distinguishing it from the curved towers of Northern styles.
• Other essential elements of this architecture include a temple tank known as the Kalyani or Pushkarni and a pillared hall called the Mandapa.

 Additional Information

• Nagara style:
• Prevalent in North India, this style is characterized by the absence of elaborate boundary walls and Gopurams.
• The primary feature is the Shikhara, a curvilinear tower that rises over the Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum).
• Vesara style:
• A hybrid style that originated in the Deccan region under the Western Chalukyas and Hoysalas.
• It incorporates elements from both Nagara and Dravidian styles, often featuring a star-shaped base and a fusion of tower designs.
• Pala style:
• Developed in the Bengal and Bihar regions between the 8^th and 12^th centuries.
• It is known for the extensive use of terracotta and burnt bricks, with temple shapes often influenced by local thatched bamboo huts.

The correct answer is United Kingdom.

Key Points

• John McFall is a British citizen and a former Paralympic sprinter who has been selected for a pioneering mission to the International Space Station (ISS).
• He was selected by the European Space Agency (ESA) in November 2022 as the world’s first parastronaut, a term used for an astronaut with a physical disability.
• As part of the 'Fly!' feasibility study, McFall is working with ESA and its international partners to evaluate the technical, safety, and functional requirements for a person with a physical disability to live and work in microgravity.
• The mission, anticipated around 2025, aims to demonstrate that space exploration can be inclusive, making the United Kingdom a leader in the evolution of human spaceflight criteria.
• His selection followed a rigorous process involving over 22,500 applicants, highlighting the shift in space agencies toward broader human diversity in space missions.

 Additional Information

• Biographical Background:
• John McFall lost his right leg in a motorcycle accident at the age of 19 and later became a professional athlete, winning a Bronze medal in the 100m at the 2008 Beijing Paralympic Games.
• In addition to his athletic achievements, he is a highly qualified orthopedic surgeon, holding a medical degree from Cardiff University and being a member of the Royal College of Surgeons.
• International Space Agency Context:
• ESA (European Space Agency): Headquartered in Paris, it represents 22 member states, including the United Kingdom. The UK Space Agency funds the UK’s involvement in ESA programs.
• NASA (United States), CSA (Canada), and ASA (Australia): While these agencies collaborate on the ISS, the specific parastronaut initiative is currently a flagship project of the European Space Agency.

The correct answer is 1236-1240.

Key Points

• Razia Sultan, the daughter of Shamsuddin Iltutmish, ascended the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in 1236, becoming the first female Muslim ruler in the Indian subcontinent.
• Her father, Iltutmish, broke tradition by nominating her as his successor, believing his sons were incompetent and addicted to wine and pleasure.
• Despite her nomination, the Turkish nobility initially placed her brother, Ruknuddin Firuz, on the throne; however, his misrule led to a rebellion, allowing Razia to claim power with the support of the people of Delhi.
• She ruled with great efficiency for four years, discarding the purdah (veil), leading military expeditions, and issuing coins in her name as Sultan Jalalat-ud-Dunya wa-l-Din.
• Her reign ended in 1240 after a series of revolts by the Chahalgani (The Forty Turkish nobles) who resented her independent authority and her patronage of Jamal-ud-Din Yaqut, an Abyssinian slave.
• In 1240, she was defeated by Ikhtiyar-ud-din Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda; though she married him to regain power, they were both defeated and killed by the forces of Muizuddin Bahram Shah near Kaithal in October 1240.

 Additional Information

• Iltutmish:
• Belonged to the Slave Dynasty (Mamluk Dynasty) and is credited with introducing the Silver Tanka and Copper Jital coins.
• He established the Chahalgani system to consolidate the power of the Turkish elite.
• Mamluk Dynasty:
• Founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1206, it was the first of the five dynasties that made up the Delhi Sultanate.
• The term Mamluk refers to an Arabic designation for a slave who converted to Islam.
• Minhaj-i-Siraj:
• A contemporary historian who wrote the Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, providing detailed accounts of Razia Sultan’s administrative capabilities and the gender-based prejudices she faced.

The correct answer is Leading the anti-Simon Commission protests, where he suffered fatal injuries.

Key Points

• Lala Lajpat Rai, popularly known as Punjab Kesari (The Lion of Punjab), was a towering leader of the Indian Independence Movement and a key member of the Lal-Bal-Pal extremist trio.
• In 1928, the British government appointed the Simon Commission to report on political reforms in India. Since the commission lacked any Indian members, it was met with nationwide boycotts and protests.
• On October 30, 1928, Rai led a non-violent protest against the commission in Lahore. During this demonstration, the police superintendent James A. Scott ordered a brutal lathi charge.
• Rai was severely injured in the chest during the assault. Despite his condition, he addressed the public, stating that the blows he received would be the last nails in the coffin of the British Empire.
• He passed away due to his injuries on November 17, 1928. His death sparked intense revolutionary fervor, leading Bhagat Singh and his associates to retaliate by assassinating John Saunders.

 Additional Information

• Incorrect Options Analysis:
• Salt March (1930): This was a landmark act of non-violent civil disobedience led by Mahatma Gandhi from Sabarmati to Dandi. Lala Lajpat Rai had died two years prior to this event.
• Bardoli Satyagraha (1928): This movement in Gujarat was led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel to protest against unfair tax increases. It was here that Patel earned the title Sardar.
• Nehru Report (1928): This was the first major Indian effort to draft a constitution. It was chaired by Motilal Nehru, not Lala Lajpat Rai, and it initially advocated for Dominion Status rather than complete independence.
• Literary and Institutional Contributions:
• Rai was the founder of the Servants of the People Society (1921) and was instrumental in the establishment of the Punjab National Bank.
• His notable literary works include Unhappy India, Young India, and the History of the Arya Samaj.

The correct answer is 2014-15.

Key Points

• The Price Stabilisation Fund (PSF) was established by the Government of India in the 2014-15 financial year to mitigate extreme volatility in the prices of essential agri-horticultural commodities.
• The fund was initially set up under the Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare (DAC&FW) with an original corpus of Rs. 500 crores.
• The primary objective of the PSF is to promote direct purchase from farmers or farmers' organizations at the farm gate or mandi to maintain a strategic buffer stock.
• It provides interest-free loans to State Governments and Central Agencies to undertake procurement and distribution operations when market prices rise significantly.
• The fund originally focused on onions and potatoes to protect consumers from price spikes while ensuring remunerative prices for producers.

 Additional Information

• Administrative Transition:
• In April 2016, the Price Stabilisation Fund was transferred from the Ministry of Agriculture to the Department of Consumer Affairs (DoCA) under the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution.
• Commodity Expansion:
• While it started with potatoes and onions, the scope of the fund was later expanded to include various pulses such as Tur, Moong, Gram, Urad, and Masur to ensure national food security.
• Operational Mechanism:
• The fund operates as a revolving fund, meaning the capital is replenished through the sale proceeds of the commodities released into the market during lean periods.
• Central agencies like NAFED (National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India) and SFAC (Small Farmers' Agri-Business Consortium) are key players in managing these buffer stocks.

The correct answer is kg⋅m/s².

Key Points

• Force is fundamentally defined by Newton's Second Law of Motion, which states that the force applied to an object is the product of its mass and its acceleration (F = m × a).
• The S.I. base unit for mass is the kilogram (kg), which is one of the seven fundamental units of the International System of Units.
• Acceleration is a derived quantity defined as the rate of change of velocity over time. Since velocity is measured in meters per second (m/s) and time is measured in seconds (s), the unit for acceleration is m/s².
• By substituting these base units into the physical formula, the unit for Force becomes kg × m/s², which is collectively termed the Newton (N).
• One Newton is defined as the amount of force required to accelerate a mass of one kilogram at a rate of one meter per second squared (1 N = 1 kg⋅m/s²).

 Additional Information

• Linear Momentum:
• The unit kg⋅m/s represents Linear Momentum (p = m × v), which describes the quantity of motion of a moving body.
• Work and Energy:
• The unit kg⋅m²/s² is the base unit equivalent of the Joule (J), used to measure Work (Force × Displacement) and Energy.
• Historical Context:
• The Newton was named in honor of Sir Isaac Newton, whose Principia Mathematica (1687) laid the foundations for classical mechanics.
• S.I. Base Units:
• The system relies on seven base units, including the meter (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for mass, and second (s) for time, from which all other units like the Newton, Pascal, and Watt are derived.

The correct answer is Grid pattern intersecting at right angles.

Key Points

• The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, is renowned for its sophisticated urban planning and advanced engineering.
• The Lower Town of Harappan cities, such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, was characterized by a systematic arrangement where roads and streets were laid out in a grid pattern.
• The main streets were designed to be straight and broad, intersecting each other precisely at right angles (90 degrees), effectively dividing the residential areas into rectangular or square blocks.
• This chessboard pattern ensured efficient movement and reflected a high degree of administrative control and architectural foresight.
• The streets were integrated with an elaborate drainage system, where smaller drains from houses led into larger drains running alongside the main roads.

 Additional Information

• Urban Structure of Harappan Cities:
• Citadel: A raised area on the western side, typically housing important public buildings like the Great Bath and the Granary.
• Lower Town: Located on the eastern side, this was the residential sector where common citizens lived, featuring houses made of baked bricks.
• Standardization: Unlike other contemporary civilizations, Harappan cities utilized standardized burnt bricks with a ratio of 1:2:4 for construction.
• Drainage Technology: Every house had its own bathroom and was connected to the street drains, which were covered with stone slabs or bricks for maintenance.
• Alternative Patterns:
• Circular or Radial Patterns: These layouts involve streets curving or branching out from a central point, which were not characteristic of Harappan planning.
• Irregular Patterns: These are found in unplanned settlements where growth is organic rather than pre-determined, the opposite of the highly organized Indus Valley sites.