Child Development and Pedagogy PYQs

Social cognitive theory is basically a social learning theory based on the idea that people learn by watching what others do and that human thought processes are central to understanding personality. 

Key Points

• Albert Bandura proposed the Social Learning Theory of Personality. Bandura has presented his theory in a series of books.
• With Richard Walters as a junior author, Bandura wrote Adolescent Aggression in which social learning principles were used to describe personality development.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory of Personality:

• Bandura’s Social Learning Theory of Personality is based on the premise that human behaviour is largely acquired and that the principles of learning are sufficient to account for the development and maintenance of behaviour.
• Bandura theory of social learning can be explained under the following three headings:

1. Reciprocal determinism
2. Self-system
3. Principles of observational learning

Important Points

• Reciprocal determinism: In social learning theory, reciprocal determinism is used to indicate that personal influences, environmental forces, and behaviour function as interdependent rather than autonomous determinants.
• Self-system: According to Bandura the three component processes are involved in the self-regulation of behaviour through the activation of self-prescribed contingencies. The three components involved in the self-system are self-observation, judgmental processes and self-response.
• Observational learning: Behavioural acquisition that occurs by watching the actions and outcomes of others’ behaviour, include credible role models of the targeted behaviour.

Thus, it is concluded that the Social Learning Theory of Personality was given by Bandura & Walters.

Hint

• Jung considered personality in terms of introversion and extroversion concepts.
• Dollard and Miller have tried to integrate psychoanalytical notions in the behavioural paradigm.
• Carl Rogers' humanistic personality theory emphasizes the importance of the self-actualizing tendency in forming a self-concept.

The Mirror-drawing or Mirror-tracing test is a psychological assessment used to measure the rate of learning, hand-eye coordination, and neuropsychological damage.

Key Points

• This test is made as an experimental tool to analyze and observe the nature of the learning process and in studying the relationship between visual-spatial and motor learning.
• A candidate is instructed to trace or draw a picture while observing their work in a mirror.
• It gives an inverse view of what is being drawn and new learning needs to occur for effective tracing/drawing to occur.
• It may be evaluated according to the speed and accuracy in drawing or tracing the picture.

Hence, we have concluded that the Mirror-Drawing test is used to measure learning.

The measuring of central tendency is a way of summarising the data in the form of a typical or representative value. There are several statistical measures of central tendency or “averages”.The three most commonly used averages are Arithmetic Mean, Median & Mode.

Key Points

• ​Median is that positional value of the variable which divides the distribution into two equal parts, one part comprises all values greater than or equal to the median value and the other comprises all values less than or equal to it.
• The Median is the “middle” element when the data set is arranged in order of magnitude. Since the median is determined by the position of different values, it remains unaffected if, say, the size of the largest value increases.

Thus, it is concluded that Median is one of the measures of central tendency.

Hint

• The range is the difference between the highest and lowest values in a set of numbers.
• Average deviation, combined with mean average, serves to help summarize a set of data.
• The standard deviation measures the spread of the data about the mean value. It is useful in comparing sets of data that may have the same mean but a different range.

Personality is all that a person is. It is the totality of one’s behavior towards one’s own self as well as others. It includes everything about the person, his/her physical, emotional, social, mental, and spiritual make-up. 

• Projective techniques of personality measurement are the tests that are designed to reveal those central aspects of personality that lie in the unconscious mind of an individual.

Key Points

Cloud Picture Test:-

• It is a projective test used to measure the personality of an individual. This test is made by Williams Stern.
• It is designed fantasy stimuli that would avoid the disadvantages of the Rorschach Series.
• It consists series of three pictures that resemble clouds rather than inkblots.

Draw-a-man Test:-

• It is an expressive projective technique of personality measurement.
• In this test, the subject engages in some "creative" activity, such

as drawing, finger painting, and acting out certain feelings or situations (as in psychodrama).

• In this most popular drawing test, subjects are first told to draw "a person," and then are instructed to draw another person of the opposite sex.

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT):

• The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) test was developed by Henry Murray. It is a projective technique used to investigate a person's unconscious self.
• It consists of 20 pictures which are all black and white. The people depicted in the picture are deliberately drawn in ambiguous situations.
• More specifically, this test can uncover a person's true personality, their capacity for emotional control, and their attitudes towards aspects they encounter in everyday life (wealth, power. gender roles, racial and religious attitudes, intimacy, etc.).

Hint16-PF Questionnaire:-

• It is not a projective technique as it is an inventory developed by Cattell.
• It identifies a large set of personality descriptions which is subjected to factor analysis to identify basic personality structure.

Hence, 16-PF Questionnaire is the odd one out.

Robert James Havighurst was a professor, physicist, educator, and aging expert. He proposed that all individuals progress through a series of developmental stages, each comprising a series of developmental tasks.

Key Points

Development Task:

• The term “developmental task” was introduced by Robert Havighurst in 1950.
• A developmental task is one that arises predictably and consistently at or about a certain period in the life of the individual.
• He believed that learning is basic to life and that people continue to learn throughout life. According to him, a developmental task is a task which an individual has to and wants to solve in a particular life period.
• For example, a father is supposed to run the family and a child to study and go to school. Such social expectations of a particular age common to all persons are known as ‘developmental tasks'.

Thus, it is concluded that the concept of Development Task was proposed by Havighurst.

Hint

• Leta Stetter Hollingworth was an early pioneer in psychology who is best known for her contributions to the study of intelligence testing and giftedness.
• Jean Piaget was a swiss psychologist who is known for his work in child development. He proposed the Theory of Cognitive Development' under the cognitive constructivist approach.
• G. Stanely hall was a well-renowned American psychologist who developed Adolescent psychology.

Learning is defined as a relatively durable change in behavior due to experience. If the change in behavior is temporary, or due to instinct or maturation, it is not learning. The key feature of learning is experience.

Key PointsThe role of reinforcement is very crucial in operant conditioning. it is an operation or action that increases the rate of response. 

• Positive reinforcement involves stimuli that have pleasant consequences. They strengthen and maintain the responses that have caused them to occur.
• Negative reinforcement involves unpleasant stimuli. Responses that lead organisms to get rid of painful stimuli or avoid and escape from them provide negative reinforcement**.**
• Based on negative reinforcement, there are two types of learning - Escape learning and Avoidance learning.

Important Points

1. Escape learning: In escape behavior, the occurrence of the behavior terminates the aversive stimulus.

• Escape learning occurs when an animal learns to perform an operant behavior to terminate an aversive event or stimulus.
• For example, in a shuttlebox, this occurs when a mouse learns to escape (i.e. move to) the opposite compartment after receiving a footshock in their current compartment. It is a classic example of negative reinforcement.

Thus, it is concluded that Escape learning is based on negative reinforcement.

There are many theories in psychology that are related to different schools of psychology such as cognitive, humanistic, behavioristic, etc. These theories are propounded by eminent psychologists to provide a framework to understand different aspects of human behavior.

• E. L. Thorndike, an American psychologist, the propounder of "Trial & Error Theory" has developed three primary laws of learning that leads to development.

Key Points

These primary laws are: 

 

Hence, it could be concluded that the Law of effect is one of the primary laws of learning.

Important Points 

Thorndike's Supplementary law (also known as minor laws to education):

• Law of Multiple Responding: It refers to different types of responses often occurs initially to a stimulus, then reaching to the correct response.
• Law of Attitude, Disposition or States: It refers to the condition of a learner that influences learning.
• Law of Partial or Piecemeal Activity of a situation: It refers to the tendency to respond to particular elements or features of a stimulus situation rather than on the whole to improve the result.
• Law of Assimilation of response by Analogy: It is the tendency to respond automatically as responded in the past.
• Law of Associative Shifting: Successfully applying the same response until a new situation comes (For example to apply the same formula in similar questions).
• Law of Primacy: It refers to the idea that the first step matters the most.
• The law of recency: It is the tendency which refers to the idea that the most recent task matters the most
• Law of Intensity of Stimulus: The more strong the stimulus, the better the response.

Research methodology indicates the general pattern for organizing the procedure to be used to collect and analyze the data to accomplish the research objectives and to test the hypothesis.

• Research design is the overall plan for organizing a scientific investigation. There are mainly three types of research approaches that include Historical (Past), Survey (Present), and Experimental (Future).

Key Points

The longitudinal approach of investigation: In a longitudinal survey sequence of events is observed in each subject selected for the study. It is able to measure the pattern of change in the dependent variables over a period of time.

• A longitudinal study is a research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables i.e. people over a short or long period of time.
• Example: The 1970 British Cohort Study, which has collected data on the lives of 17,000 Brits since their birth in 1970, is one of the most well-known longitudinal studies.
• The survey involves the longitudinal approach of investigation. This is used on a large population. But instead of studying the whole of the population, a sample is studied.
• The sample is generally large in size. It is generally used in descriptive studies, however, it can also be used in experimental studies. The techniques of data collection used are questionnaires and interviews.​

Thus, it is concluded that the Survey involves a longitudinal approach of investigation.

Hint

• Case study involves studying a few cases in contrast to the large sample in the survey.
• Experimental research is concerned with the cause and effect relationship.
• Introspection is the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings.

The concept of 'Transfer of learning' is introduced by 'E.Thorndike' and 'S.Woodworth'.

Key Points

• Transfer of learning refers to apply acquired abilities or knowledge in a new situation.
• It occurs when the elements are identical in both situations.
• There are mainly three types of transfer of learning including positive, negative and zero.

Hence, it could be concluded that the above-mentioned phenomenon is called Transfer of learning.

Additional Information

• Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities or processes and is unique to human beings. It involves the manipulation and analysis of information received from the environment.
• Memory refers to the ability or power of the brain that helps an individual in obtaining, transforming, storing,  retrieving, and using information when needed.
• Intellectual development refers to the development of the ability to understand, learn, reason, think, perceive, and solve a problem.

Creativity is the phenomenon whereby imaginative and original ideas are turned into reality.

• It is the ability possessed by the people who are creative, persistent, and imaginative.
• Creativity is a cognitive ability to produce something original by offering a fresh perspective.

Key Points

Graham Wallas (1926) outlined the creative thinking process into four stages: 

• Preparation: It involves collecting information regarding a problem in order to solve it through trial and error, recalling personal experiences, and investigating in all possible directions.
• Incubation: It is a slow process in which the individual sinks into the unconscious and reflects on the problem. In this stage, individuals forget irrelevant information or unsuccessful attempts and engage with the task effectively.
• Illumination: It is the stage the individual is most active and conscious. It is in this stage that insight into the problem is experienced suddenly and a new idea or solution emerges.
• Verification: This stage might involve modifications to the solution reached in the previous stage by adding or subtracting, or making new connections. The final solution achieved is tested in reality. If the solution does not apply to the problem then the whole process is repeated.

Hence, it could be concluded that according to G. Wallas the first stage in creative thinking is Preparation.

E. L. Thorndike, an American psychologist, is known as the founder of modern educational psychology.

Key Points

• He propounded 'Trial and Error Theory' which represents that learning is the result of associations forming between stimulus and responses.
• "Mistakes teaches individual" statement is based on 'Trial and Error Theory'.

Thorndike's Experiment

• Thorndike formulated his theory, base on his experiments conducted on his cat in the puzzle box.
• The door of the box could be opened by pulling the strings inside the box. A fish was kept outside.
• The cat was tried to come out of the box by squeezing, jumping, biting, etc.
• As the experiment was repeated several times the wrong movements decreased and in the end, the cat was able to open the door in a single trail.

Important Points 

Based on Trial and Error Learning Theory, Thorndike gave three primary laws of Learning:

• Law of readiness: It refers to the degree of eagerness and inquisitiveness to learn something new.
• Law of exercise: It is based on practice and drill to learn something for a long period.
• Law of effect: It is based on motivation and reinforcement to make the learning experience pleasant for learners.

Hence, it becomes clear that the principle of trial and error was propounded by Thorndike.

Additional Information

• Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist has propounded the 'Theory of Classical Conditioning' which emphasizes that learning as a habit formation is based on the principle of association and substitution.
• According to Lee Ross, "Plateaus of learning is a characteristic feature of the learning process indicating a period where no improvement in performance is made".

The word ‘personality’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ which means a mask worn by an actor while performing a character on the stage. Therefore personality is taken to mean the characteristic pattern or style of behavior of the person revealed from his external appearance.

Key Points

• Gordon Willard Allport was an American psychologist.
• Allport was one of the first psychologists to focus on the study of personality and is often referred to as one of the founding figures of personality psychology.
• “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those, Psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environments" was said by Allport.

Hence, it could be concluded that the above-mentioned definition was given by G. W. Allport.

Additional Information

• According to Sigmund Freud, human personality is complex and has more than a single component.
• According to M. L. Munn, Personality may be defined as the most characteristic integration of an individual's structures, modes of behaviour, interest, attitudes, capacities, abilities and aptitudes.
• According to J. E. Dashiell, Personality is the sum total of behaviour trends manifested in social adjustments."

There are many learning theories in psychology that are related to different schools of psychology such as cognitive, humanistic, behavioristic, etc.

• These theories are propounded by eminent psychologists to provide a framework to understand different aspects of human behavior.
• The ‘Insight Theory of Learning’ or ‘Gestalt Theory of Learning’ is promoted by Wolfgang Kohler, a Gestalt theorist.
• In his theory, he has proposed the term ‘Insight’ that doesn't take place with trial & error, rather than it is a sudden reorganization of experience.

Important Points

As per ‘Theory of Insightful Learning’: 

• The solution to a problem arrives ‘all of a sudden’ flash of insight when a person is struggling.
• Insight enhances an individual's ability to perceive and understand something or someone instinctively.
• Insight doesn't rely on behavior or observation, it is the sudden realization of a problem's solution using intuition.

Kohler demonstrated the following experiment based on insight:

• He kept chimpanzees in a closed room where food was kept out of their reach, and items like boxes, stick was there.
• The chimpanzee would roam inside the room to reach the food.
• They would ‘suddenly’ stand on a box and use the stick to bring food close to them.
• It should be noted that it was not the result of trial and error instead, the chimpanzee suddenly came up with the idea to use boxes and stick.

Hence, it could be concluded that Kohler is associated with 'Gestalt Theory of Learning'.

Additional Information

Language is a symbolic, rule-governed system, shared by a group of people to express their thoughts and feelings. These rules are the set of conventions that organize their proper use and dictate how words relate to one another.

• Some of these rules that govern a language include phonology, syntax, morphology, semantic, etc.

Key Points

• Phonology is the component of language referring to rules governing the structure and sequence of the speed of sounds.
• Phonology is the branch of linguistics dealing with the way speech, sounds behave in a particular language.
• For example, patterns of sounds, in terms of a sequence of sounds that are permissible in a specific language.
• When we describe the sound we use, with reference to these criteria we are concerning ourselves with matters of phonetics.

Hence, it could be concluded that Phonology is the component of language referring to rules governing the structure and sequence of the speed of sounds.

Additional Information

Memory refers to the process of storing the outcomes of learning in the form of information that can be retrieved when required.

• It refers to the set of processes involved in storing information. This specific process is termed retention.
• Memory can be defined as a perceptually active mental system that receives, encodes, modifies, and retrieves information.

Key PointsAccording to Woodworth, “Memory is mental power which consists in learning, retaining and remembering what has previously been learnt”. According to him, dimensions of memory include:

• Retention: This is the ability to store information and remember. The process of retaining appears to be passive but is not wholly so.
• Recall: We learn in order to recall when we need. Failure to recall learned material would mean that our learning process has not been useful and effective.
• Recognition: Recognition is another factor in the process of memory. Recognition is awareness of previous experience. Its evaluate a person's existing skill sets, knowledge and experience.

Thus, it is concluded that according to Woodworth, Reasoning is not a dimension of memory.

Hint

• Reasoning: Reasoning is one of the key aspects of thinking and is studied under cognitive development. It is a process that involves inference.
• Reasoning is used in logical thinking and problem-solving. It is goal-directed, and the conclusions or judgments are drawn from a set of facts.
• In reasoning, information from the environment and the stored information in the mind are used following certain rules.

Personality is all that a person is. It is the totality of one’s behaviour towards one’s own self as well as others. It includes everything about the person, his/her physical, emotional, social, mental, and spiritual make-up. 

• Projective techniques of personality measurement are the tests which are designed to:
• reveal those central aspects of personality that lie in the unconscious mind of an individual.
• evaluate a person's interests, attitudes, pattern of thought, etc while giving responses to ambiguous test materials.

Key Points

There are different kinds of Projective techniques of personality measurement and 'Thematic Apperception Test' is one of them.

• Henry Murray, an American psychologist, created history by constructing the 'Thematic Appreciation Test'.
• In this test, ambiguous pictures or test materials are given to participants. This test can uncover a person’s true personality, their capacity for emotional control.
• It is designed to reveal and evaluate a person's interests, attitudes, observation power, pattern of thought, etc. while giving responses to ambiguous test materials.

Hence, it could be concluded that the T.A.T. was designed by Murray.

Additional Information

• Rorschach inkblot Test: Hermann Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist, devised the Rorschach Inkblot Personality test in 1921. This test is most frequently used for the projective test.
• Allport considered the structure of personality into three parts, viz., (i) definition of personality,(ii) personality traits, and (iii) Proprium.
• Maslow sees human needs in the form of a hierarchy, starting in ascending order from the lowest to the highest needs and concludes that when one set of needs are satisfied then the need for another set arises.

All of us, quite often, face environmental or personal obstacles in life which cause anxiety and lead to stress. Psychologists have given different names to stress such as frustration, conflict, pressure, etc.

 Important Points

• The term frustration refers to the blocking of behavior directed towards a goal. If motives are frustrated or blocked, emotional feelings and behavior often result.
• People who cannot achieve their important goals, feel depressed, fearful, anxious, guilty, or angry. Often they're simply unable to drive ordinary pleasure for living.
• For example, over-restrictive parents would be a source of frustration to an adolescent girl who wanted to give or attend a party, while a lack of water would be a source of frustration to a man lost in the desert. A wide range of obstacles both environmental and internal can lead to frustrations.

Thus, it is concluded that blocking of behavior that is directed towards a goal is Frustration.

Hint

• Emotion is a psychological construct that involves the use of emotional processing and emotional expression in response to a different situation.
• Motivation refers to the process that guides an individual to achieve a goal. There are two main types of motivation which include extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.

Development refers to an increase in structure for better and enhanced functioning of organs. It is a product of the interaction of hereditary and environment.

• Heredity refers to the traits that pass down from the parents to their offspring. It is the most important personality determinant that determines how far we can go.
• It is the genetic constitution of an individual which is established during conception. It is the property of organic beings by which offsprings have the nature and characteristics of parents or ancestors.

Key Points

• Heredity plays the most important role in the 'Physical development of the child'.
• The color of eyes, hair, skin, height, etc is determined by heredity.
• All the inborn traits, instincts, potentials and IQ of an individual depend on the heredity.​
• All the potential inputs for growth and development depend on heredity.
• For example: If both the parents of a child are of short height, then the chance for being the short height of the child naturally is nearly 100% sure.

Hence, it could be concluded that heredity influences the color of the eye.

Hint

• Environment: It refers to the circumstances in which an individual lives. Child's immediate environment strongly influenced their personality and intelligence.
• A hormone is a substance that is synthesized in one organ and transported by the circulatory system to act on another tissue.

Basel Age is the mental age level at which all the items on an intelligence test can be creditably passed.

Key Points

• Basal age represents the highest level, on a test standardized in units corresponding to mental age or age-equivalents, below which it can be assumed that all items would be answered correctly.
• If a basal is not obtained, testing moves back to successively lower blocks until a basal is established.
• Ceiling Age: The lowest year level at which the examinee fails all the subtests of the scale.
• Mental Age: Mental age is computed by adding to his basal age, the number of months credit received for passing each subtest up to his ceiling age.
• Mental Age = basal age + credit (until ceiling age).

Thus, it is concluded that "Basal" age is related to Intelligence.

Defence mechanism refers to the unconscious mechanism proposed by 'Sigmund Freud' and his daughter 'Anna Freud' as a strategy to:

• reduce anxiety and unacceptable impulses.
• protect mind from anxious thoughts or feelings.
• manipulate and handle displeasing events or actions.

Key PointsFrom the above-mentioned information, it could be concluded that it is an example of displacement. 

• Displacement is a psychological defense mechanism in which a person redirects a negative emotion from its original source to a less threatening recipient.
• It is a mechanism where emotions are directed away from their source or target, towards something else.
• For example, 
• A child scolded by his teacher may hit his peers.
• A boss gives his employee a hard time at work, the employee goes home and shouts at his wife.

Hence, it could be concluded that if a child when scolded in class by a teacher returns home and shows anger to his/her sister is an example of displacement. 

Important Points

Refer to the table to be acquainted with several defence mechanisms: