Child Development and Pedagogy PYQs

Carl Gustav Jung emphasized the idea that we need to study different cultures as it will provide the essence of humanity. Jung’s personality theory is known as the analytic theory or analytical psychology (1933).

• He proposed that everyone has a personal unconscious that is composed of one’s own experiences that have been repressed due to some reason.
• He proposed that everyone has the ability to balance the conscious and unconscious forces.

Key Points

• Jung extended Freud’s idea of the unconscious. Freud considered the unconscious as an essential part of one’s personality. It is a storehouse of repressed memories, aggressive motives, and sexual desires.
• Jung deviated from this view and proposed the idea of the collective unconscious, which is the unconscious shared by all humans.
• According to him, due to the evolutionary process and common ancestors, we all carry some common past. The collection of this ancestral past is part of our unconscious known as the collective unconscious.
• According to him, the collective unconscious serves as the foundation for personality. This collective unconscious consists of all the archetypes and concepts which represent experiences that are primitive and from our ancestral heritage. For example, the conceptions about rebirth, God, evil, and so on.

Hence, it is clear that the concept of the "Collective unconscious" was given by Jung.

Additional Information

Sigmund Freud, the physician by profession, was the major contributor of Psychoanalytic Theory. Freud proposed that our personality consists of three elements, i.e., id, ego, and superego.

Key PointsInstincts are preprogrammed sequences of actions rooted in biology that take care of survival needs such as hunger, sex, and care of the young ones.

• Id: This part of personality operates unconsciously.
• It deals with basic instincts, biological needs, and aggressive impulses. It is the most primitive part of human personality present since birth.
• From the id, other parts of the personality (ego and superego) develop. It works on pleasure principle-tendency to avoid pain and seek pleasure.

Important Points

• Freud states that instincts are the ultimate cause of all behaviour. The two basic instincts are Eros (love) and the Thanatos (destructive or death instinct).
• The purpose of Eros is to establish and preserve unity through relationships. On the other hand, the purpose of the death instinct is to undo connections and unity.
• According to Freud, in the context of id, Eros is the drive of life, love, creativity, and sexuality, self-satisfaction, and species preservation. Sigmund Freud referred to Eros as life instinct.

Hint

• The counterpart of Eros is Thanatos - the death force or instinct. It is responsible for violence, aggression, and hate-like negative feelings.
• Fear is one of the basic emotions. Our natural fear of violence, frightening things comes under fear instinct.
• Fear, anxiety, anger, frustration all come under natural instinct.

The concepts of id, ego, and superego are proposed by 'Sigmund Freud' in his 'Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality.

• Freud used these three concepts to describe the three parts of the human personality and to explain the way a human mind works.
• According to Freud, the human personality is made up of three major systems: the id, ego, and superego.
• These three systems work together cooperatively and constitute a well-organized personality in a person and enable the person to interact with the external environment.

Key Points

Let's Understand in Brief:

• The ID:
• It is the unconscious part of the human personality that works to fulfil basic desires.
• It is based on the pleasure principle which aspires for the satisfaction of antisocial desires.
• It is the basic personality component that is present since birth and seeks to satisfy sexual wishes.
• The Ego:
• It looks for rules and morals and resides in the unconscious mind.
• It is the realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the super-ego.
• It is that aspect of personality, which strives to be logical and reasonable and to cope with the world of reality.
• The Super-Ego:
• It is the moral part of the personality, which is also known as conscience. It stands for perfection, rather than pleasure.
• The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one's parents and others.
• The Super-Ego develops in the child’s mind as a result of its response to the rewards and punishment adopted by the parents.

Hence, it could be concluded that "Ego" is guided by the reality principle.

A hormone is a chemical that acts as a messenger transmitting a signal from one cell to another. Hormones can be classified according to chemical composition, solubility properties, location of receptors, and the nature of the signal used to mediate hormonal action within the cell.

Key Points

• Cholecystokinin is a hormone that is released after a meal. It plays a key role in facilitating digestion within the small intestine.
• It seems to be involved with appetite by increasing the sensation of fullness in the short-term, that is, during a meal rather than between meals.
• Cholecystokinin stimulates the release of bile juices from the liver and gall bladder which improves digestion.
• It regulates the movement of food through the stomach that helps in the effective absorption of nutrients from the food.
• During this process, the human body feels satiated/full and does not feel hunger. Thus, the release of cholecystokinin hormone decreases the appetite.

Thus, it is concluded that Cholecystokinin is a hormone which when injected into the human body decreases appetite.

Intelligence refers to a set of different cognitive abilities to think rationally, act purposefully, resolve problems, and deal with the demands of the environment.

• In 1912, William Stern suggested the concept called Intelligent Quotient (IQ). It refers to the score of a standardized test that assesses and measures human intelligence.

Key Points 

An individual’s Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is determined by the formula given below,

\({\bf{Intelligence}};{\bf{Quotient}};\left( {{\bf{IQ}}} \right) = \frac{{{\bf{Mental}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{MA}}} \right);}}{{{\bf{Chronological}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{CA}}} \right)}} \times 100\)

Where,

• Mental Age is based on intellectual development.
• Chronological Age is the number of years a person has lived.
• When A child of 16 years scores 75, his mental age will be:
• 75 = MA / 16 x 100
• MA = 75 x 16 /100
• MA = 12

Hence, it could be concluded that a child of 16 years scores 75 in an IQ test, his mental age will be 12 years.

Important Points 

Refer to the IQ table for further information:

The Nervous System:

• Human nervous system is the most complex and most developed of all living creatures.
• Though the nervous system functions as a whole, for the ease of study, we can divide it into many parts depending on its location or functions.
• Based on location, the nervous system can be divided into two parts: the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

Key Points

Central Nervous System (CNS) 

• The central nervous system (CNS) is the center of all neural activity.
• It integrates all incoming sensory information, performs all kinds of cognitive activities, and issues motor commands to muscles and glands.
• The CNS comprises of the (a) brain and (b) spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• The PNS is composed of all the neurons and nerve fibers that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
• The PNS is divided into Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System.
• The autonomic nervous system is further divided into Sympathetic and Parasympathetic systems.
• The PNS provides information to the CNS from sensory receptors (eyes, ears, skin, etc.) and relays back motor commands from the brain to the muscles and glands.

Hence, it could be concluded that the Central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by the occurrence of unwanted, intrusive obsessive thoughts and distressing images which are usually accompanied by compulsive behaviors. Compulsive behaviors are carried out either to undo or neutralize the obsessions or to prevent the occurrence of some dreadful event.

Key Points

• Anxiety disorders are disorders that decrease the performance or social functioning of an individual due to hyper-anxiety. Anxiety disorder can be of many types such as generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, somatoform disorder, etc.
• Obsessive behavior is the inability to stop thinking about a particular idea or topic. The person involved, often finds these thoughts to be unpleasant and shameful.
• Compulsive behavior is the need to perform certain behaviors over and over again. Many compulsions deal with counting, ordering, checking, touching, and washing.
• People affected by the obsessive-compulsive disorder are unable to control their preoccupation with specific ideas or are unable to prevent themselves from repeatedly carrying out a particular act or series of acts that affect their ability to carry out normal activities.

Thus, it is concluded that Obsessive-compulsive disorder is an anxiety disorder.

Hint

• Somatoform disorders refer to physical problems which have no organic basis, for example, fatigue, headaches, vague body pains, etc. The persons suffering from this disease remain preoccupied with symptoms.
• Dissociative disorders describe a persistent mental state that is marked by feelings of being detached from reality, being outside of one’s own body, or experiencing memory loss.
• Adjustment disorders are a group of conditions that can occur when you have difficulty in coping with a stressful life event. Example"the death of a loved one, relationship issues, or being fired from work.

Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT)

1. The TTCT (Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking) assess how creatively a child’s mind works and are often given to children to determine advanced placement or as part of an entrance examination.
2. They are very different from the intelligence and reasoning tests a child may already have taken.
3. Instead of traditionally taught subjects such as reading or math, these tests assess creativity.
4. Children are scored on several aspects, including creative titles for pictures, expressions, imagery, and humor.

Important Points

The Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) is designed to identify and evaluate creative potential using two parts – a Verbal test and a Figural test.

1. Verbal test:

• ​​The Verbal test contains seven subtests – Asking, Guessing Causes, Guessing Consequences, Product Improvement, Unusual Uses, Unusual Questions, and Just Suppose.
• Subtests are scored based on fluency, flexibility, and originality (with a score on elaboration as optional), and these scores are accumulated across all subtests.
• The totals may be converted to standard T scores if normative reference is desired.

2. Figural test:

• The Figural test has three subsets – Picture Construction (from a marked cue), Picture Completion (again with cues), and Parallel Lines.
• The first of these subtests are scored on originality and elaboration while the remainder is scored on fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration.
• Totals are then accumulated across subtests to provide overall scores for Figural fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration.
• These scores, as in the Verbal test, can be converted to a standard T score.

Therefore, from the above explanation, it could be concluded that Torrance framed the 'Test of Creative Thinking' to identify creativity.

There are many theories in psychology that are related to different schools of psychology such as cognitive, humanistic, behavioristic, etc.

• These theories are propounded by eminent psychologists to provide a framework to understand different aspects of human behavior.

Key Points

• E. L**. Thorndike**, an American psychologist has propounded the Stimulus-Response Theory (S-R Theory). In his theory, he emphasizes that learning is the result of associations forming between stimulus and responses.

Thorndike's theory falls under 'Behaviouristic theory' as:

• The approach which describes learning as a connection between stimulus and response is the behaviouristic approach.
• Stimulus-Response is a concept that implies that behavior manifests as a result of the interplay between stimulus and response.
• The main idea behind behaviouristic theory of learning is that learning is a change in, overt behavior of the learner occurring as a result of reinforced practice.

Hence, it could be concluded that Thorndike's theory falls under 'Behaviouristic theory'.

Additional Information

Learning curve is a graphic representation of how learning takes place in a particular situation. 

Key Points

• Progress in learning can be objectively measured and represented graphically which is known as the learning curve. The learning curve shows a subject's learnability.
• In all types of learning situations, the course of learning can be depicted and described graphically by drawing learning curves against the x and y-axis.

Stages of Learning Curve: 

• Stage 1: In this stage, the learner slowly increases the speed to understand the concept of learning. This is the beginning stage of learning, in which the learner is motivated to gain new information.
• Stage 2: In this stage, the learner steeps accelerating in learning the concepts. After some time the learner gains a total understanding of the concept and reaches the boom stage of learning.
• Stage 3: In this stage, a learning plateau occurs, after gaining mastery on the concept, the learner feels bored and want to learn new thing. So the teacher should always introduce the same concept with innovative methods, this will overcome the boredom.

Hence, it could be concluded that Learning curves are indicator of Progress in learning.

Social cognitive theory is basically a social learning theory based on the idea that people learn by watching what others do and that human thought processes are central to understanding personality. 

Key Points

• Albert Bandura proposed the Social Learning Theory of Personality. Bandura has presented his theory in a series of books.
• With Richard Walters as a junior author, Bandura wrote Adolescent Aggression in which social learning principles were used to describe personality development.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory of Personality:

• Bandura’s Social Learning Theory of Personality is based on the premise that human behaviour is largely acquired and that the principles of learning are sufficient to account for the development and maintenance of behaviour.
• Bandura theory of social learning can be explained under the following three headings:

1. Reciprocal determinism
2. Self-system
3. Principles of observational learning

Important Points

• Reciprocal determinism: In social learning theory, reciprocal determinism is used to indicate that personal influences, environmental forces, and behaviour function as interdependent rather than autonomous determinants.
• Self-system: According to Bandura the three component processes are involved in the self-regulation of behaviour through the activation of self-prescribed contingencies. The three components involved in the self-system are self-observation, judgmental processes and self-response.
• Observational learning: Behavioural acquisition that occurs by watching the actions and outcomes of others’ behaviour, include credible role models of the targeted behaviour.

Thus, it is concluded that the Social Learning Theory of Personality was given by Bandura & Walters.

Hint

• Jung considered personality in terms of introversion and extroversion concepts.
• Dollard and Miller have tried to integrate psychoanalytical notions in the behavioural paradigm.
• Carl Rogers' humanistic personality theory emphasizes the importance of the self-actualizing tendency in forming a self-concept.

The Mirror-drawing or Mirror-tracing test is a psychological assessment used to measure the rate of learning, hand-eye coordination, and neuropsychological damage.

Key Points

• This test is made as an experimental tool to analyze and observe the nature of the learning process and in studying the relationship between visual-spatial and motor learning.
• A candidate is instructed to trace or draw a picture while observing their work in a mirror.
• It gives an inverse view of what is being drawn and new learning needs to occur for effective tracing/drawing to occur.
• It may be evaluated according to the speed and accuracy in drawing or tracing the picture.

Hence, we have concluded that the Mirror-Drawing test is used to measure learning.

The measuring of central tendency is a way of summarising the data in the form of a typical or representative value. There are several statistical measures of central tendency or “averages”.The three most commonly used averages are Arithmetic Mean, Median & Mode.

Key Points

• ​Median is that positional value of the variable which divides the distribution into two equal parts, one part comprises all values greater than or equal to the median value and the other comprises all values less than or equal to it.
• The Median is the “middle” element when the data set is arranged in order of magnitude. Since the median is determined by the position of different values, it remains unaffected if, say, the size of the largest value increases.

Thus, it is concluded that Median is one of the measures of central tendency.

Hint

• The range is the difference between the highest and lowest values in a set of numbers.
• Average deviation, combined with mean average, serves to help summarize a set of data.
• The standard deviation measures the spread of the data about the mean value. It is useful in comparing sets of data that may have the same mean but a different range.

Personality is all that a person is. It is the totality of one’s behavior towards one’s own self as well as others. It includes everything about the person, his/her physical, emotional, social, mental, and spiritual make-up. 

• Projective techniques of personality measurement are the tests that are designed to reveal those central aspects of personality that lie in the unconscious mind of an individual.

Key Points

Cloud Picture Test:-

• It is a projective test used to measure the personality of an individual. This test is made by Williams Stern.
• It is designed fantasy stimuli that would avoid the disadvantages of the Rorschach Series.
• It consists series of three pictures that resemble clouds rather than inkblots.

Draw-a-man Test:-

• It is an expressive projective technique of personality measurement.
• In this test, the subject engages in some "creative" activity, such

as drawing, finger painting, and acting out certain feelings or situations (as in psychodrama).

• In this most popular drawing test, subjects are first told to draw "a person," and then are instructed to draw another person of the opposite sex.

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT):

• The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) test was developed by Henry Murray. It is a projective technique used to investigate a person's unconscious self.
• It consists of 20 pictures which are all black and white. The people depicted in the picture are deliberately drawn in ambiguous situations.
• More specifically, this test can uncover a person's true personality, their capacity for emotional control, and their attitudes towards aspects they encounter in everyday life (wealth, power. gender roles, racial and religious attitudes, intimacy, etc.).

Hint16-PF Questionnaire:-

• It is not a projective technique as it is an inventory developed by Cattell.
• It identifies a large set of personality descriptions which is subjected to factor analysis to identify basic personality structure.

Hence, 16-PF Questionnaire is the odd one out.

Robert James Havighurst was a professor, physicist, educator, and aging expert. He proposed that all individuals progress through a series of developmental stages, each comprising a series of developmental tasks.

Key Points

Development Task:

• The term “developmental task” was introduced by Robert Havighurst in 1950.
• A developmental task is one that arises predictably and consistently at or about a certain period in the life of the individual.
• He believed that learning is basic to life and that people continue to learn throughout life. According to him, a developmental task is a task which an individual has to and wants to solve in a particular life period.
• For example, a father is supposed to run the family and a child to study and go to school. Such social expectations of a particular age common to all persons are known as ‘developmental tasks'.

Thus, it is concluded that the concept of Development Task was proposed by Havighurst.

Hint

• Leta Stetter Hollingworth was an early pioneer in psychology who is best known for her contributions to the study of intelligence testing and giftedness.
• Jean Piaget was a swiss psychologist who is known for his work in child development. He proposed the Theory of Cognitive Development' under the cognitive constructivist approach.
• G. Stanely hall was a well-renowned American psychologist who developed Adolescent psychology.

Learning is defined as a relatively durable change in behavior due to experience. If the change in behavior is temporary, or due to instinct or maturation, it is not learning. The key feature of learning is experience.

Key PointsThe role of reinforcement is very crucial in operant conditioning. it is an operation or action that increases the rate of response. 

• Positive reinforcement involves stimuli that have pleasant consequences. They strengthen and maintain the responses that have caused them to occur.
• Negative reinforcement involves unpleasant stimuli. Responses that lead organisms to get rid of painful stimuli or avoid and escape from them provide negative reinforcement**.**
• Based on negative reinforcement, there are two types of learning - Escape learning and Avoidance learning.

Important Points

1. Escape learning: In escape behavior, the occurrence of the behavior terminates the aversive stimulus.

• Escape learning occurs when an animal learns to perform an operant behavior to terminate an aversive event or stimulus.
• For example, in a shuttlebox, this occurs when a mouse learns to escape (i.e. move to) the opposite compartment after receiving a footshock in their current compartment. It is a classic example of negative reinforcement.

Thus, it is concluded that Escape learning is based on negative reinforcement.

There are many theories in psychology that are related to different schools of psychology such as cognitive, humanistic, behavioristic, etc. These theories are propounded by eminent psychologists to provide a framework to understand different aspects of human behavior.

• E. L. Thorndike, an American psychologist, the propounder of "Trial & Error Theory" has developed three primary laws of learning that leads to development.

Key Points

These primary laws are: 

 

Hence, it could be concluded that the Law of effect is one of the primary laws of learning.

Important Points 

Thorndike's Supplementary law (also known as minor laws to education):

• Law of Multiple Responding: It refers to different types of responses often occurs initially to a stimulus, then reaching to the correct response.
• Law of Attitude, Disposition or States: It refers to the condition of a learner that influences learning.
• Law of Partial or Piecemeal Activity of a situation: It refers to the tendency to respond to particular elements or features of a stimulus situation rather than on the whole to improve the result.
• Law of Assimilation of response by Analogy: It is the tendency to respond automatically as responded in the past.
• Law of Associative Shifting: Successfully applying the same response until a new situation comes (For example to apply the same formula in similar questions).
• Law of Primacy: It refers to the idea that the first step matters the most.
• The law of recency: It is the tendency which refers to the idea that the most recent task matters the most
• Law of Intensity of Stimulus: The more strong the stimulus, the better the response.

Research methodology indicates the general pattern for organizing the procedure to be used to collect and analyze the data to accomplish the research objectives and to test the hypothesis.

• Research design is the overall plan for organizing a scientific investigation. There are mainly three types of research approaches that include Historical (Past), Survey (Present), and Experimental (Future).

Key Points

The longitudinal approach of investigation: In a longitudinal survey sequence of events is observed in each subject selected for the study. It is able to measure the pattern of change in the dependent variables over a period of time.

• A longitudinal study is a research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables i.e. people over a short or long period of time.
• Example: The 1970 British Cohort Study, which has collected data on the lives of 17,000 Brits since their birth in 1970, is one of the most well-known longitudinal studies.
• The survey involves the longitudinal approach of investigation. This is used on a large population. But instead of studying the whole of the population, a sample is studied.
• The sample is generally large in size. It is generally used in descriptive studies, however, it can also be used in experimental studies. The techniques of data collection used are questionnaires and interviews.​

Thus, it is concluded that the Survey involves a longitudinal approach of investigation.

Hint

• Case study involves studying a few cases in contrast to the large sample in the survey.
• Experimental research is concerned with the cause and effect relationship.
• Introspection is the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings.

The concept of 'Transfer of learning' is introduced by 'E.Thorndike' and 'S.Woodworth'.

Key Points

• Transfer of learning refers to apply acquired abilities or knowledge in a new situation.
• It occurs when the elements are identical in both situations.
• There are mainly three types of transfer of learning including positive, negative and zero.

Hence, it could be concluded that the above-mentioned phenomenon is called Transfer of learning.

Additional Information

• Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities or processes and is unique to human beings. It involves the manipulation and analysis of information received from the environment.
• Memory refers to the ability or power of the brain that helps an individual in obtaining, transforming, storing,  retrieving, and using information when needed.
• Intellectual development refers to the development of the ability to understand, learn, reason, think, perceive, and solve a problem.

Creativity is the phenomenon whereby imaginative and original ideas are turned into reality.

• It is the ability possessed by the people who are creative, persistent, and imaginative.
• Creativity is a cognitive ability to produce something original by offering a fresh perspective.

Key Points

Graham Wallas (1926) outlined the creative thinking process into four stages: 

• Preparation: It involves collecting information regarding a problem in order to solve it through trial and error, recalling personal experiences, and investigating in all possible directions.
• Incubation: It is a slow process in which the individual sinks into the unconscious and reflects on the problem. In this stage, individuals forget irrelevant information or unsuccessful attempts and engage with the task effectively.
• Illumination: It is the stage the individual is most active and conscious. It is in this stage that insight into the problem is experienced suddenly and a new idea or solution emerges.
• Verification: This stage might involve modifications to the solution reached in the previous stage by adding or subtracting, or making new connections. The final solution achieved is tested in reality. If the solution does not apply to the problem then the whole process is repeated.

Hence, it could be concluded that according to G. Wallas the first stage in creative thinking is Preparation.