UPTET 2016 Paper 2 (Maths & Science) (Hindi / English / Sanskrit) (Previous Year Paper)

Carl Gustav Jung emphasized the idea that we need to study different cultures as it will provide the essence of humanity. Jung’s personality theory is known as the analytic theory or analytical psychology (1933).

• He proposed that everyone has a personal unconscious that is composed of one’s own experiences that have been repressed due to some reason.
• He proposed that everyone has the ability to balance the conscious and unconscious forces.

Key Points

• Jung extended Freud’s idea of the unconscious. Freud considered the unconscious as an essential part of one’s personality. It is a storehouse of repressed memories, aggressive motives, and sexual desires.
• Jung deviated from this view and proposed the idea of the collective unconscious, which is the unconscious shared by all humans.
• According to him, due to the evolutionary process and common ancestors, we all carry some common past. The collection of this ancestral past is part of our unconscious known as the collective unconscious.
• According to him, the collective unconscious serves as the foundation for personality. This collective unconscious consists of all the archetypes and concepts which represent experiences that are primitive and from our ancestral heritage. For example, the conceptions about rebirth, God, evil, and so on.

Hence, it is clear that the concept of the "Collective unconscious" was given by Jung.

Additional Information

Sigmund Freud, the physician by profession, was the major contributor of Psychoanalytic Theory. Freud proposed that our personality consists of three elements, i.e., id, ego, and superego.

Key PointsInstincts are preprogrammed sequences of actions rooted in biology that take care of survival needs such as hunger, sex, and care of the young ones.

• Id: This part of personality operates unconsciously.
• It deals with basic instincts, biological needs, and aggressive impulses. It is the most primitive part of human personality present since birth.
• From the id, other parts of the personality (ego and superego) develop. It works on pleasure principle-tendency to avoid pain and seek pleasure.

Important Points

• Freud states that instincts are the ultimate cause of all behaviour. The two basic instincts are Eros (love) and the Thanatos (destructive or death instinct).
• The purpose of Eros is to establish and preserve unity through relationships. On the other hand, the purpose of the death instinct is to undo connections and unity.
• According to Freud, in the context of id, Eros is the drive of life, love, creativity, and sexuality, self-satisfaction, and species preservation. Sigmund Freud referred to Eros as life instinct.

Hint

• The counterpart of Eros is Thanatos - the death force or instinct. It is responsible for violence, aggression, and hate-like negative feelings.
• Fear is one of the basic emotions. Our natural fear of violence, frightening things comes under fear instinct.
• Fear, anxiety, anger, frustration all come under natural instinct.

The concepts of id, ego, and superego are proposed by 'Sigmund Freud' in his 'Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality.

• Freud used these three concepts to describe the three parts of the human personality and to explain the way a human mind works.
• According to Freud, the human personality is made up of three major systems: the id, ego, and superego.
• These three systems work together cooperatively and constitute a well-organized personality in a person and enable the person to interact with the external environment.

Key Points

Let's Understand in Brief:

• The ID:
• It is the unconscious part of the human personality that works to fulfil basic desires.
• It is based on the pleasure principle which aspires for the satisfaction of antisocial desires.
• It is the basic personality component that is present since birth and seeks to satisfy sexual wishes.
• The Ego:
• It looks for rules and morals and resides in the unconscious mind.
• It is the realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the super-ego.
• It is that aspect of personality, which strives to be logical and reasonable and to cope with the world of reality.
• The Super-Ego:
• It is the moral part of the personality, which is also known as conscience. It stands for perfection, rather than pleasure.
• The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one's parents and others.
• The Super-Ego develops in the child’s mind as a result of its response to the rewards and punishment adopted by the parents.

Hence, it could be concluded that "Ego" is guided by the reality principle.

A hormone is a chemical that acts as a messenger transmitting a signal from one cell to another. Hormones can be classified according to chemical composition, solubility properties, location of receptors, and the nature of the signal used to mediate hormonal action within the cell.

Key Points

• Cholecystokinin is a hormone that is released after a meal. It plays a key role in facilitating digestion within the small intestine.
• It seems to be involved with appetite by increasing the sensation of fullness in the short-term, that is, during a meal rather than between meals.
• Cholecystokinin stimulates the release of bile juices from the liver and gall bladder which improves digestion.
• It regulates the movement of food through the stomach that helps in the effective absorption of nutrients from the food.
• During this process, the human body feels satiated/full and does not feel hunger. Thus, the release of cholecystokinin hormone decreases the appetite.

Thus, it is concluded that Cholecystokinin is a hormone which when injected into the human body decreases appetite.

Intelligence refers to a set of different cognitive abilities to think rationally, act purposefully, resolve problems, and deal with the demands of the environment.

• In 1912, William Stern suggested the concept called Intelligent Quotient (IQ). It refers to the score of a standardized test that assesses and measures human intelligence.

Key Points 

An individual’s Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is determined by the formula given below,

\({\bf{Intelligence}};{\bf{Quotient}};\left( {{\bf{IQ}}} \right) = \frac{{{\bf{Mental}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{MA}}} \right);}}{{{\bf{Chronological}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{CA}}} \right)}} \times 100\)

Where,

• Mental Age is based on intellectual development.
• Chronological Age is the number of years a person has lived.
• When A child of 16 years scores 75, his mental age will be:
• 75 = MA / 16 x 100
• MA = 75 x 16 /100
• MA = 12

Hence, it could be concluded that a child of 16 years scores 75 in an IQ test, his mental age will be 12 years.

Important Points 

Refer to the IQ table for further information:

The Nervous System:

• Human nervous system is the most complex and most developed of all living creatures.
• Though the nervous system functions as a whole, for the ease of study, we can divide it into many parts depending on its location or functions.
• Based on location, the nervous system can be divided into two parts: the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

Key Points

Central Nervous System (CNS) 

• The central nervous system (CNS) is the center of all neural activity.
• It integrates all incoming sensory information, performs all kinds of cognitive activities, and issues motor commands to muscles and glands.
• The CNS comprises of the (a) brain and (b) spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• The PNS is composed of all the neurons and nerve fibers that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
• The PNS is divided into Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System.
• The autonomic nervous system is further divided into Sympathetic and Parasympathetic systems.
• The PNS provides information to the CNS from sensory receptors (eyes, ears, skin, etc.) and relays back motor commands from the brain to the muscles and glands.

Hence, it could be concluded that the Central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by the occurrence of unwanted, intrusive obsessive thoughts and distressing images which are usually accompanied by compulsive behaviors. Compulsive behaviors are carried out either to undo or neutralize the obsessions or to prevent the occurrence of some dreadful event.

Key Points

• Anxiety disorders are disorders that decrease the performance or social functioning of an individual due to hyper-anxiety. Anxiety disorder can be of many types such as generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, somatoform disorder, etc.
• Obsessive behavior is the inability to stop thinking about a particular idea or topic. The person involved, often finds these thoughts to be unpleasant and shameful.
• Compulsive behavior is the need to perform certain behaviors over and over again. Many compulsions deal with counting, ordering, checking, touching, and washing.
• People affected by the obsessive-compulsive disorder are unable to control their preoccupation with specific ideas or are unable to prevent themselves from repeatedly carrying out a particular act or series of acts that affect their ability to carry out normal activities.

Thus, it is concluded that Obsessive-compulsive disorder is an anxiety disorder.

Hint

• Somatoform disorders refer to physical problems which have no organic basis, for example, fatigue, headaches, vague body pains, etc. The persons suffering from this disease remain preoccupied with symptoms.
• Dissociative disorders describe a persistent mental state that is marked by feelings of being detached from reality, being outside of one’s own body, or experiencing memory loss.
• Adjustment disorders are a group of conditions that can occur when you have difficulty in coping with a stressful life event. Example"the death of a loved one, relationship issues, or being fired from work.

Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT)

1. The TTCT (Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking) assess how creatively a child’s mind works and are often given to children to determine advanced placement or as part of an entrance examination.
2. They are very different from the intelligence and reasoning tests a child may already have taken.
3. Instead of traditionally taught subjects such as reading or math, these tests assess creativity.
4. Children are scored on several aspects, including creative titles for pictures, expressions, imagery, and humor.

Important Points

The Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) is designed to identify and evaluate creative potential using two parts – a Verbal test and a Figural test.

1. Verbal test:

• ​​The Verbal test contains seven subtests – Asking, Guessing Causes, Guessing Consequences, Product Improvement, Unusual Uses, Unusual Questions, and Just Suppose.
• Subtests are scored based on fluency, flexibility, and originality (with a score on elaboration as optional), and these scores are accumulated across all subtests.
• The totals may be converted to standard T scores if normative reference is desired.

2. Figural test:

• The Figural test has three subsets – Picture Construction (from a marked cue), Picture Completion (again with cues), and Parallel Lines.
• The first of these subtests are scored on originality and elaboration while the remainder is scored on fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration.
• Totals are then accumulated across subtests to provide overall scores for Figural fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration.
• These scores, as in the Verbal test, can be converted to a standard T score.

Therefore, from the above explanation, it could be concluded that Torrance framed the 'Test of Creative Thinking' to identify creativity.

There are many theories in psychology that are related to different schools of psychology such as cognitive, humanistic, behavioristic, etc.

• These theories are propounded by eminent psychologists to provide a framework to understand different aspects of human behavior.

Key Points

• E. L**. Thorndike**, an American psychologist has propounded the Stimulus-Response Theory (S-R Theory). In his theory, he emphasizes that learning is the result of associations forming between stimulus and responses.

Thorndike's theory falls under 'Behaviouristic theory' as:

• The approach which describes learning as a connection between stimulus and response is the behaviouristic approach.
• Stimulus-Response is a concept that implies that behavior manifests as a result of the interplay between stimulus and response.
• The main idea behind behaviouristic theory of learning is that learning is a change in, overt behavior of the learner occurring as a result of reinforced practice.

Hence, it could be concluded that Thorndike's theory falls under 'Behaviouristic theory'.

Additional Information

Learning curve is a graphic representation of how learning takes place in a particular situation. 

Key Points

• Progress in learning can be objectively measured and represented graphically which is known as the learning curve. The learning curve shows a subject's learnability.
• In all types of learning situations, the course of learning can be depicted and described graphically by drawing learning curves against the x and y-axis.

Stages of Learning Curve: 

• Stage 1: In this stage, the learner slowly increases the speed to understand the concept of learning. This is the beginning stage of learning, in which the learner is motivated to gain new information.
• Stage 2: In this stage, the learner steeps accelerating in learning the concepts. After some time the learner gains a total understanding of the concept and reaches the boom stage of learning.
• Stage 3: In this stage, a learning plateau occurs, after gaining mastery on the concept, the learner feels bored and want to learn new thing. So the teacher should always introduce the same concept with innovative methods, this will overcome the boredom.

Hence, it could be concluded that Learning curves are indicator of Progress in learning.

Social cognitive theory is basically a social learning theory based on the idea that people learn by watching what others do and that human thought processes are central to understanding personality. 

Key Points

• Albert Bandura proposed the Social Learning Theory of Personality. Bandura has presented his theory in a series of books.
• With Richard Walters as a junior author, Bandura wrote Adolescent Aggression in which social learning principles were used to describe personality development.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory of Personality:

• Bandura’s Social Learning Theory of Personality is based on the premise that human behaviour is largely acquired and that the principles of learning are sufficient to account for the development and maintenance of behaviour.
• Bandura theory of social learning can be explained under the following three headings:

1. Reciprocal determinism
2. Self-system
3. Principles of observational learning

Important Points

• Reciprocal determinism: In social learning theory, reciprocal determinism is used to indicate that personal influences, environmental forces, and behaviour function as interdependent rather than autonomous determinants.
• Self-system: According to Bandura the three component processes are involved in the self-regulation of behaviour through the activation of self-prescribed contingencies. The three components involved in the self-system are self-observation, judgmental processes and self-response.
• Observational learning: Behavioural acquisition that occurs by watching the actions and outcomes of others’ behaviour, include credible role models of the targeted behaviour.

Thus, it is concluded that the Social Learning Theory of Personality was given by Bandura & Walters.

Hint

• Jung considered personality in terms of introversion and extroversion concepts.
• Dollard and Miller have tried to integrate psychoanalytical notions in the behavioural paradigm.
• Carl Rogers' humanistic personality theory emphasizes the importance of the self-actualizing tendency in forming a self-concept.

The Mirror-drawing or Mirror-tracing test is a psychological assessment used to measure the rate of learning, hand-eye coordination, and neuropsychological damage.

Key Points

• This test is made as an experimental tool to analyze and observe the nature of the learning process and in studying the relationship between visual-spatial and motor learning.
• A candidate is instructed to trace or draw a picture while observing their work in a mirror.
• It gives an inverse view of what is being drawn and new learning needs to occur for effective tracing/drawing to occur.
• It may be evaluated according to the speed and accuracy in drawing or tracing the picture.

Hence, we have concluded that the Mirror-Drawing test is used to measure learning.

The measuring of central tendency is a way of summarising the data in the form of a typical or representative value. There are several statistical measures of central tendency or “averages”.The three most commonly used averages are Arithmetic Mean, Median & Mode.

Key Points

• ​Median is that positional value of the variable which divides the distribution into two equal parts, one part comprises all values greater than or equal to the median value and the other comprises all values less than or equal to it.
• The Median is the “middle” element when the data set is arranged in order of magnitude. Since the median is determined by the position of different values, it remains unaffected if, say, the size of the largest value increases.

Thus, it is concluded that Median is one of the measures of central tendency.

Hint

• The range is the difference between the highest and lowest values in a set of numbers.
• Average deviation, combined with mean average, serves to help summarize a set of data.
• The standard deviation measures the spread of the data about the mean value. It is useful in comparing sets of data that may have the same mean but a different range.

Personality is all that a person is. It is the totality of one’s behavior towards one’s own self as well as others. It includes everything about the person, his/her physical, emotional, social, mental, and spiritual make-up. 

• Projective techniques of personality measurement are the tests that are designed to reveal those central aspects of personality that lie in the unconscious mind of an individual.

Key Points

Cloud Picture Test:-

• It is a projective test used to measure the personality of an individual. This test is made by Williams Stern.
• It is designed fantasy stimuli that would avoid the disadvantages of the Rorschach Series.
• It consists series of three pictures that resemble clouds rather than inkblots.

Draw-a-man Test:-

• It is an expressive projective technique of personality measurement.
• In this test, the subject engages in some "creative" activity, such

as drawing, finger painting, and acting out certain feelings or situations (as in psychodrama).

• In this most popular drawing test, subjects are first told to draw "a person," and then are instructed to draw another person of the opposite sex.

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT):

• The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) test was developed by Henry Murray. It is a projective technique used to investigate a person's unconscious self.
• It consists of 20 pictures which are all black and white. The people depicted in the picture are deliberately drawn in ambiguous situations.
• More specifically, this test can uncover a person's true personality, their capacity for emotional control, and their attitudes towards aspects they encounter in everyday life (wealth, power. gender roles, racial and religious attitudes, intimacy, etc.).

Hint16-PF Questionnaire:-

• It is not a projective technique as it is an inventory developed by Cattell.
• It identifies a large set of personality descriptions which is subjected to factor analysis to identify basic personality structure.

Hence, 16-PF Questionnaire is the odd one out.

Robert James Havighurst was a professor, physicist, educator, and aging expert. He proposed that all individuals progress through a series of developmental stages, each comprising a series of developmental tasks.

Key Points

Development Task:

• The term “developmental task” was introduced by Robert Havighurst in 1950.
• A developmental task is one that arises predictably and consistently at or about a certain period in the life of the individual.
• He believed that learning is basic to life and that people continue to learn throughout life. According to him, a developmental task is a task which an individual has to and wants to solve in a particular life period.
• For example, a father is supposed to run the family and a child to study and go to school. Such social expectations of a particular age common to all persons are known as ‘developmental tasks'.

Thus, it is concluded that the concept of Development Task was proposed by Havighurst.

Hint

• Leta Stetter Hollingworth was an early pioneer in psychology who is best known for her contributions to the study of intelligence testing and giftedness.
• Jean Piaget was a swiss psychologist who is known for his work in child development. He proposed the Theory of Cognitive Development' under the cognitive constructivist approach.
• G. Stanely hall was a well-renowned American psychologist who developed Adolescent psychology.

Learning is defined as a relatively durable change in behavior due to experience. If the change in behavior is temporary, or due to instinct or maturation, it is not learning. The key feature of learning is experience.

Key PointsThe role of reinforcement is very crucial in operant conditioning. it is an operation or action that increases the rate of response. 

• Positive reinforcement involves stimuli that have pleasant consequences. They strengthen and maintain the responses that have caused them to occur.
• Negative reinforcement involves unpleasant stimuli. Responses that lead organisms to get rid of painful stimuli or avoid and escape from them provide negative reinforcement**.**
• Based on negative reinforcement, there are two types of learning - Escape learning and Avoidance learning.

Important Points

1. Escape learning: In escape behavior, the occurrence of the behavior terminates the aversive stimulus.

• Escape learning occurs when an animal learns to perform an operant behavior to terminate an aversive event or stimulus.
• For example, in a shuttlebox, this occurs when a mouse learns to escape (i.e. move to) the opposite compartment after receiving a footshock in their current compartment. It is a classic example of negative reinforcement.

Thus, it is concluded that Escape learning is based on negative reinforcement.

There are many theories in psychology that are related to different schools of psychology such as cognitive, humanistic, behavioristic, etc. These theories are propounded by eminent psychologists to provide a framework to understand different aspects of human behavior.

• E. L. Thorndike, an American psychologist, the propounder of "Trial & Error Theory" has developed three primary laws of learning that leads to development.

Key Points

These primary laws are: 

Hence, it could be concluded that the Law of effect is one of the primary laws of learning.

Important Points 

Thorndike's Supplementary law (also known as minor laws to education):

• Law of Multiple Responding: It refers to different types of responses often occurs initially to a stimulus, then reaching to the correct response.
• Law of Attitude, Disposition or States: It refers to the condition of a learner that influences learning.
• Law of Partial or Piecemeal Activity of a situation: It refers to the tendency to respond to particular elements or features of a stimulus situation rather than on the whole to improve the result.
• Law of Assimilation of response by Analogy: It is the tendency to respond automatically as responded in the past.
• Law of Associative Shifting: Successfully applying the same response until a new situation comes (For example to apply the same formula in similar questions).
• Law of Primacy: It refers to the idea that the first step matters the most.
• The law of recency: It is the tendency which refers to the idea that the most recent task matters the most
• Law of Intensity of Stimulus: The more strong the stimulus, the better the response.

Research methodology indicates the general pattern for organizing the procedure to be used to collect and analyze the data to accomplish the research objectives and to test the hypothesis.

• Research design is the overall plan for organizing a scientific investigation. There are mainly three types of research approaches that include Historical (Past), Survey (Present), and Experimental (Future).

Key Points

The longitudinal approach of investigation: In a longitudinal survey sequence of events is observed in each subject selected for the study. It is able to measure the pattern of change in the dependent variables over a period of time.

• A longitudinal study is a research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables i.e. people over a short or long period of time.
• Example: The 1970 British Cohort Study, which has collected data on the lives of 17,000 Brits since their birth in 1970, is one of the most well-known longitudinal studies.
• The survey involves the longitudinal approach of investigation. This is used on a large population. But instead of studying the whole of the population, a sample is studied.
• The sample is generally large in size. It is generally used in descriptive studies, however, it can also be used in experimental studies. The techniques of data collection used are questionnaires and interviews.​

Thus, it is concluded that the Survey involves a longitudinal approach of investigation.

Hint

• Case study involves studying a few cases in contrast to the large sample in the survey.
• Experimental research is concerned with the cause and effect relationship.
• Introspection is the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings.

The concept of 'Transfer of learning' is introduced by 'E.Thorndike' and 'S.Woodworth'.

Key Points

• Transfer of learning refers to apply acquired abilities or knowledge in a new situation.
• It occurs when the elements are identical in both situations.
• There are mainly three types of transfer of learning including positive, negative and zero.

Hence, it could be concluded that the above-mentioned phenomenon is called Transfer of learning.

Additional Information

• Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities or processes and is unique to human beings. It involves the manipulation and analysis of information received from the environment.
• Memory refers to the ability or power of the brain that helps an individual in obtaining, transforming, storing,  retrieving, and using information when needed.
• Intellectual development refers to the development of the ability to understand, learn, reason, think, perceive, and solve a problem.

Creativity is the phenomenon whereby imaginative and original ideas are turned into reality.

• It is the ability possessed by the people who are creative, persistent, and imaginative.
• Creativity is a cognitive ability to produce something original by offering a fresh perspective.

Key Points

Graham Wallas (1926) outlined the creative thinking process into four stages: 

• Preparation: It involves collecting information regarding a problem in order to solve it through trial and error, recalling personal experiences, and investigating in all possible directions.
• Incubation: It is a slow process in which the individual sinks into the unconscious and reflects on the problem. In this stage, individuals forget irrelevant information or unsuccessful attempts and engage with the task effectively.
• Illumination: It is the stage the individual is most active and conscious. It is in this stage that insight into the problem is experienced suddenly and a new idea or solution emerges.
• Verification: This stage might involve modifications to the solution reached in the previous stage by adding or subtracting, or making new connections. The final solution achieved is tested in reality. If the solution does not apply to the problem then the whole process is repeated.

Hence, it could be concluded that according to G. Wallas the first stage in creative thinking is Preparation.

E. L. Thorndike, an American psychologist, is known as the founder of modern educational psychology.

Key Points

• He propounded 'Trial and Error Theory' which represents that learning is the result of associations forming between stimulus and responses.
• "Mistakes teaches individual" statement is based on 'Trial and Error Theory'.

Thorndike's Experiment

• Thorndike formulated his theory, base on his experiments conducted on his cat in the puzzle box.
• The door of the box could be opened by pulling the strings inside the box. A fish was kept outside.
• The cat was tried to come out of the box by squeezing, jumping, biting, etc.
• As the experiment was repeated several times the wrong movements decreased and in the end, the cat was able to open the door in a single trail.

Important Points 

Based on Trial and Error Learning Theory, Thorndike gave three primary laws of Learning:

• Law of readiness: It refers to the degree of eagerness and inquisitiveness to learn something new.
• Law of exercise: It is based on practice and drill to learn something for a long period.
• Law of effect: It is based on motivation and reinforcement to make the learning experience pleasant for learners.

Hence, it becomes clear that the principle of trial and error was propounded by Thorndike.

Additional Information

• Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist has propounded the 'Theory of Classical Conditioning' which emphasizes that learning as a habit formation is based on the principle of association and substitution.
• According to Lee Ross, "Plateaus of learning is a characteristic feature of the learning process indicating a period where no improvement in performance is made".

The word ‘personality’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ which means a mask worn by an actor while performing a character on the stage. Therefore personality is taken to mean the characteristic pattern or style of behavior of the person revealed from his external appearance.

Key Points

• Gordon Willard Allport was an American psychologist.
• Allport was one of the first psychologists to focus on the study of personality and is often referred to as one of the founding figures of personality psychology.
• “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those, Psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environments" was said by Allport.

Hence, it could be concluded that the above-mentioned definition was given by G. W. Allport.

Additional Information

• According to Sigmund Freud, human personality is complex and has more than a single component.
• According to M. L. Munn, Personality may be defined as the most characteristic integration of an individual's structures, modes of behaviour, interest, attitudes, capacities, abilities and aptitudes.
• According to J. E. Dashiell, Personality is the sum total of behaviour trends manifested in social adjustments."

There are many learning theories in psychology that are related to different schools of psychology such as cognitive, humanistic, behavioristic, etc.

• These theories are propounded by eminent psychologists to provide a framework to understand different aspects of human behavior.
• The ‘Insight Theory of Learning’ or ‘Gestalt Theory of Learning’ is promoted by Wolfgang Kohler, a Gestalt theorist.
• In his theory, he has proposed the term ‘Insight’ that doesn't take place with trial & error, rather than it is a sudden reorganization of experience.

Important Points

As per ‘Theory of Insightful Learning’: 

• The solution to a problem arrives ‘all of a sudden’ flash of insight when a person is struggling.
• Insight enhances an individual's ability to perceive and understand something or someone instinctively.
• Insight doesn't rely on behavior or observation, it is the sudden realization of a problem's solution using intuition.

Kohler demonstrated the following experiment based on insight:

• He kept chimpanzees in a closed room where food was kept out of their reach, and items like boxes, stick was there.
• The chimpanzee would roam inside the room to reach the food.
• They would ‘suddenly’ stand on a box and use the stick to bring food close to them.
• It should be noted that it was not the result of trial and error instead, the chimpanzee suddenly came up with the idea to use boxes and stick.

Hence, it could be concluded that Kohler is associated with 'Gestalt Theory of Learning'.

Additional Information

Language is a symbolic, rule-governed system, shared by a group of people to express their thoughts and feelings. These rules are the set of conventions that organize their proper use and dictate how words relate to one another.

• Some of these rules that govern a language include phonology, syntax, morphology, semantic, etc.

Key Points

• Phonology is the component of language referring to rules governing the structure and sequence of the speed of sounds.
• Phonology is the branch of linguistics dealing with the way speech, sounds behave in a particular language.
• For example, patterns of sounds, in terms of a sequence of sounds that are permissible in a specific language.
• When we describe the sound we use, with reference to these criteria we are concerning ourselves with matters of phonetics.

Hence, it could be concluded that Phonology is the component of language referring to rules governing the structure and sequence of the speed of sounds.

Additional Information

Memory refers to the process of storing the outcomes of learning in the form of information that can be retrieved when required.

• It refers to the set of processes involved in storing information. This specific process is termed retention.
• Memory can be defined as a perceptually active mental system that receives, encodes, modifies, and retrieves information.

Key PointsAccording to Woodworth, “Memory is mental power which consists in learning, retaining and remembering what has previously been learnt”. According to him, dimensions of memory include:

• Retention: This is the ability to store information and remember. The process of retaining appears to be passive but is not wholly so.
• Recall: We learn in order to recall when we need. Failure to recall learned material would mean that our learning process has not been useful and effective.
• Recognition: Recognition is another factor in the process of memory. Recognition is awareness of previous experience. Its evaluate a person's existing skill sets, knowledge and experience.

Thus, it is concluded that according to Woodworth, Reasoning is not a dimension of memory.

Hint

• Reasoning: Reasoning is one of the key aspects of thinking and is studied under cognitive development. It is a process that involves inference.
• Reasoning is used in logical thinking and problem-solving. It is goal-directed, and the conclusions or judgments are drawn from a set of facts.
• In reasoning, information from the environment and the stored information in the mind are used following certain rules.

Personality is all that a person is. It is the totality of one’s behaviour towards one’s own self as well as others. It includes everything about the person, his/her physical, emotional, social, mental, and spiritual make-up. 

• Projective techniques of personality measurement are the tests which are designed to:
• reveal those central aspects of personality that lie in the unconscious mind of an individual.
• evaluate a person's interests, attitudes, pattern of thought, etc while giving responses to ambiguous test materials.

Key Points

There are different kinds of Projective techniques of personality measurement and 'Thematic Apperception Test' is one of them.

• Henry Murray, an American psychologist, created history by constructing the 'Thematic Appreciation Test'.
• In this test, ambiguous pictures or test materials are given to participants. This test can uncover a person’s true personality, their capacity for emotional control.
• It is designed to reveal and evaluate a person's interests, attitudes, observation power, pattern of thought, etc. while giving responses to ambiguous test materials.

Hence, it could be concluded that the T.A.T. was designed by Murray.

Additional Information

• Rorschach inkblot Test: Hermann Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist, devised the Rorschach Inkblot Personality test in 1921. This test is most frequently used for the projective test.
• Allport considered the structure of personality into three parts, viz., (i) definition of personality,(ii) personality traits, and (iii) Proprium.
• Maslow sees human needs in the form of a hierarchy, starting in ascending order from the lowest to the highest needs and concludes that when one set of needs are satisfied then the need for another set arises.

All of us, quite often, face environmental or personal obstacles in life which cause anxiety and lead to stress. Psychologists have given different names to stress such as frustration, conflict, pressure, etc.

 Important Points

• The term frustration refers to the blocking of behavior directed towards a goal. If motives are frustrated or blocked, emotional feelings and behavior often result.
• People who cannot achieve their important goals, feel depressed, fearful, anxious, guilty, or angry. Often they're simply unable to drive ordinary pleasure for living.
• For example, over-restrictive parents would be a source of frustration to an adolescent girl who wanted to give or attend a party, while a lack of water would be a source of frustration to a man lost in the desert. A wide range of obstacles both environmental and internal can lead to frustrations.

Thus, it is concluded that blocking of behavior that is directed towards a goal is Frustration.

Hint

• Emotion is a psychological construct that involves the use of emotional processing and emotional expression in response to a different situation.
• Motivation refers to the process that guides an individual to achieve a goal. There are two main types of motivation which include extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.

Development refers to an increase in structure for better and enhanced functioning of organs. It is a product of the interaction of hereditary and environment.

• Heredity refers to the traits that pass down from the parents to their offspring. It is the most important personality determinant that determines how far we can go.
• It is the genetic constitution of an individual which is established during conception. It is the property of organic beings by which offsprings have the nature and characteristics of parents or ancestors.

Key Points

• Heredity plays the most important role in the 'Physical development of the child'.
• The color of eyes, hair, skin, height, etc is determined by heredity.
• All the inborn traits, instincts, potentials and IQ of an individual depend on the heredity.​
• All the potential inputs for growth and development depend on heredity.
• For example: If both the parents of a child are of short height, then the chance for being the short height of the child naturally is nearly 100% sure.

Hence, it could be concluded that heredity influences the color of the eye.

Hint

• Environment: It refers to the circumstances in which an individual lives. Child's immediate environment strongly influenced their personality and intelligence.
• A hormone is a substance that is synthesized in one organ and transported by the circulatory system to act on another tissue.

Basel Age is the mental age level at which all the items on an intelligence test can be creditably passed.

Key Points

• Basal age represents the highest level, on a test standardized in units corresponding to mental age or age-equivalents, below which it can be assumed that all items would be answered correctly.
• If a basal is not obtained, testing moves back to successively lower blocks until a basal is established.
• Ceiling Age: The lowest year level at which the examinee fails all the subtests of the scale.
• Mental Age: Mental age is computed by adding to his basal age, the number of months credit received for passing each subtest up to his ceiling age.
• Mental Age = basal age + credit (until ceiling age).

Thus, it is concluded that "Basal" age is related to Intelligence.

Defence mechanism refers to the unconscious mechanism proposed by 'Sigmund Freud' and his daughter 'Anna Freud' as a strategy to:

• reduce anxiety and unacceptable impulses.
• protect mind from anxious thoughts or feelings.
• manipulate and handle displeasing events or actions.

Key PointsFrom the above-mentioned information, it could be concluded that it is an example of displacement. 

• Displacement is a psychological defense mechanism in which a person redirects a negative emotion from its original source to a less threatening recipient.
• It is a mechanism where emotions are directed away from their source or target, towards something else.
• For example, 
• A child scolded by his teacher may hit his peers.
• A boss gives his employee a hard time at work, the employee goes home and shouts at his wife.

Hence, it could be concluded that if a child when scolded in class by a teacher returns home and shows anger to his/her sister is an example of displacement. 

Important Points

Refer to the table to be acquainted with several defence mechanisms: 

'चूहा बिल से बाहर निकला' इस वाक्य में बिल से अलग होने का भाव प्रदर्शित होता है,अतः 'अपादान कारक' सही विकल्प होगा।  

• अलग होने के अर्थ में 'अपादान कारक' का प्रयोग किया जाता है।

• जैसे:- पेड़ से पत्ता गिरा, अर्थात पेड़ से पत्ते के अलग होने के भाव में यहाँ अपादान कारक का प्रयोग किया जाता है।

• करण कारक और अपादान कारक दोनों की विभक्ति 'से' होती है।

• परन्तु अपादान कारक की 'से' विभक्ति अलग होने के अर्थ में प्रयोग की जाती है और करण कारक की 'से',  "के द्वारा" के अर्थ में प्रयोग की जाती है।

• जैसे:- पृथ्वी सूर्य 'से' दूर है। (अपादान कारक)

• जैसे:- बच्चा बोतल 'से' दूध पीता है। (करण कारक)

​

Additional Information

कारक- संज्ञा या सर्वनाम का क्रिया से सम्बन्ध जिस रूप से जाना जाता है, उसे कारक कहते हैं।

हिंदी में जिनकी संख्या आठ मानी गई है। जो निम्नलिखित हैं:-

अति’ उपसर्ग से बना हुआ शब्द ‘अत्याचार’ है। अतः इसका सही उत्तर विकल्प 3 ‘अत्याचार’ है। अन्य विकल्प सही उत्तर नहीं हैं।

 Key Points

अत्याचार= अति+आ+चार (इस शब्द में दो उपसर्ग- (अति और आ) लगे हैं)।

‘अति’ उपसर्ग से निर्मित अन्य शब्द- अतिशय, अतिक्रमण, अतिरिक्त आदि हैं।

Additional Information

• इसमें उत्प्रेक्षा और अनुप्रास अलंकार है।
• ऊपर दिए गए पंक्तियों में " मानौ शब्द का उपयोग हुआ है जिससे हमे पता चलता है की ये उत्प्रेक्षा अलंकार है।
• एवम ब वर्ण का लगातार एक से अधिक बार प्रयोग हुआ है जिससे पता चलता है इसमें अनुप्रास अलंकार भी है।

Important Points

• उत्प्रेक्षा अलंकार का अर्थ है किसी वस्तु के संभावित रूप की उपेक्षा करना मतलब (मानते है /मान लीजिये )
• जहा पर उपमये में उपमान की सम्भावना प्रकट की जाती है।
• वह उत्प्रेक्षा अलंकार होता है।
• उत्प्रेक्षा अलंकार में   मानौ,जानो ,जनु,मनु इत्यादि शब्दों का प्रयोग होता है।

Key Pointsजहा आकरण को कारण मान कर संभावना की जाए वहाँ उत्प्रेक्षा अलंकार होता है।  जहा कविता में एक से ज़्यादा व्यंजनों की आवर्ती हो उसे अनुप्रास अलंकार कहते है जो की इन पंक्तियों में साफ़ साफ़ दिख रहा है।  

Additional Informationशब्द अलंकार - जो चीज़ सामने लिखी हो और हमे देखने एवम पढ़ने दोनों में सुन्दर दिखे उसे शब्द अलंकार कहते है।

रसों को उदित और उद्दीप्त करने वाली सामग्री विभाव कहलाती है।

Key Points

 Additional Informationविभाव के भेद उदहारण के साथ।   

• यदि राम जी के मन में सीता जी के प्रति प्रेम का भाव उत्त्पन्न होता है। **-**विभाव
• राम जी -आश्रयालंबन होंगे
• सीता जी - विषयालंबन होंगी।
• अनुभव उदहारण के साथ।
• जब हमे दुःख होता है तो हमारा आंसू बहता है। आंसू का बहना वो है अनुभाव मतलब जो हमारे मन का जो भाव है हम शरीर से किस प्रकार व्यक्त करते है उसे कहते है अनुभाव।
• संचारी भाव उदहारण के साथ
• मन में आने जाने वाले भाव को संचारी भाव कहते है। जैसे -चिंता ,मोह ,गर्व ,हर्ष ,स्वपन

"जहाँ सुमति तहँ संपति नाना, जहाँ कुमति तहँ विपति निदाना" पद में शान्त रस है।

Key Points

• इसका आलम्बन है -वैराग्य जनक वस्तुये अथवा परिस्थितिया ,संसार की नशवरता का ज्ञान परोपकारिता है।
• दिए गए पंक्ति का अर्थ है -व्यक्ति को सुख-समृद्धि पाने के लिए, प्रगति एवं विकास के लिए हमेशा सुबुद्धि से काम लेकर सुविचारित ढंग से अपना प्रत्येक कार्य निष्पादित करना चाहिए। सुमति का मार्ग ही मानव के कल्याण का मार्ग है।

Additional Information

राम ने एक थैला और दो पुस्तकें खरीदीं।शुद्ध वाक्य  है ।अतः विकल्प 2 सही है।

Key Points

• जिस शब्द में उचित वर्तनी का प्रयोग हो उसे शुद्ध शब्द कहते है।
• वर्तनी-किसी शब्द को लिखने में सही वर्णो के क्रम को वर्तनी कहते है।

वाक्य में  लिंग ,वचन ,पुरुष,काल ,कारक,आदि का क्रिया के साथ ठीक ठीक मेल हो उसे शुद्ध वाक्य कहते है। 

Additional Informationरचना के आधार पर वाक्य के दो प्रकार होते है। 

'महोत्सव' शब्द में गुण संधि है। महा + उत्सव इसका संधि विच्छेद होता है, अतः विकल्प 1 ‘महा + उत्सव’ सही उत्तर है।

Key Points

• 'महोत्सव' में गुण संधि है।
• महा + उत्सव = महोत्सव' (आ + उ = ओ), यहाँ 'आ' और 'उ' के मेल से 'ओ' बना है।
• जब संधि करते समय (अ, आ) के साथ (इ, ई) हो तो 'ए' बनता है, जब (अ, आ) के साथ (उ, ऊ) हो तो 'ओ' बनता है, जब (अ, आ) के साथ (ऋ) हो तो 'अर' बनता है तो यह गुण संधि कहलाती है।

अन्य विकल्प- 

स्वर संधि के अन्य भेद:

Additional Information

'चौमासा' का समास विग्रह  'चार मासों का समूह' है, इसमें पहला पद संख्यावाचक है इसीलिए यहाँ द्विगु समास है। शेष विकल्प असंगत हैं। अतः सही विकल्प 'द्विगु' है।

Key Points 

• दिए गए विकल्पों में से 'चौमासा' शब्द 'द्विगु समास' का उदाहरण है।
• इस समास में पूर्वपद (पहला पद) संख्यावाचक विशेषण होता है।
• 'चौमासा' अर्थात चार मास का समाहार।

अन्य विकल्प:

1. कर्मधारय समास - पहला पद विशेषण और दूसरा पद विशेष्य होता है अथवा इसके पूर्वपद और उत्तर पद में उपमान और उपमेय का संबंध होता है। जैसे - कमल के समान चरण = चरणकमल।
2. तत्पुरुष समास - जिस समास में प्रथम पद गौण और उत्तर पद की प्रधानता होती है और समास करते वक्त बीच की विभक्ति का लोप हो जाता है। जैसे - यश को प्राप्त = यशप्राप्त।
3. द्वंंद्व  समास - जिस समास में दोनों पद प्रधान हों तथा विग्रह करने पर उनके बीच ‘तथा’, ‘या’, ‘अथवा’, ‘एवं’, ‘और’ का प्रयोग होता है। जैसे - माता और पिता = माता-पिता ।

Additional Information

• समास 'संक्षिप्तिकरण' को समास कहते हैं।
• समास के नियमों से निर्मित शब्द सामासिक शब्द कहलाता है।
• इसे समस्तपद भी कहते हैं।
• समास होने के बाद विभक्तियों के चिह्न (परसर्ग) लुप्त हो जाते हैं।

भाषा-शिक्षक, शिक्षण प्रक्रिया का एक महत्वपूर्ण अंग है। कक्षा में भाषा वातावरण अर्थात समृद्ध भाषिक परिवेश का निर्माण करने के लिए भाषा शिक्षक को स्वयं अपनी भाषा प्रयोग की क्षमता को बढ़ाना चाहिए। भाषा शिक्षक द्वारा कक्षा में छात्रों के समक्ष स्वयं भाषा प्रयोग या वाचन प्रस्तुत करना आदर्श वाचन को संदर्भित करता है। भाषा शिक्षक को आदर्श लेखन के लिए सुन्दर लेख लिखना चाहिए।

Important Points

एक अच्छे अध्यापक बनने के लिए निम्न गुणों का होना भी आवश्यक है-

• एक कुशल अध्यापक में विषय का पूर्ण ज्ञान होना अति आवश्यक है।
• एक अच्छा अध्यापक में यह गुण होना भी आवश्यक है कि छात्र उसकी बात को अच्छी तरह से समझ सके इसके लिए उसे छात्रों के स्तर अनुसार एवं विषय की प्रकृति अनुसार उचित शिक्षण विधि का प्रयोग करना चाहिए।
• शिक्षण विधियों के ज्ञान के साथ ही  मूल्याकंन विधियों का ज्ञान भी होना आवश्यक तभी कठिनाईयों का भली प्रकार निदान हो सकता है।
• एक अच्छा अध्यापक वही है जो छात्रों के स्तर, उनकी योग्यता एवं क्षमता तथा विषय-वस्तु की प्रकृति को ध्यान में रखकर वस्तु को सरल और रुचिकर बनाने की दृष्टि से समुचित शिक्षण सहायक सामग्री का प्रयोग करें।
• मनोविज्ञान का ज्ञान होने पर ही शिक्षक बालक की रूचि योग्यता क्षमता बुद्धि आदि को समझ सकता है और उसके आधार पर अपना जो शिक्षण है उस और निर्देशन का कार्य सफलतापूर्वक कर सकता है।
• ज्ञान पिपासा - एक सफल शिक्षक वही है जिसमें हमेशा सीखने की ललक बनी रहती है। सीखने के लिए तत्परत और जिज्ञासु प्रवृत्ति का होना सफल शिक्षक के महत्वपूर्ण गुणों में से एक है।
• भाषा-शिक्षक को स्वयं अपनी भाषा प्रयोग की क्षमता को बढ़ाना चाहिए क्योंकि उसका भाषा-प्रयोग कक्षा में भाषा-वातावरण का निर्माण करता है।
• भाषा-शिक्षक को व्याकरण का ज्ञान होना चाहिए।
• एक अच्छे अध्यापक के लिए यह आवश्यक है कि वह विद्यालय में विभिन्न पाठ्य सहगामी क्रियाओं का आयोजन करने एवं उन्हें सफलतापूर्वक संपन्न कराने में रूचि ले, साथ ही इसके लिए उसे अपने विद्यार्थियों में रुचि विकसित करने के लिए प्रयत्न करने चाहिए।
• सफल अध्यापक का एक महत्वपूर्ण गुण उसका समय के प्रति पाबंद होना है।
• एक शिक्षक केवल अध्यापक के प्रति रुचि रखें यह पर्याप्त नहीं है। उसे अपने विद्यार्थियों में भी रुचि रखनी चाहिए।
• एक अच्छे शिक्षक में धैर्य का गुण होना आवश्यक है। छात्रों के प्रश्न पूछने पर उसे उखड़ना नहीं चाहिए। बात-बात में झुंझलाना नहीं चाहिए। बल्कि धैर्य के साथ सोच समझकर उनके प्रश्नों के उत्तर देकर उन्हें संतुष्ट करना चाहिए।

अतः निष्कर्ष निकलता है कि शिक्षक भाषा में रसायनों का ज्ञान होना होना आवश्यक नहीं है।

वाक्य प्रयोग शब्दों के अर्थ स्पष्ट करने का अंतिम और साधारणतौर पर प्रयोग आने वाला तरीका है।

Key Points

काठिन्य निवारण को गद्य शिक्षण की आत्मा कहते है। इसकी निम्न तीन विधियाँ प्रचलित हैं-

उद्बोधन विधि- इस विधि का मुख्य उद्देश्य ज्ञानेन्द्रियों को प्रेरित करना है।

• इस विधि को पढ़ाने के लिए प्रत्यक्ष विधि, प्रतिकृति, चित्र, अभिनय आदि साधन काम मे लाये जाते है।
• छात्रों के माध्यम से अर्थ निकलवाना उद्घोधन है।

टीका विधि- इस विधि को प्रवचन विधि भी कहते है।

• यह विधि उच्च स्तर व उच्चमाध्यमिक स्तर के लिए उपयोगी है।
• इस विधि में शब्द की व्युत्पत्ति-संधि,समास,कारक,प्रकृति,विलोम आदि को समन्वित करके पढ़ाया जाता है।
• यह समन्वित विधि का रूप है।

स्पष्टीकरण विधि- इस विधि में तुलना, वाक्य प्रयोग, अन्तःकरण, प्रसंग, संदर्भ, व्याख्या आदि शब्दों का प्रयोग किया है।

अतः हम कह सकते हैं कि गद्य शिक्षण में काठिन्य निवारण उपर्युक्त सभी के द्वारा किया जा सकता है।

पाठय-पुस्तक में दी जाने वाली विषय-सामग्री सर्वाधिक महत्वपूर्ण होती है। इसका चयन करते समय ध्यान देने योग्य महत्वपूर्ण बिंदु-

• इसके जरिये बच्चे न केवल विभिन्‍न विषयों का ज्ञान प्राप्त कर सकें बल्कि भाषाई सूक्ष्मताओं और भाषा सौंदर्य की सराहना करना सीख सकें।
• भाषा संबंधी अभ्यास होना चाहिए।
• पाठों की प्रस्तुति सरलता से हो इसके लिए चित्रों को माध्यम बनाना चाहिए।
• इसमें संस्कृति को प्राथमिकता देने वाली गतिविधियों का चयन हो।
• कला संबंधी दक्षता व रुचि को प्रोत्साहित करने तथा कक्षा के बाहर का जीवन-जगत कक्षा में लाने एवं उसे चर्चा का विषय बनाने की आवश्यकता पर ध्यान दिया जाता है।
• साहित्य की विभिन्‍न विधाओं जैसे- कहानी, कविता, लेख, निबंध, संस्मरण आदि का स्तरानुसार चयन
• ज्ञान का विकास, बोधगम्यता, मौलिकता, साहित्यिक रसानुभूति, साहित्यिक रुचि का विकास एवं वांछित अभिवृत्तियों का पोषण करने वाली विषय सामग्री का चयन।
• भाषिक कौशलों का विकास करने वाली विषय सामग्री का चयन  जैसे- नवीन शब्द संरचनाओं, शब्दकोष विस्तार, मुहावरे लोकोक्तियों, शब्द-युग्म आदि के माध्यम से शिक्षार्थी में भाषिक कौशलों को विकसित करने में सक्षम
• राष्ट्रीय लक्ष्यों का प्राप्ति हेतु एकता, जनतंत्र, सामाजिकता, धर्मनिरपेक्षता आदि का समावेश

Important Points

पाठ्यपुस्तक में विधाओं का चयन किसी न किसी उद्देश्य की पूर्ति हेतु किया जाता है। प्राथमिक स्तर पर कविता का चयन करना तथा उसका शिक्षण तभी सार्थक होगा जब  बालक उसे-

• सरलता से समझ सकें।
• यह बालको की सृजनशीलता को बढ़ाने वाली हों।
• इसमें नीति, हास्य वीरता, देशभक्ति जैसी भावनाएँ निहित हों।

अतः निष्कर्ष निकलता है कि प्राथमिक स्तर पर कविता शिक्षण उपयोगी नहीं होगा जो कविताएँ अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय वादों से सम्बन्धित हों।

'हिन्दी भाषा और साहित्य' नामक ग्रन्थ के लेखक : डाॅ श्यामसुन्दर दास

Key Points

• श्यामसुन्दर दास की रचनाएँ:- 
• साहित्यालोचन (1923)
• भाषाविज्ञान (1924)
• हिंदी भाषा और साहित्य (1930)
• रूपकहस्य (1931)
• भाषारहस्य भाग 1 (1935)
• हिंदी के निर्माता भाग 1 और 2 (1940-41)
• मेरी आत्मकहानी (1942)
• कबीर ग्रंथावली (1928)
• साहित्यिक लेख (1945)।

मानव अपने विचारों का आदान प्रदान मुख्य रूप से चार प्रक्रियाओं यथा सुनना, बोलना, पढ़ना और लिखना द्वारा करता है। भाषा से संबंधित इन चारो प्रक्रियाओं को प्रयोग करने की क्षमता ही भाषा कौशल कहलाती है।

ये चारो कौशल एक दूसरे से अतःसंबंधित होते हैं तथा मानव में भाषाई विकास को विस्तार देते हैं। यहां सुनना और पढ़ना विचारों को ग्रहण करने से तथा बोलना और लिखना विचारों को अभिव्यक्त करने से संबंधित है।

Key Points

भाषा सिखाने का सही क्रम निम्न प्रकार हैः

• सुनना: इस कौशल को कविता, कहानी, संवाद, आदि द्वारा निखारा जाता है ।
• बोलना: इस कौशल से सम्बंधित क्रियाकलाप है- शब्द युग्म और बेमेल शब्द छांटना, निर्देशन देना, आदि।
• पठन: इस कौशल को मानचित्र अभ्यास, श्यामपट अभ्यास द्वारा निखारा जा सकता है।
• लिखना: इसका विकास वर्ण लेखन, अनुच्छेद लेखन, श्रुतलेख जैसी क्रियाकलापों से किया जा सकता है।

अतः निष्कर्ष निकलता है कि भाषा सिखाने का सही क्रम हैः श्रवण करना, बोलना, पढ़ना, लिखना।

भावों और विचारों की अभिव्यक्ति जब लिखित रूप मे होती है तो उसे लेखन कहते हैंI भाषा के स्वरुप को स्थायित्व प्रदान किया जाता हैI यह वर्तनी का महत्व हैI

Important Points 

• लेखन एक मोटर तथा दृष्टि-समन्वय आधारित कौशल है, जिसमें सही शारीरिक मुद्रा और तकनीक का विशेष महत्व होता है।
• बैठने का उचित ढंग लिखते समय शरीर को स्थिर रखता है और थकान से बचाता है।
• लेखनी पकड़ने का ढंग अक्षरों की स्पष्टता, गति और नियंत्रण को प्रभावित करता है।
• इसी प्रकार, आँखों से काग़ज़ की उचित दूरी आँखों पर पड़ने वाले तनाव को कम करती है और सही लेखन में सहायक होती है।

Hint

• इसके विपरीत, शुद्ध उच्चारण मौखिक भाषा कौशल से संबंधित है, जो बोलने और सुनने में उपयोगी होता है, न कि लिखित अभिव्यक्ति में। इसलिए यह लेखन से संबंधित नहीं माना जाता।

अतः हम कह सकते हैं कि शुद्ध उच्चारण लेखन से संबधित नहीं है।

• या लकुटी अरु कामरिया पर, राज तिहूँ पुर को तजि डारौं।
• आठहुँ सिद्धि, नवों निधि को सुख, नंद की धेनु चराय बिसारौं॥
• रसखान कबौं इन आँखिन सों, ब्रज के बन बाग तड़ाग निहारौं।
• कोटिक हू कलधौत के धाम, करील के कुंजन ऊपर वारौं॥
• उक्त छंद सवैया है, जिसके रचनाकार रसखान है।

Important Points

• रीतिमुक्त कवियों में रसखान का अत्यंत महत्त्वपूर्ण स्थान है।
• सय्यद इब्राहीम "रसखान" का जन्म सन् 1533 से 1558 के बीच माना जाता है।
• वे विट्ठलनाथ के शिष्य थे एवं वल्लभ सम्प्रदाय के सदस्य थे।
• रसखान के सगुण कृष्ण सारी लीलाएं करते हैं।
• यथा-बाललीला,रासलीला,फागलीला,कुंजलीला,प्रेम वाटिका,सुजान रसखान आदि।
• इन्होंने मंगलाचरण,प्रेमवाटिका,सुजान रसखान,रसखान रत्नावली में पद लिखे हैं।

प्रेमाश्रम - कृषक जीवन की समस्याओँ पर.. युग्म असंगत है।

• प्रेमाश्रम : ‘प्रेमा श्रम’ भारत के तेज और गहरे होते हुए राष्ट्रीय संघर्षों की पृष्ठभूमि में लिखा गया उपन्यास  है।
• गां धीजी के सत्याग्रह आन्दोलन की इस कथा पर विशि ष्ट छाप है।
• रौलेट एक्ट, पंजाब में सैनिक कानून आदि
• गोदान :1936 कृषक जीवन का महत्वपूर्ण उपन्यास

Important Points

• प्रेमचंद हिंदी और उर्दू के सर्वाधिक लोकप्रिय उपन्यासकार, कहानीकार एवं विचारक थे।
• उन्होंने सेवासदन, प्रेमाश्रम, रंगभूमि, निर्मला, गबन, कर्मभूमि, गोदान आदि लगभग डेढ़ दर्जन उपन्यास लिखे।
• कफन, पूस की रात, पंच परमेश्वर, बड़े घर की बेटी, बूढ़ी काकी, दो बैलों की कथा, शतरंज के खिलाड़ी आदि तीन सौ से अधिक कहानियाँ लिखीं।

सही उत्तर 'सरदार पूर्ण सिंह' है।

Key Points

1. सरदार पूर्ण सिंह भारत के देशभक्त, शिक्षाविद, अध्यापक, वैज्ञानिक एवं लेखक थे।
2. वे पंजाबी कवि थे और आधुनिक पंजाबी काव्य के संस्थापकों में उनकी गणना होती है।

​

Additional Information

• पं. प्रतापनारायण मिश्र भारतेन्दु मंडल  के प्रमुख लेखक, कवि और पत्रकार थे।
• पं. प्रतापनारायण मिश्र  भारतेंदु निर्मित एवं प्रेरित हिंदी लेखकों की सेना के महारथी, उनके आदर्शो के अनुगामी और आधुनिक हिंदी भाषा तथा साहित्य के निर्माणक्रम में उनके सहयोगी थे।
• भारतेंदु युग को हिंदी साहित्य के इतिहास का प्रथम चरण कहा जाता है।
• लेखक भारतेंदु हरिश्चंद्र को हिंदी साहित्य का प्रतिनिधि माना जाता है।
• भारतेंदु युग के लेखकों में बालकृष्ण भट्ट, प्रतापनारायण मिश्र, बद्रीनारायण चौधरी, राधाचरण गोस्वामी एवं रायकृष्णदास प्रमुख है।
• आधुनिक हिंदी साहित्य का दूसरा युग द्विवेदी युग (1900–1920) के नाम से जाना जाता है।
• हिन्दी की प्रसिद्ध पत्रिका सरस्वती(1903) का सम्पादन महावीर प्रसाद द्विवेदी ने किया।
• 'कालिदास और उनकी कविता'-1920 में प्रकाशित हुई।
• महावीर प्रसाद द्विवेदी की रचनायें-विनय विनोद,गंगा लहरी,ऋतुतरंगिनी,वेणी संहार,रघुवंश,कविता कलाप,सुमन आदि हैं।

इसका सही उत्तर विकल्प 2 ‘पुरखों से प्राप्त’ होगा ।

Key Points

‘पुरखों से प्राप्त’- वाक्यांश के लिए एक शब्द ‘विरासत’ होता है।

विरासत का पर्यायवाची- वसीयत, जागीर आदि है।

Important Points 

अन्य विकल्प:

Additional Information

वाक्यांश- भाषा को सुंदर, आकर्षक और प्रभावशाली बनाने के लिए अनेक शब्दों के स्थान पर एक शब्द का प्रयोग किया जाता है तो वह वाक्यांश के लिए एक शब्द कहलाता है।

'निर्बल' का विलोम शब्द 'सबल' होता है। 

Key Points

• ‘निर्बल’ शब्द का उचित विलोम शब्द ‘सबल’ होगा।
• ‘निर्बल’ विशेषण शब्द है जिसका अर्थ ‘कमजोर’ है और ‘सबल’ का अर्थ ‘बलवान’ होगा।

अन्य विकल्प:

Additional Information

हिंदी का प्रथम उपन्यास "परीक्षा गुरु" का प्रकाशन वर्ष 1882 है। परीक्षा गुरु: 1882 सही है तथा अन्य विकल्प असंगत हैं।

Key Points 

• परीक्षा गुरू हिन्दी का प्रथम उपन्यास था।
• इसकी रचना भारतेन्दु युग के प्रसिद्ध नाटककार लाला श्रीनिवास दास ने की थी।
• रचना 25 नवम्बर,1882 को की थी।
• ​नूतन ब्रह्मचारी: बल कृष्ण भट्ट
• तितली : जयशंकर प्रसाद
• त्यागपत्र : जैनेन्द्र आचार्य रामचंद्र शुक्ल ने परीक्षा गुरु को अंग्रेजी के ढंग का हिंदी का पहला मौलिक उपन्यास माना है।​

 Additional Informationहिंदी का प्रथम उपन्यास, उपन्यासकार एवं प्रस्तोता:-

Important Points 

तद्भव' पत्रिका प्रकाशित लखनऊ से होती है

Key Points 

• तद्भव हिन्दी की एक पत्रिका है।
• जो की एक गंभीर पत्रिका है जो की कहानीकार अखिलेश जी ने शुरू की थी
• इस पत्रिका का प्रकाशन मार्च 1999से प्रारंभ हुआ।

कटहरा' शब्द का तत्सम रुप काष्ठगृह है।अतः विकल्प सही है।

Important Points

Additional Information 

Important Points 

• नियम 1- श्र का प्रयोग ज़्यादातर तत्सम (संस्कृत क शब्दों ) में होता है
• जैसे क्षत्रिय , नक्षत्र ,शिक्षक ,लक्षय।
• नियम 2-प्राय तत्सम में व वर्ण और तद्भव में ब वर्ण हो जाता है।
• नियम 3- प्राय जिन तत्सम शब्दों में श होता है। उनके तद्भव शब्दों में स हो जाता है

दिए गए विकल्पों में से ‘अँधेरा’ शब्द तद्भव शब्द है। अत: विकल्प 1 ‘अँधेरा’ सही उत्तर है। अन्य विकल्प असंगत हैं।

‘अँधेरा’ का अर्थ है – उज��ले की स्थिति न होना। अँधेरा तद्भव शब्द है। जिसका तत्सम शब्द अन्धकार है।

Key Pointsअन्य शब्द: 

Additional Information

आँख एक नहीं कजरौटा दस-दस' लोकोक्ति का अर्थ है व्यर्थ आडंबर । 

Important Points

• लोकाक्ति का अर्थ है लोक में उक्ति होना ।

वाक्य का प्रयोग -मंत्री जी कोई विकास का कार्य अपने क्षेत्र में करते नहीं केवल शिलान्यास ही करते रहते हैं आंख एक नहीं कजरौटा दस-दस।

दिए गए विकल्पों में से ‘गीत’ शब्द पुल्लिंग है। अन्य विकल्प स्त्रीलिंग होने के कारण अनुचित हैं। अत: इसका उत्तर विकल्प 3 ‘गीत’ होगा।

Key Points

स्पष्टीकरण: 

दिए गए सभी विकल्पों में से ‘गीत’ शब्द पुल्लिंग है। अन्य शब्द रात, बात, मात ये सभी स्त्रीलिंग शब्द हैं।

Additional Information 

विशेष:

मित्रता भाववाचक संज्ञा है 

Key Points

Additional Information

Important Points जातिवाचक संज्ञा से भाववाचक संज्ञा बनाना

 विशेषण से भाववाचक संज्ञा बनाना।

"मेरा घर इसी शहर में है" में  सार्वनामिक विशेषण है अतः विकल्प 2 सही है। 

Additional Information

• विशेषण का शाब्दिक अर्थ है विशेषता उत्पन करने वाला।

पिता ने समझाया कि सदा सत्य बोलना चाहिए। यह वाक्य मिश्र वाक्य का उदाहरण है

Important Points 

रचना के आधार पर वाक्य के दो प्रकार होते है।

Additional Information

'कृतज्ञ' का संक्षिप्तीकरण 'किये हुए उपकार को मानने वाला' होता है।

Key Points 

स्पष्टीकरण:

‘जो किए गए उपकारों को मानता हो’ वाक्यांश के लिए उचित शब्द ‘कृतज्ञ’ होगा। 

Additional Informationअन्य विकल्प:  

हमे पता है कि आप 'श्रृगांर' सही समझ रहे है, परन्तु Testbook हमेशा परीक्षा में जो वास्तव मे सच होता है और जो मानक होता है उसको ही सही मानते है। अत: 'शृंगार' सही है, न की 'श्रृगांर'। आप किसी भी 'standard book' या UPSC की मानक पुस्तकों में भी देख सकेंगे।   

सही विकल्प ‘शृंगार’ है। अन्य सभी विकल्पों में अशुद्ध वर्तनी है।

Key Points 

• उपर्युक्त विकल्पों में ‘शृंगार’ शब्द की वर्तनी शुद्ध है।
• शृंगार शब्द में शृ संयुक्ताक्षर का निर्माण श् व ऋ के संयोजन से होता है तथा श्र का निर्माण श् तथा र से।

Additional Information 

• शृंगार शब्द का निर्माण श एवं ऋ के सहयोग से हुआ है। इस आधार पर इस शब्द की सही वर्तनी शृंगार ही सही है।
• श्रृंगार एक गलत वर्त्तनी है। अशुद्ध वर्तनी श्रृंगार में आधा र की मात्रा को लगाया गया है, जो कि गलत है।
• अन्य उदाहरण- शृंखला ही सही वर्त्तनी है, श्रृंखला गलत है।
• श्र में वस्तुतः पहले से ही श तथा र विद्यमान होते हैं।
• अतः इसमें फिर से ऋ की मात्रा का संयोजन अशुद्ध है। हिंदी में वस्तुतः इस अशुद्ध वर्तनी का प्रयोग होता आ रहा है परन्तु ये सही नहीं है।

Important Points

The correct option is "He was made to surrender his passport".

Key Points

 Let's understand the rule of change of active voice into passive voice:

• As per the rule of simple past tense: Subject+V2+Object changes into Object + was/were V3+ by + Subject.
• As per the given sentence: He was made to surrender his passport: (the sentence follows the rule of the passive voice), where the subject is understood.
• The active voice of the given sentence would be: They made him to surrender his passport. (Subject+V2+Object).
• Hence, the correct (passive voice) answer is: **He was made to surrender his passport. (**उसे अपना पासपोर्ट सरेंडर करने के लिए कहा गया था।)

Additional Information

 Let us understand that the rule of active voice is being followed in the other given sentences:

• The rule of active voice in simple past is followed in two sentences: Subject+V2+Object.
• They feed the lions in the zoo twice: They + feed + the lions in the zoo.
• A jellyfish stung her: A jellyfish + stung+ her.
• The rule of active voice for future simple tense is followed in the below-given sentence: Subject + will + not + V1 + object.
• We will not admit children under sixteen: We + will + not + admit + children under sixteen.

The correct answer is: "Onomatopoeia."

Key Points

Let's understand the figure of speech in the given sentence:

• **Cocks crow cock a doodle do: the figure of speech 'Onomatopoeia' refers to a word that phonetically replicates or imitates the sound that it describes. (**भाषण की आकृति 'ओनोमेटोपोइया' एक ऐसे शब्द को संदर्भित करती है जो ध्वन्यात्मक रूप से उस ध्वनि की नकल या नकल करता है जिसका वह वर्णन करता है।)
• As per the given sentence: the cocks 'crow' and 'Cock' doodle, is written the way it is pronounced or uttered.
• Hence, the figure of speech present in the given sentence is Onomatopoeia.

Additional Information

Let's understand the other given figures of speech:

• Oxymoron: It refers to the presence of two self-contradictory words existing in a sentence. For example, She is sometimes bitterly sweet in her expressions.
• Metaphor: It refers to the indirect comparison of two dissimilar things/objects. For example, She is a rose.
• Simile: It refers to the direct comparison of two dissimilar things/objects. For example, She is as sweet as a rose.

The correct option is "Haemorrhage".

Key Points

Let us understand the meaning of the word: 

• Haemorrhage: an escape of blood from a ruptured blood vessel
• For Example,  He died of a brain haemorrhage last week. (उनका पिछले सप्ताह ब्रेन हैमरेज से निधन हो गया था।)
• Hence, the correctly spelt word is option 2) haemorrhage.

Additional Information

• The word 'Haemorrhage' can be alternatively spelt as 'Hemorrhage'.

The correct answer is: "There is a positive side to every unpleasant situation."

Key Points

Let us understand the given proverb:

• **Every Cloud has a silver lining: It refers to any sad, difficult or hopeless situation that eventually leads to hopeful or positive situation. (**हरेक निराशा में भी एक उम्मीद की किरण होती है)
• It can be used in a sentence as "After a cloud of disaster, the words of the government proved to be a silver lining in the sad situation.
• Hence, the correct answer for the given proverb is - There is a positive side to every unpleasant situation.

Additional Information

In the given proverb, the following words has some metaphorical significance:

• Cloud: stands for unpleasant situation like some disaster, mishappening etc.
• Silver lining: stands for positivity or hopefulness.
• Thus, the other three meanings stated in the given options do not relate to the given proverb.

The correct answer is "Uxoricide".

Key PointsLet's understand the given

Statement:

• The act of killing one's wife- for the given statement, the most approximate substitute for one word is 'Uxoricide'.
• The etymology of the word 'Uxoricide' is 'Uxor' a Latin word that means 'wife' and '-cide' is a suffix attached to it that means 'to kill'.
• Using the word 'Uxoricide' in a sentence, 'The man was punished by law for committing uxoricide.
• Hence, the correct answer for the given statement is 'Uxoricide'.

Additional Information

Let's understand the meaning of the other given words:

• Genocide: the deliberate killing of a large group of people or the mass killing. (नरसंहार: लोगों के एक बड़े समूह की जानबूझकर हत्या या सामूहिक हत्या।)
• Canicide: the killing of a dog**. (कैनसाइड: एक कुत्ते की हत्या)**
• Avicide: the killing of birds. (एविसाइड: पक्षियों की हत्या)

The correct answer is  "Here". 

Key Points

Let's understand the meaning of adverb and its kind 'adverb of place':

• The word 'Adverb' is a part of speech that refers to the word that qualifies a verb, for example, He sings sweetly- 'sweetly' is an adverb that qualifies the verb 'sing'.
• The 'Adverb of place' basically refers to a word that indicates a position of an object /thing or a person, for example, He is standing here. In the given example, the word 'here' states the position of the subject doing an action 'standing'.
• Hence, the correct answer is - Here.

Additional Information

Let's understand the part of the speech category of the other given option:

• Almost: It is an Adverb of degree.
• Agra: It is a Noun (Proper Noun)- Name of a place (city).
• Japan: It is a Noun (Proper Noun)- Name of a place (country).

The correct answer is 'Subject-verb-object'.

Key Points

• Let's take a look at a sentence given below:
• Ravindra won the match.
• Let's now discuss each part of the sentence:
• Ravindra (subject of the sentence): A subject performs the action in a sentence. As in the said sentence, Ravindra performs the action of 'winning'.
• Won (main verb): A verb is a word that usually indicates some type of action as in the given sentence.
• the match (object): An object usually appears after the verb. The object receives the action of verb as in the given sentence, 'the match' is receiving the action of 'winning'.
• Therefore, it's clear that the basic structure will be: Sub-verb-object

Hence, the correct answer is option 3).

The correct answer is 'A'.

Key Points 

• 'The Poors' in part (A) should be replaced with 'the poor'.
• Poor is an adjective and adjectives don't have plural form.
• We sometimes use it as a noun to represent a whole group of people. In that case, it's form is fixed; i.e. 'the poor'.
• The poor (plural noun): poor people considered together as a group
• Ex: The poor go hungry while the rich eat cake. (the rich is a similar case)

Therefore, the correct sentence is: The poor are always helped by them who are kind and generous.

Hence, the correct answer is option 1).

The correct option is: "Roe".

Key Points

Let's understand the given question:

• The feminine of Hart: the female of 'Hart' is Roe.
• Hart is another name for 'male deer', and Roe is another name for **'female deer' (**रो 'मादा हिरण' का दूसरा नाम है।).
• Hence, the correct answer is- Roe.

Additional Information

• Let's understand the other given options:
• Filly- is a young female horse. (बछेड़ी- एक युवा मादा घोड़ा है।)
• Sow-  is a feminine boar.(सुअरिया- मादा सूअर है।)
• Goose- is a female bird. (हंस- मादा पक्षी है।)

The correct option is: "Though".

Key Points

Let's understand the given fill in the blank:

• ------------late, he is a skilled worker: In the given sentence**- the conjunction 'though' is a most obvious fit as it refers to the meaning  'despite the fact that. (**इस तथ्य के बावजूद).
• In the given sentence: the first clause is dependent on the second main clause, so the complete meaningful sentence would be: Though late, he is a skilled worker. (हालांकि देर से, वह एक कुशल कार्यकर्ता है।)
• Hence, the correct answer is 'Though'.

Additional Information

Let's understand the use of the other conjunctions in the given options:

• But: it is co-ordinate conjunction that connects contrasting ideas, for example, He failed but he never gave up. (वह असफल रहे लेकिन उन्होंने कभी हार नहीं मानी।)
• Since: it refers to a time in the past until the time under consideration, for example, I feel good since I changed my place. (मुझे अच्छा लग रहा है जब से मैंने अपनी जगह बदली है।)
• Unless: it refers to a conjunction that denotes something can only happen or be true in a particular situation, for example, She will not pass unless she works hard. (वह तब तक पास नहीं होगी जब तक वह कड़ी मेहनत नहीं करती।)

The correct answer is 'The judge commanded them to call the first witness'.

Key Points

• The reported speech is an imperative sentence. To change it into indirect form, the below steps should be followed:
• 'Said to' is changed into ordered/requested/advised/commanded etc. according to the context.
• In the given sentence, the subject of reporting verb is 'judge', so, it hints that 'commanded/ordered' should be used.
• Inverted commas (") are removed.
• Then, it is followed by 'to + V1 (for affirmative sentence)' and 'not + to + V1 (for negative sentence)'.
• No changes in the remaining information should be made here.
• A full stop (.) concludes the sentences.
• On following the above steps, we get the required Indirect form:
• The judge commanded them to call the first witness.

Therefore, the correct answer is option 3).

Additional Information 

• Direct Narration focuses on delivering the exact words what someone has said.
• Ex: Rohan said to me, "I have done my work".
• Indirect speech focuses more on the content of what someone said rather than their exact words.
• Ex: Rohan told me that he had done his work

The correct option is: "Misogynist".

Key Points

Let's understand the given phrase and its one-word substitute:

• **A hater of women: is a person who hates/mistrusts or dislikes a female or a woman- he is referred to as 'Misogynist'. (**एक व्यक्ति जो किसी महिला से नफरत करता है / अविश्वास करता है या नापसंद करता है- उसे 'मिसोगिनिस्ट' कहा जाता है।)
• The word 'Misogynist' etymologically is taken from Greek misos ‘hatred’ + gunē ‘woman’.
• Hence, the correct answer is Misogynist.

Additional Information

Let's understand the meaning of the other given options:

• Misanthrope: a person who dislikes humankind. (मिथ्याचार: एक व्यक्ति जो मानव जाति को नापसंद करता है)
• Mercenary: a professional soldier hired to serve in an army. (सेना में सेवा के लिए काम पर रखा गया एक पेशेवर सैनिक)
• Philanthropist: a person who voluntarily serves the society and thinks of the welfare of others. (परोपकारी: एक व्यक्ति जो स्वेच्छा से समाज की सेवा करता है और दूसरों के कल्याण के बारे में सोचता है।)

The teaching-learning activities of a classroom mainly depend on the actions taken by the teacher. The teacher conducts various activities in a teaching-learning process to facilitate the students' learning experiences.

• The teacher needs to check the performance or the level of learning of students so that the learning can be facilitated in better ways.
• To monitor the learning of students, the teacher keeps evaluating the performance of learners by asking them questions about the learned concepts.
• The questions asked by the teacher in a natural classroom setting can be classified mainly into two types: Open-ended questions & Close-ended questions.

Important Points

Open-ended questions

• The respondents are free to share, clarify and put their views. These questions may have more than one correct answer.
• The students will elaborate their point of view and the teacher will be able to see the things from a student's perspective.
• Here, the above-mentioned Qs is an example of Open-ended questions as it:
• requires an answer with a proper explanation.
• promotes divergent thinking, creativity, and ingenuity.
• can't be answered in yes or no and discourages one-word answers.
• give chances to answer an unrestricted amount of conceivable responses.
• Here, for this question, the children can share various kinds of answers based on his/her imagination and thinking.

Hence, it could be concluded that the above-mentioned question is an example of Open-ended questions.

Additional Information

​Close-ended questions

• These questions may generally have one answer and provide limited insight.
• The respondents respond in limited ways like responding in ‘yes’ or ‘no’, putting the sign ‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’, etc.​

Multiple choice question:

• allow a learner to choose one answer from a limited list of possible answers.
• require one-word answer thus minimizing the subjective inference and judgment.

Prediction and Thinking Ahead: 

• Prediction is a strategy in which the readers use prior knowledge of the subject and the ideas in the text as clues to the meaning of unknown words.
• Predicting requires the readers to think ahead actively and ask questions.
• It also allows students to understand the story better by recalling details, making connections, and drawing conclusions.
• Making predictions is also a valuable strategy to improve reading comprehension.

Hence, we conclude that 'Prediction' as a subskill is associated with reading.

The main aim of teaching English/foreign language is to help children to acquire practical commands of English/foreign language. There are several methods of teaching English to students who are learning the language for the first time.

Key Points

• Direct method is used to teach English/foreign language directly without using the mother tongue. This method builds a direct relationship between words and ideas, experiences and language, thoughts and expressions, rules, and performances without any help of the learner’s mother tongue.

Direct method:

• focuses on speaking skills.
• is also known as the natural method.
• facilitates the active participation of students.
• contrasts with the grammar-translation method.
• ensure the use of the inductive approach in language learning.
• emphasizes learning the target language directly without translating it into the mother tongue.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that 'Direct method' is known as 'Natural method'.

Additional Information

• Grammar-Translation Method: In this method, the learner first learns grammatical rules and then applies those rules in translating sentences from the target language in the mother tongue. It focuses on writing skills.
• Bilingual Method: This method advocates the use of already acquired language skills in the mother tongue to develop and achieve fluency and accuracy in the learning of target language.
• Translation method is an approach that refers to translate the meaning of narrative or text in another language.

In 1986, Rajiv Gandhi announced a new education policy, the National Policy on Education (NPE), which was intended to prepare India for the 21^st century. 

• NPE 1986 is formulated by the Indian Government as a national system of education to provide quality education to all.
• The policy emphasizes the removal of educational disparities by promoting the inclusion of women, SC, and STs in the education system.

The salient features of this policy include:

• Operation Black Board & Minimum levels of learning
• Vocationalisation of education & Common educational structure

Key Points

Operation Black Board is an educational scheme introduced in 1987- 88 under NPE 1986.

• The main aim of this scheme is to increase human and physical resource availability in primary schools of India.
• It is related to the supply of minimum essential facilities like at least one room for each class, two teachers, separate toilets for girls and boys, appropriate TLMs, etc to all the primary schools.

Hence, it could be concluded that "Operation Black Board" is for Primary Schools.

The correct answer is 'Vowel glides'.

Key Points

• A diphthong is a single-syllable vowel sound in which the beginning of the sound is different from the end sound—that is, the sound glides from one vowel sound to another. For this reason, diphthongs are often referred to as gliding vowels.
• E.g. - “oy”/“oi”, as in “boy” or “coin”, and “ow”/ “ou”, as in “cloud” or “cow”.
• From the above explanation, it's clear that option 4); i.e. Vowel glides is the correct answer.

Additional Information

• ​Let's discuss the other options:
• Pure vowels or monophthongs are sounds, one whose articulation at both beginning and end is relatively fixed, and which does not glide up or down towards a new position of articulation. The monophthongs can be contrasted with diphthongs, where the vowel quality changes within the same syllable. e.g. -  "u in To, You, New, Who.
• A semi-vowel speech sound intermediate between a vowel and a consonant, e.g. w or y.
• Vowel with weak sounds: A vowel that normally occurs only in unstressed syllables. There are two weak vowels in English SCHWA /ə/, as in the unstressed syllables of above and sofa, and short i /ɪ/, as in the unstressed syllables in RP example and Sophie.

The correct answer is 'a matter of worry for the scientists'.

Key Points

• Let's refer to the very first line of paragraph (1), which states 'Scientists are extremely concerned about the changes taking place in our climate.
• The bolded word 'concerned' means 'worried'.
• Ex: I'm a bit concerned for your health.
• It's clear from the above explanation, the changes taking place in our climate have become 'a matter of worry for the scientists'.

Therefore, the correct answer is option 2).

Additional Information

• Let's discuss some words from the passage:
• Unprecedented: never having happened or existed in the past
• Implication: the effect that an action or decision will have on something else in the future

The correct answer is 'reduction'.

Key Points 

• Increase means 'a rise in the amount or size of something'
• Ex: Any increase in production would be helpful.
• Marked option 'reduction' means 'the act of making something, or of something becoming, smaller in size, amount, degree, importance, etc.'
• Ex: The cutbacks have required a 10% reduction in staff numbers.
• It's clear that 'Increase ' and 'reduction' are opposite in meaning.

Therefore, the correct answer is option 2).

Additional Information

• Increment: one of a series of increases
• Smaller: less in size or amount when compared with what is typical or average
• Rapid: fast or sudden

The correct answer is 'Today they are much faster and caused by the humans'.

Key Points

• Let's refer to the second line of paragraph (1), which states 'The changes are said to be alarmingly rapid and the result of human activity whereas in the past it had been natural and much slower.'
• Upon perusal of the above line, we can infer that in the past the climate changes were natural and slower than today. Also, today these changes are mainly the results of human activity.
• From the above explanation, it's clear that option 2; i.e. 'Today they are much faster and caused by the humans' is the correct answer.

The correct answer is 'a long period without rains'.

Key Points

• Let's refer to the last lines of para (1), which state, 'Rising temperatures could give rise to extremely high increase in the incidence of floods and droughts, having effect on agriculture.'
• Drought: a long period when there is little or no rain
• ​From the above explanation, it's clear that increase in global temperatures may result in 'a long period without rains'.
• So, option 4) is the correct answer.

The correct answer is 'Adjective'.

Key Points

• Let's discuss the marked option; i.e. Adjective:
• Adjectives are the words that qualify a noun or a pronoun. 
• Ex: The movie was really good. ('good' is qualifying the noun 'movie')
• Ex: He's been ill with meningitis. ('ill' is qualifying pronoun 'he')
• 'Slower' in the passage has been used in the following sentence:
• 'it had been natural and much slower.'
• 'Slower' is qualifying pronoun 'it', so the correct part of speech is 'Adjective'.
• 'Slower' is the comparative form of adjective 'slow'.

Therefore, the correct answer is option 3).

Additional Information

• Adverbs are used to add more information about a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a clause or a whole sentence. 
• E.g. - very tall (modifying adjective 'tall'), ended too quickly (modifying another adverb 'quickly), Fortunately, I had brought an umbrella (modifying the whole sentence).
• A verb is a word used to describe an action, state, or occurrence, and forming the main part of the predicate of a sentence.
• Ex: I love Emma Stone.
• A noun is a word that names something (such as a person, animal, place, thing, quality, idea) and is typically used in a sentence as subject or object of a verb or a preposition.
• Ex: Johnny Depp acted brilliantly in the movie Edward Scissorhands.
• Ex: Honesty is the best policy.

The correct answer is 'Carbon dioxide being produced from any source.'

Key Points

• Let's refer to the first line of paragraph (2), which states 'It is thought that this unusual warming of the Earth has been caused by greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, being emitted into the atmosphere by car engines and modern industrial processes.'
• From the above lines and the bolded part, we can infer that Greenhouse gases refers to carbon dioxide being produced from any source, be it car engines or industries.
• Therefore, option 4) is the correct answer.

The correct answer is 'the plantation for absorbing harmful gases.'

Key Points

• Let's refer to the last two lines from the passage, which state 'It has been suggested that industrialized countries would try to reduce the volume of greenhouse gas emissions and plant more trees to create ‘sinks’ to absorb greenhouse gases.'
• 'Sinks' are absorber of a substance, and we know that trees absorbs Carbon dioxide (a major green house). The author suggests to the various countries to do plantation so that the tress can act as 'sinks'.
• In the context of given passage, 'sinks' refer to the plantation for absorbing harmful gases.

Therefore, the correct answer is option 4).

The correct answer is 'Launcelot Gobbo'.

Key Points

• The Merchant of Venice is a play written by 'William Shakespeare'.
• Launcelot Gobbo is the character who serves as the clown or the fool in the play.
• He is initially a servant to Shylock and later becomes the servant of Bassanio.
• His role consists of providing comic relief through wordplay, malapropisms, and humorous observations, which are the typical functions of a Shakespearean fool.

Therefore, the correct answer is option 2).

The correct answer is 'Ballad'.

Key Points

• Let's discuss the marked option first; i.e. Ballad:
• A ballad is a form of narrative verse that is considered either poetic or musical. As a literary device, a ballad is a narrative poem, typically consisting of a series of four-line stanzas.
• Now let's discuss 'La Belle Dame Sans Merci':
• “La Belle Dame Sans Merci” is a ballad by John Keats.
• The poem, whose title means “The Beautiful Lady Without Pity,” describes the encounter between a knight and a mysterious elfin beauty who ultimately abandons him.
• It has twelve four-line stanzas.

Therefore, option 2) is the correct answer.

Additional Information

• Lyric: expressing emotions, and often having the quality of a song
• Sonnet: a poem that has 14 lines and a particular pattern of rhyme
• Ode: a poem expressing the writer's thoughts and feelings about a particular person or subject, usually written to that person or subject

The correct answer is 'eight'.

Key Points

• 'The Light of Asia’ is an epic on the life of Lord Buddha by Edwin Arnold. The book is divided into eight cantos. The poet has described the life and teachings of Lord Buddha. The eighth canto of this book gives the message of Lord Buddha.
• Therefore, option 4); i.e. eight is the correct answer.

Additional Information

• An epic is a long poem about events in the past, often involving gods or kings and queens
• 'Canto': one of the sections into which certain long poems are divided