Child Development and Pedagogy PYQs

"Jean Piaget", a Swiss psychologist, is famous for his work on child development. He made a systematic study of cognitive development in his theory that is categorized in four stages.

Key Points

• According to Piaget, the second stage of cognitive development is the 'pre-operations stage' which lasts around 2 to 6 or 7 years of age.
• In this stage, the child faces problems with the concept of conservation and struggles with the idea of centration and irreversibility.

Characteristics of the Preoperational Period:

• Egocentrism takes place.
• Begin to think symbolically.
• Develops the skills of language acquisition.
• Begin to use words and pictures to represent objects.
• Learns to compare objects through external characteristics.

Hence, it could be concluded that according to Piaget, the second stage of cognitive development is the pre-operational stage.

 Additional Information

Refer to the image for conceptual understanding of the characteristics of other stages of Piaget's theory:

Physical development is regulated by a complex balance between the heredity/genetic constitution and the environmental factors, all interdependent. 

Key Points

Factors Influencing Physical Development

• Heredity Factors: Heredity refers to the genetic constitution of an individual which is established during conception. It is the property of organic beings by which offsprings have the nature and characteristics of parents or ancestors. The height of a child depends more on heredity, while the weight, though also influenced Physical and Motor Development by heredity.
• Environmental Factors: Though heredity and environment are closely inter-related and each human being at birth has a gene determined physical, mental, and biochemical potential. Environmental factors like nutrition, living standard, family surroundings, etc. This potential may not be reached because of environmental influences. Environment influences this potential only to a limited extent favorably or unfavorably.
• Health Factors: The children are highly vulnerable to the negative health consequences associated with many environmental exposures. Health factors like, physical exercise, sports, games, etc. These factors influencing the physical development of a child. These factors also influence the growth of an individual. So school should provide physical exercises and games for child physical development.

Hence, we conclude that all are the factors influencing Physical Development.

Intelligence Quotient is commonly known as IQ refers to the score of a standardized test that assesses and measures human intelligence.

• The first test to measure intelligence was developed by Binet and Simon in 1905.
• Terman in 1916 revised the test and devised the concept of Intelligence Quotient.
• An individual’s Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is determined by the formula given below,

\({\bf{Intelligence}};{\bf{Quotient}};\left( {{\bf{IQ}}} \right) = \frac{{{\bf{Mental}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{MA}}} \right);}}{{{\bf{Chronological}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{CA}}} \right)}} \times 100\)

• Where, Mental Age is based on intellectual development.
• Chronological Age is the number of years a person has lived.

Hence, it could be concluded that MA/CA × 100 is the correct formula to calculate IQ.

Additional Information

John Dewey: The work of Dewey (1933) is considered as the beginning of the study and application of reflection.

• For him, reflection is a kind of thinking, in the process of which one brings the subject to the forefront of the mind and gives serious thought to this.
• It is a process of manipulation of knowledge and its reprocessing towards the set goal, and so, it is goal-directed.
• One ‘thinks’ when in uncertainty or difficulty so as to solve the ‘perplexity’, and the process leads to testing through some action.
• Dewey believed that effective education through reflection should aim at ‘making sense of the world’, and therefore, this is related to experience.
• Learners are aware of and control their learning by active participation in reflective thinking.
• In the reflective experience in which the environment is used as the object of reflection.

Key Points

Dewey’s concept of reflective thought and action, depicted comprises five phases: 

• Disturbance and uncertainty
• Intellectualization
• Formation of Hypothesis
• Reasoning
• Hypothesis Testing.

Hence we conclude that John Dewey described 'reflective thinking'.

Inductive Reasoning is a way of proving a statement or generalizing a rule or principle by proving or showing that if a statement or a rule is true in one particular case, it will be true in cases, which appear in some serial order, and thus it may be applied generally to all such type of cases.

Important Points

The levels of inductive reasoning are below:

• Generalization: Inductive reasoning starts from particular facts or special examples and instances one can formulate generalized principles and conclusions in this type of reasoning.
• Observation: Inductive reasoning is called the 'Bottom-up' approach, moving from specific observations and measures to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that can explore and end up developing general conclusions or theories.
• Experimentation: Experimentation is an essential feature of inductive reasoning. Experiments are artificially created or contrived situations designed to make certain observations under strictly controlled conditions. The objective sometimes is to mimic nature. This allows the complexity of natural phenomena to be simplified for step by step study.

Hence, we conclude that 'Imagination' is not included in the level of Inductive reasoning.

Forgetting: Forgetting is a failure to retrieve and retain information from long-term memory stores. Much of the information is lost but enough remains so that we have a sketchy record of our lives. Sometimes what we think is forgotten in real sense is not forgotten because it was never encoded and stored in the first place. 

Key Points

Causes of Forgetting:  Many students complain that they do not remember the contents after attending the class or forget after reading .the text. This happens due to :

• Many times we forget as memory does not match events that had occurred. This happens due to the constructive processes i.e. during encoding, the to-be-remembered information, interference due to similar material.
• Under-learning, some information does not reach short term memory from the sensory register.
• Defective methods of remembering: Inadequate encoding and rehearsal, the information may not have been transferred from short term to long term memory.

Additional Information

• Memory is the knowledge of a former state of mind after it has already once dropped from consciousness, or rather it is the knowledge of an event, or fact of which meantime we are not been thinking with the additional consciousness that we have thought or experienced before.
• Retention is part of memory to retain the information for a longer period of life.
• Thinking is the process of cognition that is related to memory.

Hence, we conclude that failure in retention and recall of learned content is forgetting.

Basic Instinct is an inherited or innate psychological disposition which determines its possessor to perceive or pays attention to, objects of a certain class, to experience an emotional excitement of a particular quantity upon perceiving such objects, and to act in regard to it in a particular manner, or at least, to experience an impulsive to such an action.

Characteristics of Basic Instinct

• The main characteristic of basic instinct is inborn and natural that is found in all living organisms.
• No one can develop in their later stages, it is an inborn talent or ability to feel the things that may be going to happen or not in near future.
• Instinct is a vibe, that can be negative and positive.
• The instincts are dominated by the pleasure principle (the chief characteristic of psychic energy) and are inherited.
• Basic instinct may undergo more or less serious failures to pass through certain stages of development called the fixation of the instinct.
• These instincts drive the satisfaction of which is the prime intention of mental activity are essentially somatic needs.
• These are basically connected with the preservation of self and of species, which may be considered as needs.
• The aim of basic instinct is the preservation of the individual and the species.
• The basic instinct cannot be localized to any region of the mind.

Hence, we can conclude that The main characteristic of basic instinct is that which is found in all organisms and it is inborn and natural.

Fundamental Rights and Education: Fundamental Rights of citizens given in our Constitution have established the spirit of equality and have helped to preserve individual liberty. The following articles in the category of Fundamental Rights have a special bearing on education in India.

• ARTICLE 21A - It grants the Right to Free and Compulsory Education to all the children the aged six to fourteen years in a manner as the State may, by law determine. Inserted by the 86^th Amendment in December 2002, this Article has accorded education the status of right for ensuring quality in educational expansion at the elementary level.

Key Points

• Insertion of Article 21A, making elementary education a fundamental right of all children between the age group of 6-14 years, Article 45 has been amended so as to restrict its scope to pre-primary education up to 6 years of age.

Additional Information

Other Articles:

• ARTICLE 45: Directive Principles of the State Policy in Article 45 under Part IV of the Constitution states that “the State shall endeavor to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years”.
• ARTICLE l5 - This Article guarantees prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth by the State. It also ensures equality in educational opportunities in India.

 Hence, we conclude that Article 21 A  states that "the right to free and compulsory education for children between age group of 6 - 14.

Kretschmer was a German psychiatrist who on the basis of his observation of patients classified people into four types. He used the physical constitution and temperament for this purpose The four types he talked about included:

• Pyknic type
• Asthenic type
• Athletic type
• Dysplastic type

Let us briefly study each of these types:

 

Hence, we conclude that all are the main types through which Kretschmer has classified the persons.

Teacher Eligibility Test (TET): Teacher Eligibility Test known as TET is an Indian entrance examination for teachers. The test is mandatory for getting teaching jobs in government schools from Class I to Class VIII.

• The examination is divided into Paper-I (Primary) and Paper-II (Elementary).
• TET was introduced by the Govt of India to improve standards in teaching. It is conducted by the Central and State governments in India.
• The essential qualifications for a person to be eligible for appointment as a teacher in any of the schools referred to in clause (n) of section 2 of the RTE Act are that he/she should pass the Teacher Eligibility Test (TET) which will be conducted by the appropriate government by the guidelines framed by the NCTE.
• A candidate has to score over 60% to clear the eligibility test.

Key Points

Purpose of TET

• The main purpose of the Teacher Eligibility Test (TET) is to assess the candidate's aptitude for the profession.
• Recruiting teachers by evaluating the aspiring candidates’ academic brilliance.
• The main motto is to impart quality teaching.
• Assess the teachers who have adequate teaching competency and a positive attitude towards teaching or not.

Hence, we conclude that the purpose of TET is to measure the aptitude for the profession.

Consolidation Theory of Memory: Memories are solidified in long-term stores over days, weeks, months, and years. This process is referred to as consolidation.

• In this theory, an old concept that refers to how long term memory develops over time after initial acquisition.
• From a cognitive neuroscience perspective, consolidation is conceived of as biological changes that underlie the long-term retention of learned information, and we can ask what brain structures and systems support this process.
• One idea is that consolidation strengthens the associations between multiple stimulus inputs and activations of previously stored information.

Hence we conclude that the Consolidation theory explains the solidified long-term memory.

Educational psychology extremely influences the principles of education. It applies to the psychological principles and techniques for human behavior in educational situations.

Main methods of Educational Psychology

• Introspection
• Observation
• Experimental Method
• Clinical Method
• Developmental Method
• Rating Scale and Questionnaire
• Testing Method.

Important Points

Introspection Method: Introspection means observing one‘s own behavior through self-analysis. This method is the most subjective in nature. The data of the introspection method may not be reliable and valid since the investigator may become subjective and biased when s/he looks into his/her own feelings.There are always undergoing many activities in the mind of a person. 

Merits of Introspection: 

• The introspection method is a very easy method. It requires no laboratory and no apparatus.
• It is the oldest method of Psychology. The study of the behavior of a person is incomplete without the use of this method.
• It can help him to improve his thinking and performance.

Limitations of Introspection:

• It is very difficult to observe a mental activity within a short period of time. If one starts observing the mental activity, it disappears or changes its pattern.
• Mental activities are constantly undergoing changes. Hence it is very difficult to observe and analyze one‘s mental activities through the method of Introspection.
• This method lacks objectivity and is subjective in nature.
• Introspection can be used only up to the conscious level. It has no approach to the subconscious mind, which is as important as the conscious mind.

 

• Observation Method: It is very useful for the study of the behavior of a person it is used in education for the study of the behavior of students in particular situations inside and outside the classroom.  The results of the observation can be affected by the subjective factors of the investigator.
• Experimental Method: In Psychology, the method of observing mental behavior in laboratory according to scientific rules is called the experimental method.  It is free from subjectivity.
• Extrospection Method: It is a method of observation of things external to one’s own mind, as opposed to introspection.

Hence, we conclude that the Introspection method is the most subjective in nature because here the person observe his/her own feelings.

'Albert Bandura', an American psychologist has propounded "Social Learning Theory". This theory is also called 'learning through imitation' as his theory emphasizes that:

• learning takes place through indirect sources, like watching or hearing others.
• cognitive and problem-solving skills can be learned by imitating and watching others.
• new behaviors and experiences are acquired by observing others in the immediate environment.

The social learning theory of 'Albert Bandura' emphasizes that the principles of social learning consist of four steps (respectively) including:

 

Hence, it could be concluded that Albert Bandura is associated with 'Social Learning Theory.

Additional Information

Learning Curve: The learning curve is a graphical representation that indicates the progress or lack of improvement in a given activity. There are several characteristics of the learning curve.

Some of them are as follows: The learning progress at any stage is not always uniform. The last stage of the learning curve is called a plateau. The scope for learning is very low in the final stages of the curve. 

Important Points

The three stages of the learning curve are:

• Slow beginning
• Steep progress
• Plateau.

1. Slow beginning: In this phase, the learner gradually pacing to learn the concept. He/she has to start the learning of a given activity from scratch, his early progress will be slow. This is the beginning stage of learning, in which the learner is motivated to gain new information.
2. Steep progress: In this phase, the learner successfully learned the concept.  In this stage, the learner steps accelerating in learning the concepts. After some time the learner gains a total understanding of the concept and reaches the boom stage of learning. and his/her learning improves swiftly.
3. Plateau: The plateau effect is often seen in the pattern of development, indicating periods of no apparent improvement.

• In this stage, learning plateau occurs, after gaining the mastery on the concept, the learner feels bore and want to learn new thing.
• Once the curve hit a plateau when they are not willing to add new to their learning and the performance gets deteriorated. So the teacher should always introduce the same concept with innovative methods, this will overcome the boredom.
• An example of the plateau effect is when someone's exercise fails to be as effective as in the past, or due to feeling fatigued because of a repetitive or similar concept.

Hence, we conclude that Plateau in the learning curve is caused due to fatigue.

Bilateral transfer of learning occurs when there is the transfer of performance to one side of the body following training of the opposite side, eg. improved left-handed performance following right-handed training. You will verify the phenomenon by conducting a simple experiment as explained below.

Key Points

• Problem: To demonstrate the phenomenon of bilateral transfer of learning.
• Material Required: Mirror-drawing apparatus, stylus, stop watch, paper and pencil.

Procedure:

• The following instructions are to be given to the participant, “Look at this mirror, you will see a star image.
• The star image is a reflection of a pattern grooved on the wooden board and hidden by the screen. Take the stylus in your left hand (the experimenter will give the stylus to the participant and helps him/her to position it at the end of the nearest projection).
• Now you will have to look into the mirror image and trace the star pattern with the stylus. Be careful about the stylus not touching the edges of the groove.
• If you touch, it will be counted as an error. Try to do as speedily as possible.” After the participant traces the path once with the left hand, she/he is asked to trace the path again. Time taken and the number of errors committed are noted down.
• In the same way, now the participant is asked to trace the star pattern with the right hand for 10 trials. In each of these trials, the number of errors committed and the amount of time taken in seconds to complete the pattern are noted down. A
• gain the participant is asked to perform the same task in the same manner with the left hand, and the errors committed and time taken in seconds are noted down.
• Compare the time taken in seconds and errors committed in the first trial with left hand with that of the second trial with left hand (after training with right hand for ten trials). Find out whether there is any transfer of training in the second trial with left hand and also if it is positive, negative or zero transfer.

Hence, it is clear that Mirror drawing test is used to measure transfer of learning.

Cloud Picture Test is a psychometric test is used to measure the personality of an individual. This test is made by Williams Stern. It is design fantasy-stimuli which would avoid the disadvantages of the Rorschach Series. 

• It consists series of three pictures that resemble clouds rather than ink-blots. 
• Picture A offers the most distinct shades and forms.
• Picture C is the vaguest,
• Picture B occupies an intermediate position. There is no symmetry or other regularity in these pictures.
• In this test, the respondents are shown pictures of the cloud and asked what cloud resembles.
• The respondents observe the pictures of the cloud and respond to what kind of pictures he is seeing. This how the personality of an individual assesses.
• Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach replace these cloud with ten inkblot test.

​Hence, we conclude that the Cloud Picture Test is used to measure personality.

Psychology Tests are used to measure the unique traits of an individual to know his ability, aptitude, attitude contrast with their personality, intelligence, emotions, etc. These different psychology tests are:

 

Hence, we can conclude 3 out of 4 test are made to measure the personality of an individual, Raven's Progressive Matrices test is made to measure the fluid intelligence of an individual.

Concept:

Median

Case 1: If the number of observation (n) is even

\({\rm{Median;}} = {\rm{;}}\frac{{{\rm{value;of;}}{{\left( {\frac{{\rm{n}}}{2}} \right)}^{{\rm{th}}}}{\rm{;observation;}} + {\rm{;;value;of;}}{{\left( {\frac{{\rm{n}}}{2}{\rm{;}} + 1} \right)}^{{\rm{th}}}}{\rm{;observation}}}}{2}\)

Case 2: If the number of observation (n) is odd

\({\rm{Median;}} = {\rm{value;of;}}{\left( {\frac{{{\rm{n}} + 1}}{2}} \right)^{{\rm{th}}}}{\rm{;observation}}\)

Calculation:

Arrange the observations in the ascending order are

7,8,9,10,11,12

Here, n = 6 = even.

So, 3^rd and 4^th observation are 9 and 10

∴\({\rm{Median}} = {\rm{;}}\frac{{9 + 10}}{2} = 9.5\)

The Gestalt theory of learning also named Learning by Insight is the contribution of German psychologists who were studying the nature of perception.

Key Points

• Gestalt Theory of Learning (Learning by Wholes) or Learning by Insight states that perceptual phenomena are only experienced as wholes or Gestalts.
• Translation of Gestalt is „configuration‟ or more simply „an organized whole in contrast to a collection of parts‟.
• Gestalt psychologists consider the process of learning as a Gestalt – an organized whole.
• A thing cannot be understood by the study of its constituent parts but only by the study of it as a totality, is a basic idea behind this theory.
• Learning, according to Gestalt Theory, is not by random steps, not by trial and error, not by conditioning but by insight, introspection, and understanding.
• The Gestaltians tend to place far more emphasis on the intrinsic organizing capacity in the brain of the individual and emphasis the dynamic interaction of the elements in the entire perceptual field.
• Gestalt theory of learning essentially consists of problem-solving by understanding the relative position of the elements in the entire perspective or situation.

Additional Information

 

Hence, we conclude that the theory of insight is propounded by Gestalt Psychologist.

Emotions expressed by humans can be divided into two broad categories and are called positive and negative emotions. Examples of emotions include the following: Interest, enthusiasm, boredom, laughter, empathy, action, curiosity, anger, rebellion, irritation, etc.

According to William McDougall’s concept of emotions instincts and emotions were both innate patterns.

• As per McDougall, the primary emotions were fear, disgust, wonder, anger, subjection, elation, tenderness. According to him, each instinctual tendency has a corresponding emotion.
• William McDougall(2003) analyses an instinctive behavior, in three aspects:
• Cognitive or (knowing or perceptive) aspect.
• Affective or (feeling or emotional) aspect.
• Conative or (doing or behavior) aspect.
• The occurrence of some form of arousal in the emotion gives rise to a cognitive search for an explanation of arousal.
• In the opinion of McDougall, feelings arise and are conditioned by the degrees of success and failure of one's own efforts, whereas emotions are aroused by some object or person deemed responsible for one’s success or failure in some particular situation.
• Emotion is not just a feeling gone violent but itself a singular experience.

Hence, we conclude that According to McDougall, every instinct is associated with emotion.