Child Development and Pedagogy PYQs

Lawrence Kohlberg, an American psychologist, has propounded the 'Theory of Moral Development'.

• He has made a systematic study of moral development in his theory that is categorized into 3 levels and 6 stages.
• He created moral development theory by posing moral dilemmas to groups of children as well as adolescents and adults.
• According Kohlberg moral dilemma is the thinking process involved in judgements about questions of right & wrong.

Important Points

Refer to the table to be familiar with all the levels of Kohlberg's theory.

 

Hence, it could be concluded that Kohlberg Theory of development is concerned with Moral Development.

The term 'programmed learning' refers to a procedure of self-instruction which uses an instructional sequence in which the content to be learned is presented in a series of small steps, arranged in a logical sequence.

 Key Points

• The Concept of Programmed Learning was given by B.F Skinner. It has been one of the most popular and effective innovations for individualized and assured learning.
• To facilitate self-learning, programmed instruction materials are designed so as to give various kinds of intellectual, emotional, and psycho-motor experiences to the learner in a controlled situation through a variety of devices like booklets, machines, teachers, etc
• Based on principles of 'operant conditioning', Skinner developed a teaching machine to affect learning. The text material that accompanies the teaching machine is known as programmed instruction and it has become a part of the new instructional technology for learning.

Thus, it is concluded that the Concept of Programmed Learning was given by Skinner.

Hint

• Hull has given the drive reduction theory of motivation. This theory explains the behavior of the individual.
• Thorndike states that learning is a process between stimulus and response. This theory has three main concepts that are Law of Readiness, Law of Exercise, and Law of Effect.
• John B Watson is known as the founder and father of behaviorism. Behaviourism was established with the publication of Watson's classic paper "Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It''.

Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the strengthening or weakening of old behavior as a result of experience. It represents progressive changes in behavior. It also involves the acquisition of knowledge, habits, and attitude.

Key Points

• Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality that occurs as a result of reinforced practice.

Characteristics of Learning:

• Learning is an active process:
• Learning is an active process as it takes place in a better way when learners actively involved in it.
• It refers to the modification of behavioral patterns as it modifies the behavior and personality of an individual.
• Learning is a goal-directed process:
• Every human being aspires to achieve some goals in his/her life. These goals may be achieved through learning.
• If there is no goal to achieve, then there would be no necessity of learning.
• Learning is transferable: 
• Learning in one situation can be used to solve problems in another situation.
• Learning of mathematics, science, and language helps the child to perform different activities in their real life.
• Learning is individualistic: 
• You might have observed that in a class there are some students who learn more quickly while others learn slowly.
• In fact, the pace of learning differs from person to person.

Hence, it could be concluded that Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality that occurs as a result of reinforced practice.

Hint

• An attitude is a hypothetical construct in that it can only be inferred through the behavior of the individual. Attitudes are acquired and they develop out of the influence of many factors.
• Aptitude refers to the acquired or inborn potential to learn and do a specific area of work effectively. It is a natural ability to learn.
• Motivation refers to the process that guides an individual to achieve a goal. There are two main types of motivation which include extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.

Intelligence is a key construct employed to know how individuals differ from one another. It also provides an understanding of how people adapt their behaviour according to the environment they live in.

• Alfred Binet was one of the first psychologists who worked on intelligence. He defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well.
• Psychologists have proposed several theories of intelligence and Guilford's Theory is one of them.

Important Points 

• J.P. Guilford proposed the structure of intellect model which classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions: operations, contents, and products.
• Operations are what the respondent does. These include cognition, memory recording, memory retention, divergent production, convergent production, and evaluation.
• Contents refer to the nature of materials or information on which intellectual operations are performed. These include visual, auditory, symbolic (e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g., words) and behavioural (e.g., information about people’s behaviour, attitudes, needs, etc.).
• Products refer to the form in which information is processed by the respondent. Products are classified into units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and implications.

Thus, it is concluded that Cognition is a part of Guilford's Theory.

Hint

• Sampling Theory: G.H Thomson propounded Sampling theory that maintains that every test samples a certain range of elementary abilities; some with a wide range and some with a narrow range. The degree of correlation between any two tests depends upon the number of units of ability that they have in common.
• Group factor theory: Louis Thurstone proposed the group factor theory, i.e., known as the theory of primary mental abilities. It states that intelligence consists of seven primary abilities, each of which is relatively independent of the others.
• Fluid & Crystallized Theory: Raymond Cattell proposed Fluid & Crystallized Theory. Fluid intelligence refers to the ability to think, use logic in new situations, solve new problems, and identify patterns. Crystallized intelligence refers to accumulated knowledge information we store over a lifetime of experience.

Intelligence Quotient commonly known as IQ refers to the score of a standardized test that assesses and measures human intelligence.

• The concept and formula of Intelligence Quotient were developed in 1912 by a German psychologist, William Stern.

Key Points

• An individual’s Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is determined by the formula given below,

\({\bf{Intelligence}};{\bf{Quotient}};\left( {{\bf{IQ}}} \right) = \frac{{{\bf{Mental}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{MA}}} \right);}}{{{\bf{Chronological}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{CA}}} \right)}} \times 100\)

• Where,
• Mental Age is based on intellectual development.
• Chronological Age is the number of years a person has lived.
• For example, if in an intelligence test an 8 years old boy, Sudhir is found to have a mental age of 10 years, then his IQ would be 10/8 x 100 = 125.

Additional Information

IQ table: 

 

Hence, we conclude that if eight years old Sudhir has a mental age of ten, his I.Q. will be 125.

Emotion is often defined as a complex state of feeling that results in physical and psychological changes that influence thought and behavior. 

• The major theories of emotion can be grouped into three main categories: physiological, neurological, and cognitive.
• Physiological theories (responses within the body are responsible for emotions), Neurological theories (activity within the brain leads to emotional responses), and Cognitive theories (thoughts and other mental activity play an essential role in forming emotions).

Key Points

 

Hence, it is clear that the fact "emotional experience depends upon emotional behavior", was given by James Lange Theory.

All of us, quite often, face environmental or personal obstacles in life which cause anxiety and lead to stress. Psychologists have given different names to stress such as frustration, conflict, pressure, etc.

Important Points

• The term frustration refers to the blocking of behavior directed towards a goal. If motives are frustrated or blocked, emotional feelings and behavior often result.
• People who cannot achieve their important goals, feel depressed, fearful, anxious, guilty, or angry. Often they're simply unable to drive ordinary pleasure for living.
• For example, over-restrictive parents would be a source of frustration to an adolescent girl who wanted to give or attend a party, while a lack of water would be a source of frustration to a man lost in the desert. A wide range of obstacles both environmental and internal can lead to frustrations.

Key Points

There are various sources of frustration:

• Environmental frustration
• Personal frustration
• Competition
• Affiliation

Thus, it is concluded that emotional tension, resulting from the blocking of a desire or need is called Frustration.

Hint

• Conflict arises when an individual is forced to choose between two alternatives, in which choosing either alternative means frustration with regard to the other. Such a situation requires a decision on the part of the individual. For example, he may have to choose between two movies or between unemployment and a job, which he dislikes.
• Anxiety is a word that is used to describe feelings when we are frightened. So, if something frightens us we get anxious. For example, if you are walking down a street and suddenly a ferocious dog runs up to you, barking madly or snarling and baring its teeth, you will almost certainly feel anxious because you are frightened that the dog will attack you.
• Tension is a physical or mental strain or similar to the state of stress. An example of tension is an awkward feeling between two friends after a big fight.

There are many theories in psychology that are related to different schools of psychology such as cognitive, humanistic, behavioristic, etc. These theories are propounded by eminent psychologists to provide a framework to understand different aspects of human behavior.

• E. L. Thorndike, an American psychologist, the propounder of "Trial & Error Theory" has developed three primary laws of learning that lead to development.

Key Points

These primary laws are: 

 

Hence, it could be concluded that the Law of stress is not the law of learning.

Additional Information 

Thorndike's Supplementary law (also known as minor laws to education):

• Law of Multiple Responding: It refers to different types of responses often occurs initially to a stimulus, then reaching to the correct response.
• Law of Attitude, Disposition or States: It refers to the condition of a learner that influences learning.
• Law of Partial or Piecemeal Activity of a situation: It refers to the tendency to respond to particular elements or features of a stimulus situation rather than on the whole to improve the result.
• Law of Assimilation of response by Analogy: It is the tendency to respond automatically as responded in the past.
• Law of Associative Shifting: Successfully applying the same response until a new situation comes (For example to apply the same formula in similar questions).
• Law of Primacy: It refers to the idea that the first step matters the most.
• The law of recency: It is the tendency that refers to the idea that the most recent task matters the most
• Law of Intensity of Stimulus: The more strong the stimulus, the better the response.

Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, has made a systematic study of cognitive development in his theory that is categorized in four stages. 

• He observed his children and their process of making sense of the world around them and developed a model of how the mind processes new information encountered.

Key Points

According to Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory:

• Cognitive development takes place at different rates at different stages of development.
• Cognition develops through the interaction between the child and the environment.
• Piaget’s theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge but also on understanding the nature of the child’s intelligence.

Important Points 

Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development:

 

Hence, it could be concluded that Piaget is mainly known for studying Cognitive development.

Most of our behaviors are acquired through the process of learning. Learning may be defined as a relatively durable change in behavior due to experience. It helps us adapt to the surrounding environment.

Important PointsTransfer of training: Transfer of training occurs when trainees effectively and continually apply what they learned in training on their jobs (knowledge, skills, behavior).

• The work environment plays an important role in ensuring that the transfer of training occurs.
• It is influenced by climate transfer, manager support, peer support, technology support, and self-management skills.
• There are eight types of transfer of learning that include positive, negative, zero, lateral, bilateral, sequential, horizontal, and vertical transfer.
• Bilateral transfer of a motor skill is a phenomenon according to which, one hand can "teach" skill to the other hand. It occurs when learning transfers from one limb to another limb.
• For example, learning to do a thing with one hand facilitates (transferred) learning with the other hand. A soccer player learns to kick a ball with the non-preferred foot.

Key Points

• The vertical transfer is that when lower-level learning is applied or transferred to a higher level of learning. For example, one mathematics series is a foundation to form two, form three, and form four mathematics.
• The horizontal transfer is that when learning takes place from one situation to another at the same level of difficulty. For example, when a learner acquires the basic skills of baking a cake in school he applies the knowledge to bake at home horizontally.

Thus, from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that when training given to one part of the human body gets transferred to the other part, then it is called bilateral transfer.

Measuring central tendency is a way of summarising the data in the form of a typical or representative value.There are several statistical measures of central tendency or “averages”. The three most commonly used averages are: 

• Arithmetic Mean
• Median
• Mode

Important Points​Mode:

• The word mode has been derived from the French word “la Mode” which signifies the most fashionable values of distribution because it is repeated the highest number of times in the series.
• Mode is the most frequently observed data value. It is denoted by Mo. Mode is generally used to describe the qualitative data.
• For example, a manufacturer would like to know the size of shoes that has maximum demand or the style of the shirt that is more frequently demanded. Here, Mode is the most appropriate measure.

Hint

• Arithmetic mean is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. It is defined as the sum of the values of all observations divided by the number of observations and is usually denoted by X.
• The Median is the “middle” element when the data set is arranged in order of magnitude. Since the median is determined by the position of different values, it remains unaffected if, say, the size of the largest value increases.
• The standard deviation measures the spread of the data about the mean value. It is useful in comparing sets of data that may have the same mean but a different range.

Learning takes place in many ways. The simplest kind of learning is called conditioning. Two types of conditioning have been identified. The first one is called classical conditioning, and the second instrumental/operant conditioning.

Key Points

Instrumental/operant conditioning:

• This type of conditioning was first investigated by B.F. Skinner.
• Skinner studied the occurrence of voluntary responses when an organism operates in the environment. He called them operants.
• Operants are those behaviors or responses, which are emitted by animals and human beings voluntarily and are under their control.
• The term operant is used because the organism operates on the environment.
• Conditioning of operant behavior is called operant conditioning.

Important Points

SKINNER’S EXPERIMENT WITH RAT         

• Skinner developed a special apparatus known as a skinner’s box.
• This box has a grid floor, a system of light, or sound produced at the time of delivery of a pellet of food, in the food cup, on the pressing of the lever.
• Skinner placed a hungry rat in the box.
• In this experiment, pressure on the bar in a certain way, by the rat could result in the production of a click and emergence of a food pellet.
• The rat was rewarded for each proper pressing of the lever.
• The rat repeated this process and ultimately learned to press the lever desired by the experimenter.

Hence, it could be concluded that 'Operant conditioning' theory was propounded by Skinner.

Additional Information

• Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist has propounded the 'Theory of Classical Conditioning' which emphasizes that learning as a habit formation is based on the principle of association and substitution.
• E. L. Thorndike, an American psychologist has propounded the Stimulus-Response Theory (S-R Theory). In his theory, he emphasizes that learning is the result of associations forming between stimulus and responses.
• Wolfgang Kohler, a German psychologist, is associated with the ‘Theory of Insightful learning’. In his theory, he has proposed the term ‘Insight’ that doesn't take place with trial & error, rather than it is a sudden reorganization of experience.

'Albert Bandura', an American psychologist has propounded "Social Learning Theory". This theory is also called 'learning through imitation' as his theory emphasizes that:

• learning takes place through indirect sources, like watching or hearing others.
• cognitive and problem-solving skills can be learned by imitating and watching others.
• new behaviors and experiences are acquired by observing others in the immediate environment.

Important Points

The social learning theory of  'Albert Bandura' emphasizes that the principles of social learning consist of four steps (respectively) including:

 

Hence, it could be concluded that Albert Bandura is associated with 'Social Learning Theory. 

Additional Information 

Mental age refers to the calculation of intelligence that shows how individual child is performing according to their age. It is based on intellectual development.

Key Points

• The concept of 'Mental age' was introduced by Alfred Binet, a French psychologist.
• According to Binet, ‘Intelligence means the capacity to judge well, to reason well, and to comprehend well’.
• He is also known for developing the first intelligence test with Simon in 1905.
• Mental age is used to measure the 'Intelligence Quotient' which is commonly known as IQ.
• IQ refers to the score of a standardized test that assesses and measures human intelligence.
• An individual’s Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is determined by the formula given below,

\({\bf{Intelligence}};{\bf{Quotient}};\left( {{\bf{IQ}}} \right) = \frac{{{\bf{Mental}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{MA}}} \right);}}{{{\bf{Chronological}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{CA}}} \right)}} \times 100\)

• Where, Mental Age is based on intellectual development.
• Chronological Age is the number of years a person has lived.

Hence, it could be concluded that the concept of 'Mental age' was introduced by Alfred Binet.

Additional Information 

• The concept of Intelligence Quotient or IQ was developed by Stern.
• Terman is known for revising the Binet-Simon test into the Stanford-Binet Intelligence test.
• Sir Cyril Burt, the distinguished psychologist, and educationist can be regarded as the pioneer investigator of the 'Educational quotient of the Backward Child'.

Intelligence Quotient is commonly known as IQ refers to the score of a standardized test that assesses and measures human intelligence.

• The first test to measure intelligence was developed by Binet and Simon in 1905.

Key Points

• Terman in 1916 revised the test and devised the concept of Intelligence Quotient.
• According to Terman child having I. Q ranges from 90-100 is considered as Average Intelligence.
• An individual’s Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is determined by the formula given below,
• \({\bf{Intelligence}};{\bf{Quotient}};\left( {{\bf{IQ}}} \right) = \frac{{{\bf{Mental}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{MA}}} \right);}}{{{\bf{Chronological}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{CA}}} \right)}} \times 100\)

Where,

• Mental Age is based on intellectual development.
• Chronological Age is the number of years a person has lived.

Important Points 

Refer to the IQ table for further information:

 

Hence, it could be concluded that according to Terman, child having I. Q ranges from 90-100 is considered as Average Intelligence.

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist has propounded the 'Theory of Classical Conditioning' which emphasizes that learning as a habit formation is based on the principle of association and substitution.

Key Points 

• Dog was involved in Pavlov’s experiment of classical conditioning. During his experiment, Pavlov noticed that dog started secreting saliva as soon as the dog saw the empty plate in which food was served. Saliva secretion is a reflexive response to food or something in the mouth.

Let's have a look at Pavlov’s experiment:

• Pavlov was studying the gastric secretion of the dogs by placing meat powder in their mouth and measuring the saliva.
• A bell was sounded and immediately thereafter food (meat powder) was served to the dog. The dog was allowed to eat it.
• For the next few days, every time the meat powder was presented, it was preceded by the sound of a bell
• After a number of such trials, a test trial was introduced in which everything was the same as the previous trials except that no food followed the sounding of the bell.
• The dog still salivated to the sound of the bell, expecting the presentation of the meat powder as the sound of the bell had come to be connected with it.
• This association between the bell and food resulted in the acquisition of a new response by the dog, i.e. salivation to the sound of the bell. This has been termed as conditioning.
• All dogs salivate when they are presented with food. Food is thus an Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and salivation, which follows it, is an Unconditioned Response (UR).
• After conditioning, salivation started to occur in the presence of the sound of the bell. The bell becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and saliva secretion a Conditioned Response (CR). This kind of conditioning is called classical conditioning.

Hence, it could be concluded that in learning, Pavlov’s conditioning theory, he experimented on Dog.

Hint

• Cat was involved in Thorndike’s experiment of Trial & Error.
• Rat was involved in Skinner’s experiment of operant conditioning.
• Monkey/Chimpanzee was involved in Kohler’s experiment of Insightful Learning.

There are many learning theories in psychology that are related to different schools of psychology such as cognitive, humanistic, behavioristic, etc.

• These theories are propounded by eminent psychologists to provide a framework to understand different aspects of human behavior.

Key Points

• Wolfgang Kohler, a German psychologist, is associated with ‘Theory of Insightful learning’.
• In his theory, he has proposed the term ‘Insight’ that doesn't take place with trial & error, rather than it is a sudden reorganization of experience.

As per ‘Theory of Insightful learning’:

• The solution to a problem arrives ‘all of a sudden’ flash of insight when a person is struggling.
• Insight enhances an individual's ability to perceive and understand something or someone instinctively.
• Insight doesn't rely on behavior or observation, it is the sudden realization of a problem's solution using intuition.

Important Points

Kohler demonstrated the following experiment based on insight:

• He kept chimpanzees in a closed room where food was kept out of their reach, and items like boxes, stick was there.
• The chimpanzee would roam inside the room to reach the food.
• They would ‘suddenly’ stand on a box and use the stick to bring food close to them.
• It should be noted that it was not the result of trial and error instead, the chimpanzee suddenly came up with the idea to use boxes and stick.

Hence, it could be concluded that the learning by insight theory was propounded by Wolfgang Kohler.

Additional Information

The term motivation is derived from the Latin word ‘movere’, referring to the movement of activity. Motives are the general states that enable us to make predictions about behavior in many different situations. In other words, motivation is one of the determinants of behavior. 

Important Points

• Motivation is one of the most frequently used words in psychology. According to GOOD, a psychologist, "Motivation is the Process of arousing, sustaining and regulating activity."
• It refers to the factors which move or activate the organism. We infer the presence of motivation when we see that people work toward certain goals.
• For example, we might observe that a student works hard at almost every task that comes to him/her; from this, we infer that he has a motive to achieve.
• The process of initiating action is technically called ‘motivation’. Directing behavior towards a certain goal is the essence of motivation. Motivation is not always directly observable. It is inferred and used to explain behavior.  

Key Points

Nature of Motivation:-

• It is goal-directed behavior.
• It increases the efficiency of the child.
• It is a dynamic process and based on motives.
• Motivation is of two types ie. extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.

Thus, it is concluded that the process of arousing, sustaining, and regulating activity is Motivation.

Hint

• Sensation: Sensation is the process by which one form of energy is converted into another form. For example, light is converted into neural impulses by which we code sensory events in our system that can be processed by our brain. The sensory systems process information reaching the brain.
• Perception: Perception is a cognitive component that allows people to take in information through their senses (sensation) and then utilize this information to respond and interact with the world.
• Learning: It is a comprehensive process that refers to a change in >behavior, knowledge, and skill as a result of practice and experience. It modifies the behavior and personality of an individual. It includes all the experiences an individual receives throughout life.

Forgetfulness is the failure to recall or retain information. It can be a normal part of aging. As people grow older, they start forgetting things.

Important PointsThere are various ways of minimizing forgetfulness:

• Follow a routine
• Note down all the things
• Focus on one thing at a time
• Repetition of a lesson or memorizing things twice
• ​With training, practice, and motivation memory can be improved.

Thus, it is concluded that repetition of lessons is a way of minimizing forgetfulness.

Key PointsThere are a few causes of forgetfulness:-

• Lack of sleep
• Overwork, stress, and anxiety
• Depression, Fatigue or lack of exercise

Emotion is a psychological construct that involves the use of emotional processing and emotional expression in response to a different situation.

Key Points

• Emotion is a mental state or a feeling such as hatred, happiness, anger, surprise, love, and fear which can be caused by the situation an individual is going through.
• Emotions are experienced as positive feelings, negative feelings, undesired reactions to any stressful situation, these often impact decision making.
• Emotions activate and direct behaviour in the same way biological and psychological motives do. Human beings are often more aware of our emotions than our underlying motives.
• Emotions can sometimes interfere with motivated behavior. For example, an irritated child will not be able to focus on completing his homework.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that anger and fear is a type of emotion.

Additional Information

• Hypothesis is an assumption that is based on known facts but has not yet been proved.
• Instincts refer to a set of behaviour that impacts the individual's emotion.
• Motivation refers to the process that guides an individual to achieve a goal. There are two main types of motivation which include extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.