Child Development and Pedagogy PYQs

Consolidation Theory of Memory: Memories are solidified in long-term stores over days, weeks, months, and years. This process is referred to as consolidation.

• In this theory, an old concept that refers to how long term memory develops over time after initial acquisition.
• From a cognitive neuroscience perspective, consolidation is conceived of as biological changes that underlie the long-term retention of learned information, and we can ask what brain structures and systems support this process.
• One idea is that consolidation strengthens the associations between multiple stimulus inputs and activations of previously stored information.

Hence we conclude that the Consolidation theory explains the solidified long-term memory.

Educational psychology extremely influences the principles of education. It applies to the psychological principles and techniques for human behavior in educational situations.

Main methods of Educational Psychology

• Introspection
• Observation
• Experimental Method
• Clinical Method
• Developmental Method
• Rating Scale and Questionnaire
• Testing Method.

Important Points

Introspection Method: Introspection means observing one‘s own behavior through self-analysis. This method is the most subjective in nature. The data of the introspection method may not be reliable and valid since the investigator may become subjective and biased when s/he looks into his/her own feelings.There are always undergoing many activities in the mind of a person. 

Merits of Introspection: 

• The introspection method is a very easy method. It requires no laboratory and no apparatus.
• It is the oldest method of Psychology. The study of the behavior of a person is incomplete without the use of this method.
• It can help him to improve his thinking and performance.

Limitations of Introspection:

• It is very difficult to observe a mental activity within a short period of time. If one starts observing the mental activity, it disappears or changes its pattern.
• Mental activities are constantly undergoing changes. Hence it is very difficult to observe and analyze one‘s mental activities through the method of Introspection.
• This method lacks objectivity and is subjective in nature.
• Introspection can be used only up to the conscious level. It has no approach to the subconscious mind, which is as important as the conscious mind.

 

• Observation Method: It is very useful for the study of the behavior of a person it is used in education for the study of the behavior of students in particular situations inside and outside the classroom.  The results of the observation can be affected by the subjective factors of the investigator.
• Experimental Method: In Psychology, the method of observing mental behavior in laboratory according to scientific rules is called the experimental method.  It is free from subjectivity.
• Extrospection Method: It is a method of observation of things external to one’s own mind, as opposed to introspection.

Hence, we conclude that the Introspection method is the most subjective in nature because here the person observe his/her own feelings.

'Albert Bandura', an American psychologist has propounded "Social Learning Theory". This theory is also called 'learning through imitation' as his theory emphasizes that:

• learning takes place through indirect sources, like watching or hearing others.
• cognitive and problem-solving skills can be learned by imitating and watching others.
• new behaviors and experiences are acquired by observing others in the immediate environment.

The social learning theory of 'Albert Bandura' emphasizes that the principles of social learning consist of four steps (respectively) including:

 

Hence, it could be concluded that Albert Bandura is associated with 'Social Learning Theory.

Additional Information

Learning Curve: The learning curve is a graphical representation that indicates the progress or lack of improvement in a given activity. There are several characteristics of the learning curve.

Some of them are as follows: The learning progress at any stage is not always uniform. The last stage of the learning curve is called a plateau. The scope for learning is very low in the final stages of the curve. 

Important Points

The three stages of the learning curve are:

• Slow beginning
• Steep progress
• Plateau.

1. Slow beginning: In this phase, the learner gradually pacing to learn the concept. He/she has to start the learning of a given activity from scratch, his early progress will be slow. This is the beginning stage of learning, in which the learner is motivated to gain new information.
2. Steep progress: In this phase, the learner successfully learned the concept.  In this stage, the learner steps accelerating in learning the concepts. After some time the learner gains a total understanding of the concept and reaches the boom stage of learning. and his/her learning improves swiftly.
3. Plateau: The plateau effect is often seen in the pattern of development, indicating periods of no apparent improvement.

• In this stage, learning plateau occurs, after gaining the mastery on the concept, the learner feels bore and want to learn new thing.
• Once the curve hit a plateau when they are not willing to add new to their learning and the performance gets deteriorated. So the teacher should always introduce the same concept with innovative methods, this will overcome the boredom.
• An example of the plateau effect is when someone's exercise fails to be as effective as in the past, or due to feeling fatigued because of a repetitive or similar concept.

Hence, we conclude that Plateau in the learning curve is caused due to fatigue.

Bilateral transfer of learning occurs when there is the transfer of performance to one side of the body following training of the opposite side, eg. improved left-handed performance following right-handed training. You will verify the phenomenon by conducting a simple experiment as explained below.

Key Points

• Problem: To demonstrate the phenomenon of bilateral transfer of learning.
• Material Required: Mirror-drawing apparatus, stylus, stop watch, paper and pencil.

Procedure:

• The following instructions are to be given to the participant, “Look at this mirror, you will see a star image.
• The star image is a reflection of a pattern grooved on the wooden board and hidden by the screen. Take the stylus in your left hand (the experimenter will give the stylus to the participant and helps him/her to position it at the end of the nearest projection).
• Now you will have to look into the mirror image and trace the star pattern with the stylus. Be careful about the stylus not touching the edges of the groove.
• If you touch, it will be counted as an error. Try to do as speedily as possible.” After the participant traces the path once with the left hand, she/he is asked to trace the path again. Time taken and the number of errors committed are noted down.
• In the same way, now the participant is asked to trace the star pattern with the right hand for 10 trials. In each of these trials, the number of errors committed and the amount of time taken in seconds to complete the pattern are noted down. A
• gain the participant is asked to perform the same task in the same manner with the left hand, and the errors committed and time taken in seconds are noted down.
• Compare the time taken in seconds and errors committed in the first trial with left hand with that of the second trial with left hand (after training with right hand for ten trials). Find out whether there is any transfer of training in the second trial with left hand and also if it is positive, negative or zero transfer.

Hence, it is clear that Mirror drawing test is used to measure transfer of learning.

Cloud Picture Test is a psychometric test is used to measure the personality of an individual. This test is made by Williams Stern. It is design fantasy-stimuli which would avoid the disadvantages of the Rorschach Series. 

• It consists series of three pictures that resemble clouds rather than ink-blots. 
• Picture A offers the most distinct shades and forms.
• Picture C is the vaguest,
• Picture B occupies an intermediate position. There is no symmetry or other regularity in these pictures.
• In this test, the respondents are shown pictures of the cloud and asked what cloud resembles.
• The respondents observe the pictures of the cloud and respond to what kind of pictures he is seeing. This how the personality of an individual assesses.
• Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach replace these cloud with ten inkblot test.

​Hence, we conclude that the Cloud Picture Test is used to measure personality.

Psychology Tests are used to measure the unique traits of an individual to know his ability, aptitude, attitude contrast with their personality, intelligence, emotions, etc. These different psychology tests are:

 

Hence, we can conclude 3 out of 4 test are made to measure the personality of an individual, Raven's Progressive Matrices test is made to measure the fluid intelligence of an individual.

Concept:

Median

Case 1: If the number of observation (n) is even

\({\rm{Median;}} = {\rm{;}}\frac{{{\rm{value;of;}}{{\left( {\frac{{\rm{n}}}{2}} \right)}^{{\rm{th}}}}{\rm{;observation;}} + {\rm{;;value;of;}}{{\left( {\frac{{\rm{n}}}{2}{\rm{;}} + 1} \right)}^{{\rm{th}}}}{\rm{;observation}}}}{2}\)

Case 2: If the number of observation (n) is odd

\({\rm{Median;}} = {\rm{value;of;}}{\left( {\frac{{{\rm{n}} + 1}}{2}} \right)^{{\rm{th}}}}{\rm{;observation}}\)

Calculation:

Arrange the observations in the ascending order are

7,8,9,10,11,12

Here, n = 6 = even.

So, 3^rd and 4^th observation are 9 and 10

∴\({\rm{Median}} = {\rm{;}}\frac{{9 + 10}}{2} = 9.5\)

The Gestalt theory of learning also named Learning by Insight is the contribution of German psychologists who were studying the nature of perception.

Key Points

• Gestalt Theory of Learning (Learning by Wholes) or Learning by Insight states that perceptual phenomena are only experienced as wholes or Gestalts.
• Translation of Gestalt is „configuration‟ or more simply „an organized whole in contrast to a collection of parts‟.
• Gestalt psychologists consider the process of learning as a Gestalt – an organized whole.
• A thing cannot be understood by the study of its constituent parts but only by the study of it as a totality, is a basic idea behind this theory.
• Learning, according to Gestalt Theory, is not by random steps, not by trial and error, not by conditioning but by insight, introspection, and understanding.
• The Gestaltians tend to place far more emphasis on the intrinsic organizing capacity in the brain of the individual and emphasis the dynamic interaction of the elements in the entire perceptual field.
• Gestalt theory of learning essentially consists of problem-solving by understanding the relative position of the elements in the entire perspective or situation.

Additional Information

 

Hence, we conclude that the theory of insight is propounded by Gestalt Psychologist.

Emotions expressed by humans can be divided into two broad categories and are called positive and negative emotions. Examples of emotions include the following: Interest, enthusiasm, boredom, laughter, empathy, action, curiosity, anger, rebellion, irritation, etc.

According to William McDougall’s concept of emotions instincts and emotions were both innate patterns.

• As per McDougall, the primary emotions were fear, disgust, wonder, anger, subjection, elation, tenderness. According to him, each instinctual tendency has a corresponding emotion.
• William McDougall(2003) analyses an instinctive behavior, in three aspects:
• Cognitive or (knowing or perceptive) aspect.
• Affective or (feeling or emotional) aspect.
• Conative or (doing or behavior) aspect.
• The occurrence of some form of arousal in the emotion gives rise to a cognitive search for an explanation of arousal.
• In the opinion of McDougall, feelings arise and are conditioned by the degrees of success and failure of one's own efforts, whereas emotions are aroused by some object or person deemed responsible for one’s success or failure in some particular situation.
• Emotion is not just a feeling gone violent but itself a singular experience.

Hence, we conclude that According to McDougall, every instinct is associated with emotion.

Perception is the process through which we interpret and organize the received information so as to produce our conscious experience of objects and their relationship.

• We feel something in sensation when the stimulus is present and when the meaning is added to them it becomes perception.
• In this process, physical energy; such as light, sound waves, heat; emanating from objects is transformed by the concerned sense organs into a code and transferred to and interpreted by the brain.
• The line between the two terms sensation and perception, therefore, is somewhat arbitrary.
• The sensation typically refers to the direct reception and transmission of messages, whereas perception refers to the active process of integrating and organizing these sensations.

 

Hence, we conclude that giving the meaning to sensation on the basis of past experience is called Perception.

Intelligence Quotient is abbreviated as IQ. IQ is a measurement of a person’s intelligence and it is measured in number. The average IQ of a person is 100.

An individual’s Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is determined by the formula:

\({\bf{Intelligence}};{\bf{Quotient}};\left( {{\bf{IQ}}} \right) = \frac{{{\bf{Mental}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{MA}}} \right);}}{{{\bf{Chronological}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{CA}}} \right)}} \times 100\)

where Mental Age is based on your intellectual development.

Chronological Age is the number of years a person has lived.

Given: CA = 5 years∴80=MA10×100∴80=MA10×100

MA = 8 years

\(\therefore IQ = \frac{{{\bf{8}}}}{{5}} \times 100\)

IQ = 160

Hence, the IQ of a child will be 160 and the child IQ will lie in above 130 IQ Range and having the Very Superior Intelligence (Gifted).

Mental retardation, as a developmental disability, has attracted considerable public attention. Its general debilitating character has made it a distinct category of disability. Individuals with mental retardation, face considerable difficulty in their lives in adapting to the demands of day-to-day life.

Classification of Mental Retardation:

Based On IQ: There are mainly three methods of classification of mental retardation. They are medical, psychological, and educational. The psychological and educational classifications are more commonly and widely used than medical classifications. 

• Educational Classification: This system uses the term educable, trainable, and custodial depending on the educational needs of retarded children.
• The IQ ranges of educable mentally retarded (EMR), trainable mentally retarded (TMR), and the custodial mentally retarded (CMR) are given below:
• | Levels of MR | IQ Range of MR | Educators | | --- | --- | --- | | Mild Retardation | 50-70 | Educable Mentally Retarded | | Moderate Retardation | 35-50 | Trainable Mentally Retarded | | Severe Retardation | 20-35 | Custodial Mentally Retarded | | Profound Retardation | Below 20 | Custodial Mentally Retarded) |

Important Points

• Educable Mentally Retarded (EMR): The educable mentally retarded children are those who can be taught the basic academic subjects.
• Trainable Mentally Retarded (TMR): The trainable mentally retarded are those children who can be taught functional academics with an emphasis on self-help and vocational skills.
• Custodial Mentally Retarded (CMR): The custodial mentally retarded are those children who require constant and special care especially in a residential institution.

Hence, we conclude that the 35 – 50 IQ range is called a trainable IQ level of mentally retarded children. So the answer is 36-49.

Rorschach inkblot Test: Hermann Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist, devised the Rorschach Inkblot Personality test in 1921. This test is most frequently used for the projective test

• The test consists of a standard set of 10 cards with inkblots printed on them.
• The Rorschach test is a measure of both intellectual and non-intellectual personality traits.
• In the series of 10 cards five are achromatic, two cards are black and red, and the remaining three cards are polychromatic in combination of green, blue, orange and pink blots.
• Conducted by the examiner to determine important aspects of each response into a coding system under four categories; Location, Determinant, Content, and Popularity.
• It consists of the following categories of scoring the protocol:-
• Total number of responses (R)
• Human responses (H)
• Animal responses (A)
• Anatomical responses (At)
• Sex responses (Sex)
• Movement responses (M)
• Rejection of images (Rej.)
• Most typical responses (MT)
• Typical responses (T)
• Atypical responses (AT).
• In the test, the subjects are asked to simply state whatever each inkblot looks like to them.
• Responses are scored by the psychologists using predetermined categories, on key factors such as color and shape, movement.
• These blots are frequently used for personality description, diagnosis of mental disorders, and for behaviour predictions.
• The whole procedure of The Rorschach Test is a combined set of three components, viz., performance proper, inquiry, and scoring.

Hence, we conclude that Rorschach inkblot test is used to measured Personality traits.

Forgetting: Forgetting is a failure to retrieve information from long-term memory stores. Much of the information is lost but enough remains so that we have a sketchy record of our lives. Sometimes what we think is forgotten in real sense is not forgotten because it was never encoded and stored in the first place. 

Causes of Forgetting:  Many students complain that they do not remember the contents after attending the class or forget after reading .the text. This happens due to :

• Mental Conflict: Many times we forget as memory does not match events that had occurred. This happens due to the constructive processes i.e. during encoding, the to-be-remembered information, interference due to similar material.
• Under-learning, some information does not reach short term memory from the sensory register.
• Defective methods of remembering: Inadequate encoding and rehearsal, the information may not have been transferred from short term to long term memory.

NOTE: Desire to learn is helpful in remembering the information for the long term.

Hence, we conclude that the desire to remember is not the cause of forgetting.

Statistics: In the singular sense, Statistics refers to what is called statistical methods which means the science which deals with the techniques for collection, classifying, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of statistical/numerical data information. In simple language, it means the subject of Statistics like any other subject such as Mathematics or Economics. 

• This definition lays emphasis on five important aspects, which in fact, constitute the very scope of the subject called Statistics or Statistical Methods. These are:
• Collection of Data: In any statistical inquiry, the collection of data is the first basic step. They form the foundation of statistical analysis, and therefore utmost care should be taken in collecting data in Primary and Secondary form.
• Classification of Data: It follows editing. It involves arranging data according to some common characteristics.
• Presentation of Data: Presented the data in the form of diagrams and graphs to facilitate the understanding of various trends as well as the process of comparison of various situations.
• Analysis of Data: It is the most important step in any statistical inquiry. A major portion of this course in Statistics is devoted to the methods used for analyzing the collected data to derive some policy conclusions.
• Interpretation of Data: It is the last but very crucial stage of a statistical inquiry or investigation. It is a job in itself that requires a high degree of aptitude, skill, and experience.

Additional Information

 

Hence, we conclude that the science which deals with the methods of collecting, classifying, presenting, comparing, and interpreting numerical data is called Statistics.

Sir Cyril Burt, the distinguished psychologist, and educationist can be regarded as the pioneer investigator of the 'Educational quotient of the Backward Child'. His work on the Backward Child' is of prime importance.

• In- his book 'The Backward Child,' Burt reported his study. In the beginning, before reporting his work, he thought it useful to clarify and distinguish the term 'backward' from some other related terms like 'dull' and 'retarded'.
• Burt was the first who given the term 'Educationally quotient for backward children'.
• Burt's view regarding the term 'backward' refers to the Educational Age in relation to the Chronological Age.
• Children having an Educational Quotient of 85 or less could be regarded as Educationally Backward, according to his criterion.
• He states: "Educationally backward in the technical sense all those who in the middle of their school career would be unable to do the work of the class next below that which is normal for their age".

Hence, we conclude that Cyril Burt has given the concept of educational quotient for backward children.

Tests are devices to gather information through some specified tasks presented to individuals. We come across various types of tests in education e.g. oral, written and practical; group or individual; performance, etc. Sometimes 'examination' is also used to mean a device or a test. 

Key Points

Characteristics of Good Test: A good test should enable us to the achievement or ability accurately and economically. Here we take a good test - validity, reliability, and usability.

• Validity: A test is said to be valid if it measures what it is supposed to measure. Cronbach defines validity as "the extent to which a test measures what it to measure".
• Reliability: A test is reliable if it gives consistent results of measurement on its administration on different occasions. Pupils should score similar scores if the test is repeated. Its administration maybe after some gap of time and the condition is that pupils do not receive any further training of related test content.
• Usability: Usability refers to practicability - ease, and economy in terms of energy, time, and money. Usability means a test should be: easy to construct; easy in administrating; easy in scoring; easy in interpreting; and economic in terms of money and time.
• Objectivity: When a student's score on a test is based only on the student's answers and not on the personal biases of the scorer (or teacher), then the scoring is considered to be objective. This depends on the procedure of the scoring (and the type of item to be scored).

Hence, we conclude that aptitude is not a characteristic of a good test, it is a part of the personality.

Theory of Regression: It is a statistical process for estimating the relationships among variables. It includes many techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables when the focus is on the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent.

Key Points

Intelligence Theories: 

 

Hence, we conclude that the Theory of regression is not the theory of intelligence. It is a part of statistical analysis.

The correct answer is Salivary gland.

Explanation:

Gland: A gland is an organ which produces and releases substances that perform a specific function in the body. Glands are two types:

• Exocrine glands are the glands that secrete their product into a duct. 
• For example, the salivary gland secretes the saliva into the salivary duct.
• Endocrine glands are the glands that secrete their product directly into the blood. There are no ducts in endocrine glands. 
• For example Hypothalamus gland, Pituitary gland, Adrenal gland, Thyroid gland etc.

So, Salivary gland is not a ductless gland.