Child Development and Pedagogy PYQs

Flanders Interaction Analysis Category System (FIACS) technique was developed by Dr Ned A. Flander. It is an observation technique which records classroom interaction in ten categories. This system measures only the verbal behaviour of teachers. This tool-related children's attitudes to patterns of teacher influence. It is primarily concerned with analyzing the influence patterns of the teacher, and distinguishes those acts of the teacher which increase pupils' freedom of action from those acts that decrease it. In the Flanders ten category system all the events that occur in the classroom are classified into three major sections:

• Teacher-talk: It includes-
• Indirect Influence: Accepting Feelings, Praising/Encouraging, Accepting Ideas and Asking Question
• Direct Influence: Lecturing, Giving Directions, Criticizing/Justifying Authority
• Student-talk: It includes-
• Responding Teacher
• Initiating Talk
• Silence or confusion: It is used to handle anything else that is not a teacher or student talk.

Hence, we conclude that the Guardian talk is not related to Flander's interaction analysis system.

In speech, the smallest unit of meaning is 'morpheme' as it is the smallest unit of meaning that can't be broken up. Eg- 'un' in the word unable.

Morpheme is a meaningful linguistic unit of a word which:

• can't be divided into smaller meaningful parts.
• repeatedly convey lexical/grammatical meaning.
• assign a particular grammatical property to a word.

Hence, it could be concluded that in speech, the smallest unit of meaning is 'morpheme'.

NOTE:

Along with John Dewey, the promoter of the Philosophy of Pragmatism, **Simpson also supported the of learning by doing which has the following

key points:

**

Key Points

• It emphasizes that reality must be experienced and students must interact with their environment in order to adapt and learn.
• It promotes self-learning and self-assessment and gives real experience of solving real-life problems.
• It is a way of combining thinking and reasoning with the practical act of manipulating objects for solving a problem.
• Learning by doing ensures the development of self-learning skills, emotional growth, physical coordination, and cognition as they gain knowledge by engaging with the contents and objects and gains real experience in real-life situations.

Hence, we conclude that Simpson said: "We learn by doing".

There are three different levels of teaching and teaching takes place at three levels progressively- memory level of teaching, understanding level of teaching, and reflective level of teaching. They must keep in mind the developmental stage of the learners so that desired educational objectives can be achieved.

1. Memory level of teaching (MLT): Least thoughtful teaching

• It is the initial stage of teaching.
• It involves the habit of rote memorization. In such type of act, memory plays a key role.
• The teacher presents factual information before the learner. The learner tries to memorize these facts with the least involvement of his/her thinking and reasoning power. It represents the involvement of the least thoughtful behaviour.
• The evaluation includes oral, written, and essay-type examinations.

1. Understanding level of teaching (ULT): thoughtful teaching

• Understanding something is to perceive the meaning, grasp the idea, and comprehend the meaning.
• It focuses on the mastery of the subject.
• The teaching at the understanding level is of a higher quality than the one at the memory level.
• At this level of teaching, the teacher explains the student about the relationship between principles and facts and teaches them how these principles can be applied.
• The learner and the teacher are actively involved in this level of teaching.
• The evaluation includes both essay and objective type questions.

1. Reflective level of teaching (ULT): Most thoughtful level

• It is a problem-centric approach to teaching.
• Teaching at the reflective level represents the highest level of the teaching activities that can be carried out in the most thoughtful modes of operation providing the desirable quality of teaching situation and experience to the learner for utilizing and enhancing their cognitive abilities to the maximum.
• At this level, the student is made to face a real problematic situation. The student by understanding the situation and using his critical abilities succeeds in solving the problem.
• At this level, the emphasis is laid on identifying the problem, defining it, and finding a solution to it. The student’s original thinking and creative-abilities develop at this level.
• The aim is to develop the reflective power of learners so that they can solve problems of their lives by reasoning, logic, and imagination and lead successful and happy lives.

Hence, Descriptive level is not the level of teaching.

Teaching can be performed with such skill and grace so that both teachers, as well as learners, experience the whole process aesthetically. It involves various facets of it. Philip Jackson divided teaching operations into three phases and they are Pre-active, Interactive, and post-active phases.

• Pre-active stage: This stage involves the following activities:
• Ascertaining entry competence
• Stating learning outcomes
• Analyzing content and subordinate concepts
• Identifying types of learning
• Interactive stage: This stage involves the following activities like deciding methods/approaches of stimulus presentation, deciding on expected learners’ responses, Giving feedback. Major Operations in the interactive stage are:
• Perception: As soon as the teacher enters the class, he tries to percept class atmosphere, and then according to it, he adjusts his abilities for teaching. Students too, try to percept the ability of the teacher.
• Diagnosis: It involves activities like asking questions to know how much a student knows. The teacher tries to figure out students' abilities.
• Reaction: In this, the teacher observes students' reaction to how they are answering, what they are answering. By this, students learn how to react and respond to stimuli. It helps in making verbal and non-verbal interaction.
• Evaluative stage: This stage involves determining the tools to check for the achievement of the intended learning outcomes.

Hence, we conclude that the main operation in the interactive stage of teaching is ​all the above-mentioned points.

Classical Conditioning: This is the simplest form of conditioning, described Pavlov, a Russian Psychologist. Conditioning is a term used to describe the process by which neutral stimulus gains the power to elicit a specific conditioned response. This is explained through the experiments done by Pavlov. He associated the presentation of food to the dog with another stimulus as the sound of the bell. After giving some trials in which bell preceded the presentation of food, the dog started salivating at the sound of the bell. There are some aspects of classical conditioning which require consideration:

• Acquisition: For acquisition, each paired presentation of the conditioned stimulus (Sound of bell) and the unconditioned stimulus (Food) should be presented a number of times and the interval between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus should be short.
• Stimulus Substitution: With conditioning a link a bond is formed between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus and as a result of this conditioned stimulus (bell) becomes equivalent to the unconditioned stimulus (food) in eliciting a response. We mean thereby that an association between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus enables one to substitute conditioned stimulus for unconditioned stimulus in evoking a response.
• Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
• Stimulus Generalization: When conditioning has occurred or when the conditioned response to a stimulus has been acquired, then other similar stimuli can also elicit the same response. This is known as stimulus generalization. In Pavlov’s experiment, the dog gave CR (salivation) to a slightly different bell also. Another example is: A child starts fearing after seeing a black cow, black dog and black objects.
• Stimulus Discrimination: Stimulus Discrimination is to make one response to one stimulus and different response or no response to another. In experiments it is demonstrated by using two different tones (SCI) (bell). On one trial CS (1) is paired with US (food) and on the other trial CS (2) given without US (food). The s learns to respond only to CS (I).
• Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery: Repetition of the conditioned stimulus (bell) without unconditioned stimulus repeatedly gradually diminishes the response. This is called Extinction. A response that has been extinguished, does come-up later on its own, this is called spontaneous recovery. At this stage, if reinforcement (US) is not presented with CS, the response extinguishes permanently.

Hence, we conclude that the above type of conditioning includes stimulus generalization.

Teaching method: Different teaching methods are used by teachers as per the requirements of students. For choosing the one, the teacher may classify students based on their abilities (ability grouping) or he can choose it based on the compatibility of the topic.

• Efficient teaching methods are the essential tools that can help teachers to make the students achieve success in the classroom.
• Each student has a different personality and their learning ability also differs.
• There are several factors that a teacher must consider when choosing a teaching method for the students.
• Some determining factors for selecting a teaching method include the students’ interest and background knowledge, as well as their environment and learning abilities, mental level of students, nature of the subject, and individual difference.

Hence, we conclude that parental background should not be kept in mind while selecting a teaching method.

Development can be defined as the change of shape, size, health or change in psychology.

The development of human beings is divided into different stages: Infancy, Early childhood, Late Childhood, Adolescence and Adulthood.

Early Childhood (3-5 yrs): This is also called the toy age as kids are more engaged with toys rather than playing with other people.

• He learns various actions by imitating others.
• He asks questions whenever he gets to know about a new object. Hence, they are curious.
• When it comes to intellectual development he can recognize colour, shape, size of objects. Also his imagination develops, he wants to know about things around him and thus he questions about it.
• He can walk, uses the toilet (growth), interacts with his family members (gregarious).

 

 

Hence, we can conclude from the above description that Lack of curiosity is not a characteristic of childhood.

Creativity is the phenomenon whereby imaginative and original ideas are turned into reality. It is a cognitive ability to produce something original by offering a fresh perspective. It is goal-directed thinking which is unusual, novel, and useful.

Key Points

Graham Wallas (1926) outlined the creative thinking process into four stages:

1. Preparation: It involves collecting information regarding a problem in order to solve it through trial and error, recalling personal experiences and investigating in all possible directions.
2. Incubation: In this stage, the solution exists but there is a lack of clarity. It is a slow process in which the individual sinks into the unconscious and reflects on the problem.
3. Illumination: It is the stage the individual is most active and conscious. It is in this stage that an insight to the problem is experienced suddenly and a new idea or solution emerges.
4. Verification: This stage might involve modifications to the solution reached in the previous stage by adding or subtracting, or making new connections. The final solution achieved is tested in reality. If the solution does not apply to the problem then the whole process is repeated.

Hence, it could be concluded that motivation is not related to creative process.

Development, which is continuous change, is a phenomenon which is observed both in terms of quality and quantity. In quantity, we measure terms like height, weight.

• Measuring quantitively is called growth. i.e. growth in terms of structural and physiological changes, which is a subset of development.
• Growth is a ceaseless change measurable in terms of weight, height, and size. When measured qualitatively as well that is, in terms of skills, it becomes development.

Key Points

Physical & Motor Development:

It refers to the growth of body parts both internally and externally. It is the first step of growth and development.

• While motor development is the ability to move body parts and is of two types: Gross Motor Skills and Fine Motor Skills
• Gross Motor Skill is the ability to use large body parts like kicking a football with legs.
• On the other hand, fin motor skill refers to use small body parts like writing with a pen using fingers.

Additional Information

The following are types of development:

 

Hence, we conclude that  Physical development is the first step of growth and development.

Learning is the process of acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge, behaviours, skills.

Characteristics of learning:

• Learning is transferable.
• Learning requires interaction.
• Learning is a lifelong process.
• It can be observed directly.
• It can be retained through practice.
• Learning is the growth of organisms.
• Learning is a goal-directed process.
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour.
• Learning is the relationship between stimulus and response.

Hence, we conclude that Learning is a form of behavioural ​modification.

B.F. Skinner is considered as the most influential psychologist advocating the role of operant conditioning in learning. He developed an experimental chamber (called Skinner Box) to study the learning process in rats. The book "The Behaviour of Organisms" was launched by BF Skinner in 1938 in which he explained that behaviour changes lifetime. Also, he wrote about the basic unit of behaviour i.e. operant which is explained below.

Operant Conditioning: Modification of Behaviour through Reinforcement

• If a child completes the homework she is praised (rewarded) by the parents and the child learns to perform the task.
• If the child breaks a plate, he/she is scolded (punished) and she will learn not to repeat the behaviour. This is called Operant Conditioning or instrumental conditioning.
• In other words, we learn to perform behaviours that produce positive outcomes and avoid behaviours that yield negative outcomes.

Hence, we conclude that a Skinner box is used for ​operant conditioning

Performance test, also known as a non-verbal intelligence test is a test that:

• assesses learner's ability to understand and interpret visual information like pictures or diagrams.
• emphasizes to activate learner's logical, spatial, and abstract reasoning to solve a particular task.

Key Points

• Bhatia Battery test is a performance test of intelligence which is developed by C.M. Bhatia in 1955. It includes cards with different patterns and the children are required to draw these patterns without lifting the pencil.

Bhatia Battery Test includes five sub-tests, namely:

• Pattern Drawing Test
• Kohs' Block Design Test
• Picture construction Testx
• Alexander Pass along Test
• Immediate Memory Test for Digits

Let's Understand the Sub-tests in Brief:

 

Hence, it could be concluded that Bhatia battery test of intelligence has '5 sub-sets'.

Kindergarten system of teaching is propounded by Friedrich Frobel, a German pedagogue who established the first Kindergarten school in Germany in 1837. Note that:

• In this method, he characterized children as 'plants' and the teachers as the 'gardeners' because they are the optimistic one who could foster the potential of young seedlings to grow and bloom.
• The purpose of this method is to provide children with a rich, meaningful and balanced learning through appropriate activities at their own pace in a collaborative environment.
• It is based on the physiological principle of development and growth to keep the child fit and enables the overall development of child and understanding of the subject to make learning more effective.

Hence, we conclude that Froebel was the founder of the Kindergarten method.

Counseling is a process of enabling the individual to know himself and his present and possible future situations in order that he may make substantial contributions to society and to solve his own problems through a face-to-face relationship with the counselor.

Key Points

1. There are different types of counseling approaches which include Collective/eclectic, Directive, and Non-directive counseling. Collective counseling is a combination of Directive and Non-directive counseling.

Key Points

Collective counselling was propounded by 'F.C.Thorn'. It is a more flexible type of counselling approch which:

• uses techniques drawn from several different schools of thought.
• allows the therapist to adapt to each client’s individual diverse needs.
• combines different counselling methods to deal with counsellee's problems.
• collaborates behavioral and psychodynamic therapeutic techniques effectively.

Hence, it could be concluded that collective counselling was propounded by **'**F.C. Thorn'.

Additional Information

Classroom Management consists of the teacher’s thoughts, plans, and actions that create an orderly environment and promote learning. Classroom management stands for the management of resources, pupils’ learning activities, and behaviours in the classroom. It is essentially a human relation skill.

In order to modify the undesirable behaviour of students the most effective method is to find out the reasons and attempt to provide remedies. The modification of undesirable behaviour is part of classroom management.

Classroom management is complex and many variables need to be considered when making decisions about specific situations. Planning and organizations, procedures used for handling various types of behaviours of learners are all parts of classroom management. Components of Classroom management

• It focuses on ways to establish and maintain workable systems for classroom groups, rather than ways to identify misbehaviour, resolve behavioural disorders, or capture the attention of individual students.
• One of these ways is to reinforce (praise) the good (desirable) behaviours and try to ignore the bad (undesirable) ones. Praise for appropriate behaviours is probably the key behaviour for achieving effective classroom management.
• A teacher should always keep an eye on each pupil in the classroom with a view to watching everyone’s behaviour.
• Give directions to pupils for a number of purposes. If your direction is not clear, it may disrupt the teaching-learning process in the classroom.
• For effective classroom management, it is necessary that pupils are engaged in work. For this purpose, she should direct his/her pupils to take down notes of what she is teaching in the classroom.
• In order to manage the classroom effectively, there is a need on the part of a teacher to generate interaction in the classroom.
• Securing and sustaining pupils' attention to the learning task is very helpful in managing the classroom effectively. If the students do not pay attention to the learning task there is always a tendency on their part to engage in disruptive behaviour.

Hence, we conclude that In order to modify the undesirable behaviour of student the most effective method is ​to find out the reasons and attempt to provide remedies.

Learning disability refers to the neurological disorder that causes cognitive impairment. Dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, etc are the example of learning disability.

'Dyslexia' is the most common learning disability which is related with problem in reading as it makes learners:

• confuse with the same shapes and sounds of alphabet.
• unable to read, interpret, and understand letters and words.
• bewilder in identifying and relating speech sounds with letters and words.

Hence, it could be concluded that Dyslexia is related with problem in reading.

Additional Information

Other Disabilities in Brief:

A visually impaired child is the one who has a problem seeing with the naked eyes or is not able to see completely.

Key Points

Strategies for Addressing the Needs of Visually Challenged Learners:

• Speaking clearly and loudly with appropriate pauses and reiterations.
• Using the braille system as it's raised dots help in studying words through the pattern.
• Teaching can be done by a skilled teacher in Braille script or by using a tape recorder.
• Braille System: It refers to a pattern of raised dots called "Braille"  to represent letters, numbers, and punctuation marks, that can be felt with a finger.
• Tape recorder: An audio teaching-learning material, it is used for recording and replaying sounds can be used as a teaching aid.
• Designing alternate teaching-learning and assessment methods.
• Changing the objective/subject due to any inefficiency or problem is not a part of the teaching method to solve the problem or alternative formal steps will be taken.

Hence, we conclude that the Braille method and tape-recording can be used as educational provision for ​visually-impaired students.

As any individual knows, every child comes into a family with an abundance of needs: to be loved and cared for, nurtured, fed, clothed and educated, among other things. A child with special needs (acronymed as CWSN) is basically a child who, because of his or her unique medical or developmental difficulties, has needs in addition to those of his or her peers.

Key Points

Key points related to it:

• Special needs may range from mild to more severe. Most special needs respond well to treatment or special programs and services.
• The teacher plays a very important role in accomplishing most of the needs of the child.
• The Disability Act 1995 and UNCRPD (United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities) rights is an important aspect for the teacher to explain it to the parents and other stakeholders.
• Role of the teacher is very crucial while dealing with CWSN, she has to understand the meanings of each disability, identify the child and classify it to which group of disability it belongs to, and later send the child to a professional for assessment and once the assessment is done, she can plan for further intervention jointly working with professionals, parents.

Hence, we conclude that CWSN stands for ​Children with Special Needs.

Counseling is a process of enabling the individual to know himself and his present and possible future situations in order that he may make substantial contributions to the society and to solve his own problems through a face to face relationship with the counselor.

• In educational settings, counselling refers to the process which gives importance to recognize the root of the learner's problems.
• Counseling helps the teacher to better relate to the unacceptable behavior of learners and to help them with the proper guidance.

Important Points

For effective counseling, the counselor should keep in mind the element of counseling which includes:

• Interview
• The interview is one of the main techniques employed in assisting the individual to understand himself. It is the fundamental operation in the counseling process.
• By interview, the actual causes can be listed, and then the counselor should take efforts to eliminate the effects of the factors that cause the problem and should work for a permanent solution.
• Confidence
• An expert counselor can arouse confidence in the counsellee that they are close enough for his free expression of any of his feelings which he cannot talk openly with others.
• The counselor builds up the confidence of the counsellee through positive strokes, warmth, acceptance, support, and encouragement, and makes him see the more positive side of himself.
• Communication
• Counselling provides a relationship and communications which help the client to develop understanding, explore options, and start the change.
• Counselor is responsible to establish a helping relationship based on trust, freedom, positive regard and mutual respect, genuineness, accurate empathy, etc.

Hence, it could be concluded that professional growth is not an element of counselling.