Child Development and Pedagogy PYQs

Backward exploration and means-end analysis are examples of heuristics which is a mental shortcut that makes the process of problem-solving and decision making quick and efficient. These are the actual mental rules that allow people to function without frequently stopping to think about their next course of action.

 Let's understand backward exploration and means-end analysis further:

• Backward explorations: It is a process in which we analyze the previous solutions of a problem, apply them to the problem and check which is the relevant one.
• Means-end analysis: It is a problem-solving strategy that refers to envisioning the end or ultimate goal to determine the best strategy to achieve a goal by solving a problem.

Note: Other options have been explained here:

 

Hence both these are examples of heuristics, a set of mental rules to solve problems.

A German psychologist, Herman Ebbinghaus, who is best known for his work of "learning and forgetting curve".

Key Points

He said ''Curves of learning give graphic representation of the amount, rate and limit of improvement brought about by practice.”

Let's know both types of the curve in brief:

• Learning curve: It depicts how an increase in learning comes from the frequency of repetition and rehearsal at regular intervals.
• Forgetting curve: It depicts how quickly we forget information over time when there is no attempt to retain it.

It can be understood from the following diagram:

Additional Information

 

Hence, we can conclude that the above statement is said by Ebbinghaus.

E. L. Thorndike, an American psychologist, the propounder of "Trial & Error Theory" has developed three primary laws and eight supplementary laws of learning that leads to development.

These primary laws are:

Important Points

Thorndike's Supplementary law (also known as minor laws to education):

• Law of Multiple Responding: It refers to different types of responses often occurs initially to a stimulus, then reaching to the correct response.
• Law of Attitude, Disposition or States: It refers to the condition of a learner that influences learning.
• Law of Partial or Piecemeal Activity of a situation: It refers to the tendency to respond to particular elements or features of a stimulus situation rather than on the whole to improve the result.
• Law of Assimilation of response by Analogy: It is the tendency to respond automatically as responded in the past.
• Law of Associative Shifting: Successfully applying the same response until a new situation comes (For example to apply the same formula in similar questions).
• Law of Primacy: It refers to the idea that the first step matters the most.
• The law of recency: It is the tendency which refers to the idea that the most recent task matters the most
• Law of Intensity of Stimulus: The more strong the stimulus, the better the response.

Hence, we can conclude that the Law of associative shifting is not included in Thorndike’s primary laws of learning.

Conditioned Response Theory: It is known as 'Classical Conditioning Theory' propounded by Ivan Pavlov.

• A conditioned response is a learned response to a stimulus that was previously neutral.
• This theory emphasizes the conditioning of behavior by a repetitive association between the response and the stimulus.
• Classical conditioning is one basic model of learning which was a landmark in the history of understanding behavior.
• The term classical conditioning is defined as learning by association, whereby a neutral stimulus, under its occurrence in close time and space with a natural stimulus that gives rise to a natural response, becomes capable of eliciting that natural response, even in absence of the natural stimulus.
• Classical conditioning is applicable only for reflexive and spontaneous responses, and not for voluntary responses.

Note: Other options have been explained here:

 

Hence, we can conclude that the Conditioned response theory emphasizes the conditioning of Behaviour.

B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist, propounded the "Theory of Operant Conditioning" which is also known as "Instrumental Conditioning Theory". This theory refers to the learning process where learning takes place through rewarding a certain behavior or withholding reward for undesirable behavior.

SKINNER’S EXPERIMENT WITH RAT         

• Skinner developed a special apparatus known as a skinner’s box.
• This box has a grid floor, a system of light, or sound produced at the time of delivery of a pellet of food, in the food cup, on the pressing of the lever.
• Skinner placed a hungry rat in the box.
• In this experiment, pressure on the bar in a certain way, by the rat could result in the production of a click and emergence of a food pellet.
• The rat was rewarded for each proper pressing of the lever.
• The rat repeated this process and ultimately learned to press the lever desired by the experimenter.

Note: Other conditioning theories have been explained here:

 

Hence, we can conclude that the other name of operant conditioning is Instrumental conditioning.

Learning is a comprehensive process that refers to a change in behavior, knowledge, and skills as a result of practice and experience.

• Learning refers to the modification of behavioral patterns as it modifies the behavior and personality of an individual.
• Learning is an internal activity that leads to a change in behavior. It can't be directly observed.

Key Points

Characteristics of learning:

• Learning is maturation.
• Learning is an adjustment.
• Learning is development.
• Learning requires interaction.
• Learning involves problems solving.
• Learning leads to a change in behavior.
• Learning is the growth of organisms.
• Learning is purposeful and goal-oriented.
• Learning starts with birth and proceeds up to death.
• Learning is a relatively permanent behavior change.
• Learning is the relationship between stimulus and response.

Hence, from the above-mentioned characteristics of learning it could be concluded that the statement 'Learning is directly observed' is not a characteristic of learning.

Wolfgang Kohler, a German psychologist, proposed the "Theory of Insight learning". He wants to prove that learning is a perception of different parts of the situation.

Key PointsKohler's theory of insight learning:

• His theory explains thinking and differing mental processes and how they are influenced by internal and external factors to produce learning in individuals.
• Insight learning is the abrupt realization of a problem's solution.
• Insight learning is not the result of trial and error, responding to an environmental stimulus, or the result of observing someone else attempting the problem.
• It is a completely cognitive experience that requires the ability to visualize the problem and the solution internally - in the mind's eye, so to speak - before initiating a behavioral response.
• He stated that our perception is meaningful when we perceive them as wholes rather than the mere accumulation of sensations, images, or ideas.
• He considered learning as a reorganization of the learner's perceptual or psychological world.
• Kohler proposed that not all kinds of learning depend on trial-error or conditioning, we use our cognitive processes also to learn.

Thus, from the above-given explanation, we can conclude that Kohler wanted to prove that the perception of different parts of the situation 

Additional Information

Learning by Insight Kohler’s Experiment

• In one experiment Kohler put the chimpanzee, sultan, inside a cage & a banana was hung from the roof of the cage. A box was placed inside the cage. The chimpanzee tried to reach the banana by jumping but could not succeed… Suddenly, he got an idea & used the box as a jumping platform by placing it just below the hanging banana.

Language learning is a result of deliberate and conscious effort for a better understanding of foundational skills of language learning. It refers to have a basic knowledge of grammatical rules and their use in communication.

• To start a new language, one should learn the association between letters and words first.
• When we learn a language by associating words with its letter, it becomes easy to learn the language efficiently and to keep in mind for a long period.
• It helps children to link the unfamiliar word to their spoken knowledge.

A few steps to learn a new language:

• Association between letters and words.
• Set goals and deadlines.
• Choose the appropriate method and content.
• Use the language in daily life communication.
• Listen to native speakers and work on pronunciation, etc.

By following these steps, one could learn a new language efficiently.

Hence, we can conclude that to learn any new language, one should start to make an association between letters and words.

Learning disability is an umbrella term that encompasses a variety of specific kinds of learning problems. It is a neurological disorder that affects the way one receives and processes information.

Important Points

Dyscalculia is a mathematics-related learning disability. It affects the ability to perform mathematical calculations and understanding of numbers.

• Dyscalculic students cannot understand mathematical concepts like a number and its relations, operations, symbols, place value, etc.
• hinders the learner's basic understanding of numbers.
• affects learners' ability to perform mathematical calculations.
• makes learners unable in identifying mathematical symbols like +, ×,>, etc.

Additional Information

Other disabilities in brief:

 

Hence, we can conclude that Dyscalculia is a mathematics-related learning disability.

Inclusive class is a part of 'inclusive education' that refers to the inclusion of all children in the education system, regardless of their differences and disabilities.

Key Points

• It is about making school a place where both general and specific children can participate and learn.
• Its Inclusive curriculum develops values to deal with diversity each child brings to the classroom and facilitate all with equal opportunities to learn and grow.
• An inclusive classroom improves the quality and making provisions of education for all.
• It provides a provision to include disabled children along with normal children in a regular classroom environment.
• It refers to an education system that accommodates all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic, or other conditions.
• It is a process where diversity in a group concerning any aspect is appreciated and in which everyone is recognized and respected for his/her worth.

Hence, we can conclude that both General and specific students are included in the Inclusive classrooms.

Inclusion is an umbrella term that refers to include every category of children, regardless of their differences and disabilities. Each child comes with their own characteristics, strengths, and limitations, so sensitization regarding their individual needs is needed to make inclusion successful.

Key Points

These are the key ingredients needed for successful inclusion:

• Sensitization:  All teachers should be sensitized to issues related to students with special needs. Open and flexible school systems that understand disability sensitively is also a welcome initiative in this direction.
• Teacher collaboration: A school can be a place where cooperation is valued rather than competition, among children and also among teachers. This creates a healthy learning environment.
• Effective parental involvement: Parent involvement is to be increased in creating an inclusive learning environment.
• Collaborative teaching models: Use of teaching methods that suit all children-  change in curriculum, teaching methods, and materials.
• Use of multilingualism as a resource: Multilingual resources can be used to cater to the diverse needs of inclusive children.
• Well constructed plan to achieve the goal of each student, etc.

Hence, we can conclude that Successful inclusion needs sensitization.

Emotion is a mental state associated with fear, anger, love, etc. The emotional states of an individual are the combination of cognitive experience, physiological change, and behavioral changes. Together, these are known as the elements of emotion.

Key Points

Three elements of emotion are as follow:

• Cognitive experience:  Emotions also involve cognitive processes such as memorials, perceptions, expectations, and interpretations. Our appraisal of an event plays an especially significant role in the meaning it has for us. Thinking of life events can produce emotions.
• Physiological changes: Emotions involve the brain, nervous system, and hormones so that when you’re emotionally aroused the hormone secretion is more to give us instant energy.

Each emotion has a specific characteristic of physiological aspects. Fear may cause blood pressure to rise, pupils to dilate, etc.

• Behavioral changes: Emotions also involve behavioral reactions, both expressive and instrumental. Facial expressions such as smiles and frowns, as well as gestures and Lories of voice, all serve to communicate our feelings that may enhance our chances for survival. Overt expressions such as smiles, or frowns to reveal emotions.

Hence, we can conclude that Sensory is not an element of emotion, rather it refers to the use of senses to understand the physical world.

Cognitive development is an intellectual development that includes processes that people use to gain knowledge.

The correct sequence for cognitive development is

This sequence is given by B. S. Bloom.

Hence, we can conclude that the correct sequence of cognitive domain is Knowledge-Comprehension-Application-Analysis-Synthesis-Evaluation.

An effective teacher is one who is more than just an expert in the academic field. Effective teaching happens when a teacher is successful in keeping the students actively involved in learning by providing a variety of learning experiences.

• He/she must fulfill the following characteristics to produce the highest learning outcome.
• In effective teaching, a teacher should never be an autocrat because autocracy leads to indiscipline in the class. Which is not an effective quality of teaching.

Important Points

Qualities of an effective Teacher:  An effective teacher possesses the following qualities. An effective teacher:  

• Has mastery of the subject matter,
• Is skillful and artistic in teaching methods and in guiding learning,
• Treats each individual as unique and recognizes individual differences, (Democratic)
• Encourages self-learning,
• Keeps the students active and disciplined,
• Is kind and sympathetic,
• Provide desirable information to learners.
• Plans her/his teaching carefully in advance but is not very rigid with the plan,
• Is approachable and seeks the cooperation of the learners.

Additional Information

 

Hence, we can conclude that autocracy is not a quality of an effective teacher.

Expectancy theory of motivation is developed by Victor Vroom. It explains how a person selects behavior based on the outcome of previous efforts, What will be the change from resulting in those behaviors, etc.

The basic expectancy theory model emerged from the work of Edward Tolman and Kurt Lewin. However, Victor Vroom is generally credited with first applying the theory to motivation in the workplace. 

The Expectancy Theory of Motivation states that motivation depends on the desirability of the outcome as the theory explains that:

• the concept of expectancy was originally developed around valency–instrumentality–expectancy.
• valency stands for value, instrumentality is the belief that if we do one thing it will lead to another, and expectancy is the probability that action or effort will lead to an outcome.

 

Hence, we can conclude that the Expectancy theory of motivation has been given by Victor Vroom.

Model of teaching refers to a way of teaching students to learn facts, concepts, skills, analysis of values, and also to enable them to use the strategies suggested by each model and develop particular ways of thinking. 

The organizer model is one among the teaching models that fall under the information processing model which explains the transformation of information verbally or visually in a structured framework.

• This model is aimed at helping teachers organize and convey large amounts of information as meaningfully and as efficiently as possible.
• According to this model, the teacher organizes the subject content and presents information through lectures, readings, and designing tasks for the learners to integrate what they have learned.
• The learner's primary role is to master ideas and information.

Diagram:

Hence, we can conclude that the advance organizer model is related to information processing.

The term 'programmed learning' refers to a procedure of self-instruction which uses an instructional sequence in which the content to be learned is presented in a series of small steps, arranged in a logical sequence.

• To facilitate self-learning, programmed instruction materials are designed so as to give various kinds of intellectual, emotional, and psycho-motor experiences to the learner in a controlled situation through a variety of devices like booklets, machines, teachers, etc.

Key Points

• B. F. Skinner, professor of psychology at Harvard University developed the programmed learning technique and introduced linear programmed learning.
• Later on, in about 1955, Norman Crowder of the University of Chicago developed a branching program.
• There are two types of programmed learning, one is linear and the other is branching.
• Skinner is the originator of linear programming and Norman Crowder is the originator of branching programming.
• Linear programming: In linear programming, all the learners read and respond to the same frames.
• The sequence is linear in that there is a single path for all the learners to follow.
• The learner is bound to proceed from one frame to the other sequentially and to complete the program.
• It is useful in the transformation of skills as the learners learn new skills through this.
• Branching programming: As the term itself indicates, a branching program provides more than one path to follow.
• Like linear programming, if the learner responds to all the questions correctly, he/she proceeds from one step to another without any interruption.
• On the other hand, if the learner makes an error or answers wrongly, he/she is directed to follow another path known as the supplementary path which gives him/her remedial instruction.
• It is useful in achieving mastery in one skill as the frames will be kept on repeating until the learner learns them well.

Thus, it is clear that a linear program is useful in the transformation of skills.

Maxims of Teaching:

Maxims are nothing but simple guidelines or principles which help the teachers to make decisions and act accordingly during the teaching process. 

• Simple to complex:
• ​It is the psychology of a child that he wants the content in simplified form.
• Therefore the teacher must move from simple facts and then take learners towards a little more difficult state.
• Indefinite to definite:
• The content to be taught in the class may be definite for teachers but may not be so for the learners.
• Therefore the teaching style should be such that the learners are able to get direct knowledge which is possible only when they are familiarized with it.
• From seen to unseen:
• The students ranging from 6-14 years are at a perpetual level only. The child learns things easily which can be seen. So teaching should proceed from seen to unseen.
• This maxim is usually used in teaching grammatical concepts like the meaning of sentences, Tenses, Direct and Indirect Speech, etc.

​

Additional Information

Others Main Maxims of Teaching: 

• Known to Unknown
• Concrete to Abstract
• Direct to indirect
• Particular to general
• Analysis to Synthesis
• Empirical to Rational
• Psychological to Logical
• Whole to Part

Hint

• There is no maxim that supports deduction to induction because induction is related to drawing conclusions and Deductions is it's opposite. So, Deduction to induction cannot be a maxim for teaching.

Hence, we conclude that deduction and induction are the two methods of teaching not maxims of teaching.

Microteaching is defined as microteaching in miniature where it is scaled down in size of the class time and task with focus on a specific teaching skill. The concept of microteaching is a training concept that can be applied at various pre-service and in-service stages in the professional development of teachers. There are six steps of micro-teaching which are as follows -

 

Diagram

 

Hence, we conclude that the first step of microteaching cycle is planning.

The activities of teaching and learning may be organized at various levels of abstraction ranging from the use and application of simple mental powers to the most complex ones.

Such organizations are distinguished and labeled as 'forms and levels of teaching. There are three identifiable levels of teaching and learning activities: Memory level, understanding level, and Reflective level. ​

Key Points

The activities of teaching and learning may be organized at various levels of abstraction, ranging from the use and application of simple mental powers (thoughtless) to the most complex ones (thoughtful).

 

Hence, we can conclude that the exploration is included in the teaching of the understanding level.