UGC NET Paper 2: Geography 12th Nov 2020 (Previous Year Paper)

The rigid waves surrounding the Geosynclines were called by Kober Kratogen.

Geosynclines:

• Geosynclines are the area of long, wide, and shallow depression of the water body bordered by rigid masses and get huge sedimentation deposition from surrounding areas.
• Our earth crust can be divided into two parts based on the strength:
• Rigid Masses
• Mobile zone of water
• The mobile zone of water is called geosynclines where most of the mountains are built.

Geosyncline Theory by Kober:

• Kober explained the concept of geosynclines and mountain building based on the force of Contraction which is produced by the cooling of the earth.

• As per Kober, there are two zones:

• Orogen or mobile zone: the place of mountain building

• Kartogen or rigid zone: Orogen is surrounded by Kartogen.

• As per Kober, there are three stages involved in mountain building:

• Litho-genesis: In this stage, geosynclines are created due to the cooling and contraction of the earth, and deposition started.

• Orogenesis: In this stage, the mountain-building process started.

• Gliptogenesis: In this stage, it involved the gradual increase of the mountain ranges. Later, weathering, erosion, and deposition started over the mountains to make further landforms.

• Geosynclines concept helps to understand the mountain building process especially fold mountain and evolution of landform.

Sand dunes formed as long elongated ridges oriented at right angles to the wind directions known as Transverse dunes.

The correct answer is : Dripstones

Key Points

Koppen's world climatic classification:

• The Köppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems.
• It was first published by the German-Russian climatologist Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940) in 1900 based on the major vegetation zone suggested by Candolle in1874.
• There are several modifications of this scheme by Köppen, notably in 1918,1931 and 1936.
• Later, the climatologist Rudolf Geiger introduced some changes to the classification system, which is thus sometimes called the Köppen–Geiger-Pohi’s climate classification system published in 1953.

Af type of Climatic:

• Af = Tropical rainforest climate;
• The average precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in) every month. No dry season
• Monthly variations in temperature in these regions are less than about 3⁰ C.
• The extremely high humidity and surface temperatures in these regions cause cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds to form early into the afternoons every day, resulting in a high amount of precipitation.
• Because of hot and wet conditions throughout the year, tropical rain forests (selva) occur in this part of the earth. The jungle where light penetrates.
• High year-round insolation and precipitation of doldrums (ITC); rising air along trade wind coasts.
• Equal day and night length
• Low annual temperature range (3°F - 5°F)
• These climates usually occur within the 10° latitude of the equator.
• Kopper's Af type of climate region extends from 1000 m from the mean sea level

Therefore, '1' is the correct option.

The Sun has been radiating a tremendous quantity of power at the present rate for almost 5 billion years and could keep radiating at that rate for approximately 5 billion years more. Only a little amount of solar energy reaches the outer layer of the earth’s atmosphere. Nearly half of the solar energy is absorbed while passing through the atmosphere and the rest of the solar energy reaches the earth’s surface.

• 100% of the energy entering the earth’s atmosphere comes from the sun.
• 50% of the incoming energy is absorbed by the earth’s surface i.e. the land and oceans.
• 30% is directly reflected back i.e re-radiated towards space by clouds, the earth’s surface, and different gases and particles in the atmosphere (the earth's albedo is 0.3 on average).
• ~20% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds.
• 70% of the sun’s energy that is absorbed by the earth’s surface, clouds, and atmosphere causes warming.
• Any object or gas that has a temperature emits radiation outward, and this is ultimately re-radiated back into space.
• This occurs 24 hours a day, and the energy is emitted as longwave radiation due to the characteristic temperatures of the earth and atmosphere.

Earth's energy balance

Relative Humidity (%): The relative humidity in an air parcel is defined as the ratio of the amount of water vapor actually in the air to the maximum amount of water vapor required for saturation at a particular temperature.

• Relative Humidity (%) = water vapor content / water vapor capacity
• Relative Humidity (%) = U/U_s
• Saturation mixing ratio, U_s: the maximum amount of water vapor that can be in the air
• Mixing ratio, U: the ratio between the actual (measured) mass of water vapor (in the parcel) in grams and mass of dry (non-water vapor) air (in the parcel) in kilograms

Given data

• Temperature = 25⁰C
• Saturation mixing ratio, Us = 20 grams
• Mixing ration, U = 5 grams

Calculation

• Relative Humidity = U/Us
• RH (%) = (5/20)*100 = 100/4 = 25
• Therefore, the correct Relative Humidity (%) is 25%.

38°

Key Points

• Heat Budget of the Planet Earth
• The earth as a whole does not accumulate or lose heat. It maintains its temperature.
• This can happen only if the amount of heat received in the form of insolation equals the amount lost by the earth through terrestrial radiation.
• Consider that the insolation received at the top of the atmosphere is 100 percent.
• While passing through the atmosphere some amount of energy is reflected, scattered, and absorbed.
• Only the remaining part reaches the earth's surface. Roughly 35 units are reflected back to space even before reaching the earth’s surface.
• Of these, 27 units are reflected back from the top of the clouds and 2 units from the snow and ice-covered areas of the earth. The reflected amount of radiation is called the albedo of the earth.
• The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14 units within the atmosphere and 51 units by the earth’s surface.
• The earth radiates back 51 units in the form of terrestrial radiation.
• Of these, 17 units are radiated to space directly and the remaining 34 units are absorbed by the atmosphere (6 units absorbed directly by the atmosphere, 9 units through convection and turbulence, and 19 units through latent heat of condensation). 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere (14 units from insolation +34 units from terrestrial radiation) are also radiated back into space.
• Thus, the total radiation returning from the earth and the atmosphere respectively is 17+48=65 units which balances the total of 65 units received from the sun.
• This is termed the heat budget or heat balance of the earth. This explains, why the earth neither warms up nor cools down despite the huge transfer of heat that takes place.

Additional Information

• Latitude and energy balance

• There are variations in the amount of radiation received at the earth’s surface.

• Some part of the earth has surplus radiation balance while the other part has a deficit.

• The above figure depicts the latitudinal variation in the net radiation balance of the earth — the atmosphere system.

• The figure shows that there is a surplus of net radiation balance between 40 degrees north and south and the regions near the poles have a deficit.

• The surplus heat energy from the tropics is redistributed polewards and as a result, the tropics do not get progressively heated up due to the accumulation of excess heat or the high latitudes get permanently frozen due to excess deficit.

• If we were to take a flashlight and project a beam of light onto a surface (and let us assume that 1X of insolation is actually reaching the surface), note that the 1X of insolation actually covers 1X of the surface.

• If we tilt the flashlight a bit and send the light beam to the surface at an angle (again, the same 1X of insolation is being put to the surface), you will observe that the surface area covered by the beam is increased.

• So, the same amount of insolation, but spread over a larger area -- the result is less heat energy per square inch -- thus (if insolation were all that were involved), a cooler temperature at the surface.

• The graphic below depicts this Earth-Sun relationship at two different points on the Earth's surface.

• The Sun is off the graphic to the right.

• If the Sun is directly overhead the place/point, then 1X of insolation is being put to 1X of the surface at the point.

• It's just like the flashlight being directly over a spot.

• In short, the point is receiving the maximum insolation available (1X of solar energy is being put on 1X of an area).

• This happens at noon with vertical sunshine over the place.

Therefore it is clear that, 1m width surface area covered by a solar beam of 1 m width at noon with vertical sunshine.

Recycle periods of oxygen:

• Oxygen moves through the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.
• The lithosphere is the largest reservoir of oxygen while the biosphere is the smallest one.
• The oxygen cycle is a biogeochemical cycle involved in the circulation of the oxygen atoms present in the earth through a series of intricate processes.
• There are three consecutive stages of the oxygen cycle,
• Stage-1: the release of oxygen to the atmosphere during the process of photosynthesis by green plants
• Stage-2: use of free oxygen by aerobic organisms for respiration.
• Stage-3: exhalation of Carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere and plants use it during photosynthesis.
• In this Oxygen, balance is maintained on the earth.

It will take 2000 years to recycle.

Oceanography: 

• Oceanography is a scientific discipline concerned with all aspects of the world's oceans and seas, including their physical and chemical properties, origin and geology, and life forms.
• Oceanographers try to understand and predict how oceans work and help us to use and conserve their resources.
• Because the oceans and the atmosphere are linked, marine meteorology is a related area of expertise.

Marine meteorology:

• It is a subfield of meteorology that deals with overarching weather and climate systems, while more specifically honing into the associated oceanographic conditions in marine environments and the interactions between the ocean and atmosphere.

• It is a unique meteorological discipline in that it is also scientifically geared towards the production and understanding of weather information in support of marine activities such as offshore wind and tidal installations, shipping, and fishing.

• Matthew Fontaine Maury was an American astronomer, historian, oceanographer, meteorologist, cartographer.

• He was nicknamed "Pathfinder of the Seas" and "Father of Modern Oceanography and Naval Meteorology" and later, "Scientist of the Seas" for his extensive works in his books, especially

• Matthew Fontaine Maury, of the US Navy, initiated the convening of the first true International Meteorological conference from late August through early September 1853.

• The Physical Geography of the Sea (1855), the first such extensive and comprehensive book on oceanography to be published.

Hence, it is clear that  the founder of Scientific Marine Meteorology is M. F. Maury

Phases of development of India's International Trade:

Key Points

Developments of India’s international trade can be broadly divided and studied through three different phases under;

• Pre- Independence Phase ( 1500 BC - 1947)
• Post - Independence Phase (1947 - 1990)
• Post Trade -Liberalization Phase. (from 1991)

The second phase:

• This phase can be divided into five sub-phases
• The first phase pertains to the period from 1947-48 to 1951-52:
• India could have liberalized imports, but on account of place by the united kingdom on the utilization of the sterling balances, it had to continue wartime controls.
• Since our balance of payment (BPO) with the Dollar area was heavily adverse.
• This is also necessitated India to devalue her currency in 1949.
• By the large, the import policy continued to be restrictive during the period.
• The second phase covering the period from 1952-53 to 1956-57:
• The liberalization of foreign as a goal of trade policy.
• Import license was granted in a literal manner
• An effort also made to encourage export by relaxing export control, reducing export duties, abolishing export quotas, and providing incentives to exports.
• Liberalization led to a tremendous increase in our imports, but export did not rise appreciably.
• Fast deterioration in our foreign exchange reserves (FERs)
• The third phase from 1957-58 to June 1966:
• The trade policy was reoriented to meet planned economic development.
• A very restricted, import policy was adopted and import controls further screened the list of imported goods.
• On other hand a vigorous export promotion drive was
• It was in this period that India’s trade policy was thoroughly reviewed by the Mudaliar Committee in 1962.
• The fourth phase started after the devaluation of the rupee in June 1966:
• Started after the devaluation of the rupee in June 1966.
• During this period, the trade policy attempted to expand export and strongly liberalized imports, export promotion was given a big boost through the acceptance and implementation of the recommendation of the Mudaliar Committee (1962).
• The major recommendation included the increased allocation of Raw materials to export-oriented industries, income tax relief on export earning, export promotion through import entitlement, removal of disincentives, and setting up of export promotion advisory council, a ministry of international trade.
• The last phase after 1975-1990:
• The government adopted a policy of import liberalization, with a view to encouraging the export promotion
• During this phase market with mobility of factors of production, remained in focus.

Therefore option '3' is correct here.

Code 'B' is correctly showing the optimal location of profitability in different spatial cost/revenue situations in the diagram.

Key Points

Theory of Industrial Location by D. M. Smith:

• D. M. Smith presented a simple model of industrial location in his book “Industrial Location”, published in 1971.
• His model was based on his studies of Steel Mill in Brazil.
• The theory explains the idea of spatial margin locations.
• Location inside the margin would result in profit for the organization, while outside would result in loss.
• The theory is based on Spatial Margins of profitability of an industry, so it is known as 'Spatial MarginsTheory’.
• His theory is also known as the ‘Area-Cost Curve Theory’.

Area-Cost Curve Theory:

• Spatial Margins refer to a combination of both the production and revenue feasibility in a given linear market area.

• The theory incorporates the significant element of sub-optimal behaviour of locational choice in a given area.

• It did not put emphasis on the least-cost or profit maximization location of rational economic man.

• Smith assumes dynamic interaction between production costs and revenue in-space economy.

• According to him, manufacturing costs vary in different situations and locations, so that the revenues and profits will vary within the feasible margins.

• Smith attempted to explain his theory by setting locational flexibility within a spatial range as delimited by the intersection of space cost curves and space revenue curves.

• This can be explained with the help of a graphic presentation.

• In the figure, the x-axis shows that the distance increasing from left to right, and the y-axis denotes the number of costs and revenues.

• Cost is indicated by the downward line and revenue is shown by the upward line in the image above.

• At two points the quantity of cost and revenue will be equal, A and D.

• The area between A to D is profitable for the industry.

• The point 'B' showing the highest revenue while the line joining 'B' passes through the lower cost point. The range is maximum in this location.

Therefore it can be concluded that point 'B' shows the optimal location of profitability.

Rimland theory 

• Nicholas John Spykman (1893 - 1943), an American political scientist propounded Rimland's theory in 1942.
• It was published in 1944 in his book entitled The Geography of Peace

Hence, option 2 is the correct answer.

Main concept:

• It is basically the opposite of the Heartland theory by Mackinder
• The inner crescent of the Heartland theory is considered as the Rimland here
• Topography, terrain, and climate are considered an important determinant of foreign policy
• Peace is possible by collective security arrangement or international balance of power arrangement
• Unified Rimland: strong land power the USA and the Soviet Union
• He gave more emphasis on sea power
• Seapower possible to conceive of the Eurasian continent as a unit
• Defines the relationship between the old and new world
• These regions have more potential than the Heartland
• It is an intermediate region between Heartland and marginal sea region

The rimland:

The inner marginal crescent was divided into three parts in Rimland theory

1. European land
2. The Arabian middle eastern desert
3. Asiatic monsoon land

Premises:

• Who controls the Rimland rules Eurasia
• Who rules Eurasia controls the destinies of the world

Key Points

Federal state:

• The federal government is a type of national government in which the government has powers to delegates the power to other elected members of the states.

• There can be two levels of the federal government in a country either it is performing through common institutions or through powers as prescribed by a constitution of the state.

• It is totally opposite to the unitary government.

• In federation or federal government, provinces or territories enjoy some rights as are available to the independent states.

• However international diplomacy, national security, foreign affairs, and other kinds of international dealings are solely made by the federal government.

• In the federal system, power is jointly shared between the state and federal governments.

• In the federal government system, the powers never rest with one national government.

• However, there can be certain powers and authorities that remain totally with the federal government like policies on defence, budget, international diplomacy, etc.

• Some of the examples are India, Pakistan, India, Brazil, Switzerland, Australia, Belgium, Canada, etc.

• The three lists and their components are as follows,

• It has a centralized form along with state and common responsibilities,

Therefore, Composite is not a type of federal state.

• Geopolitics – the study of the interaction between geography, international politics, and international relations – has seemingly passed its heyday and critiques are now coming from several fronts.
• Geography in this regard includes both features that are ‘fixed’, such as location, topography, strategic chokepoints, climate, and natural resources, as well as elements of human and political geography, such as a country’s size, national boundaries, and historical, religious, and cultural physical sites.
• Distinct from traditional geopolitical analysis, Meta-geopolitics provides a more nuanced treatment of the determinants of state power in terms of seven crucial capacities that make up national power.
• The breakdown of these capabilities is as follows: 1. social and health issues, 2. domestic politics, 3. economics, 4. the environment, 5. science and human potential, 6. military and security issues, and 7. international diplomacy.
• Hence, Study in social and health issues, domestic politics and security issues and international diplomacy is new trend in political Geography is known as Meta - Geoplolitics.

Political boundaries are created in a variety of ways and for different reasons. As a result, there are several types of boundaries found around the world. These include Cultural, Complex, antecedent, superimposed, subsequent, consequent, and geometric boundaries.

• A cultural boundary, or cultural area, defines a geographic area wherein a group of people share the same cultural practices and traditions. These aspects could include language, ethnicity, and religion. Some cultural boundaries might correspond with the boundaries on a geopolitical map, but there can also be several cultural boundaries within a state, nation, or continent.
• The International boundary between India and Pakistan was demarcated after the partition is a good example of a Cultural type of boundary.

Additional Information

Antecedent Boundaries

• Antecedent boundaries existed before the present settlement. These are often based on landforms, such as mountains.
• The Andes Mountains form the eastern boundary of Chile, separating it from neighbouring Argentina and Bolivia.

Consequent Boundaries

• Consequent boundaries are drawn in order to separate groups based on ethnic, linguistic, religious, or economic differences.
• The boundary between India and current-day Pakistan was created to separate the main religions in the region, Hindu and Islam.

• This dichotomy between ‘general’ and ‘special’ was first raised by Bernhard Varenius in the 17th century.
• Varenius, who published Geographia Generalis in 1650, recognised general geography as a sub-discipline that formulates general laws, generic laws and principles. In later periods, general geography came to be known as systematic geography as it derived knowledge from other systematic disciplines for formulating universal and generic ideas. General geography considers the whole world as a unit whereas regional geography deals with the description of particular regions or countries.

The correct sequence is Anaximander, Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus.

• Friedrich Ratzel, German geographer and ethnographer and a principal influence in the modern development of both disciplines.
• He originated the concept of Lebensraum, or “living space,” which relates human groups to the spatial units where they develop. Though Ratzel pointed out the propensity of a state to expand or contract its boundaries according to rational capabilities, the subsequent misuse of the Lebensraum concept by the Nazi regime in Germany was largely based on the interpretation of Ratzel’s concept by the Swedish political scientist Rudolf Kjellén.
• Ratzel produced the foundations of human geography in his two-volume Anthropogeographie in 1882 and 1891.
• This work was misinterpreted by many of his students, creating a number of environmental determinists.
• He published his work on political geography, Politische Geographie, in 1897.
• It was in this work that Ratzel introduced concepts that contributed to Lebensraum and Social Darwinism. His three volume work The History of Mankind[1] was published in English in 1896 and contained over 1100 excellent engravings and remarkable chromolithography.

• Arabs took keen interest in the size, geometry and puerility of the Earth; the oceans, particularly the causes of tides; geomorphologic processes; regional climatic divisions; the distribution of flora and fauna; and the creation and use of various tools – especially maps.
• With the acquisition of mapping, skills came the development of world maps called Mappa Mundi including Pslater, Marino, Sanuto, Borgain, East World, Fra Moura, and the Image de Munde.

Key Points

• Idrisi (1100-1156 A.D.) constructed a silver plan sphere, showing the world, as well as a 70-part world map.
• The exploratory voyages undertaken by Arabs led to a revival in geographical learning.
• Owing to Ibn-Hakul’s excursion to the south of the equator (between 943 to 973 A.D.), the wrong notion regarding the habitability of the torrid zone (as perpetuated by Aristotle) was abandoned.
• Around the same time, his contemporary, Al-Masudi reported the phenomenon of Monsoon winds, while travelling down the East coast of Africa up to Mozambique.
• Another scholar named Al-Maqsidi had corroborated (in 985 A.D.) that the climate of any place is not only a function of its latitude but also of its position on the east or west side of a landmass. He also proved that most of the Earth’s landmass lies to the north of the equator.
• The prominent Arab geographer named Muqaddasi was a pioneer of fieldwork and believed that geographical fact can only be experienced personally through observation.
• His book titled Ahsanol Taghaseem (meaning, the main divisions of the world) was based on many field trips in parts of the Islamic world. Based on his various observations, he divided the Islamic territories into 14 regions with relevant maps pertaining to their physical and human properties.
• Al-Idrisi (around 1099-1180 A.D.) contradicted and corrected many Greek ideas, including those put forth by Ptolemy. In his book on Geography (1154 A.D.), he corrected the Greek idea about the Indian Ocean being a closed sea. He also amended the positions of many rivers including the Danube and the Niger.

The data model in GIS:

• In order to visualize natural phenomena, one must first determine how to best represent geographic space.
• Data models are a set of rules and/or constructs used to describe and represent aspects of the real world in a computer.
• Two primary data models are available to complete this task: raster data models and vector data models.

Key Points

Vector data model:

• Vector data/layers in GIS refer to discrete objects represented by points, lines, and polygons.

• Lines are formed by connecting two or more points and polygons are closed set of Lines.

• Layers represent geometries that share a common set of attributes.

• Objects within a layer have a mutual topology.

• Vector sources include digitized maps, features extracted from image surveys, and many more.

• Components are,

• Point: A point in GIS is represented by one pair of coordinates (x & y). It is considered a dimension-less object. Most of the time a point represents the location of a feature (like cities, wells, villages, etc.).

• Line: A-line or arc contains at least two pairs of coordinates (say- x1, y1 & x2, y2). In other words, a line should connect a minimum of two points. The start and endpoints of a line are referred to as nodes while points on curves are referred to as vertices. Points at intersections are also called nodes. Roads, railway tracks, streams, etc. are generally represented by a line.

• Polygon: In simple terms, a polygon is a closed line with an area. It takes a minimum of three pairs of coordinates to represent an area or polygon. The extent of cities, forests, land use, etc. is represented by a polygon.

Important Points

Advantages:

• Data can be represented at its original resolution and form without generalization.
• The graphic output is usually more aesthetically pleasing (traditional cartographic representation)
• Since most data, e.g. hard copy maps, is in vector form no data conversion is required.
• The accurate geographic location of data is maintained.
• Allows for efficient encoding of topology and as a result more efficient operations that require topological information, e.g. proximity, network analysis.

Disadvantages:

• The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly.
• For effective analysis, vector data must be converted into a topological structure. This is often processing intensive and usually requires extensive data cleaning. As well, the topology is static, and any updating or editing of the vector data requires re-building of the topology.
• Algorithms for manipulative and analysis functions are complex and may be processing intensive. Often, this inherently limits the functionality for large data sets, e.g. a large number of features.
• Continuous data, such as elevation data, are not effectively represented in vector form. Usually, substantial data generalization or interpolation is required for these data layers.
• Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible
• It is a compact data structure and has high cartographic output quality.

Therefore, it is clear that option 'B' is correct about the Vector data model.

• The word geography was first used by the Greek scholar Erastosthenes in the third century B.C.
• It is derived from the Greek ge (the earth) and graphe (description), so that geography as a discipline is focused on the description of the earth surface as the world of man.
• Thus, according to Hartshorne (1959), as a discipline, "geography is concerned to provide accurate, orderly, and rational description and interpretation of the variable character of the Earth surface".
• By the phrase "Earth surface", geographers imply the thin zone extending as far down below the surface as man has been able to penetrate and as far high above the surface as man normally goes. Since man's reach above as well as below the earth surface is relative to the level of technological progress, the thickness of this zone of study has been progressively increasing. This zone has been the universe of all human endeavour-all art and science except for space explorations since 1969.

Option (A), (B), and (C) are true about the deceleration in agricultural growth in Post reform period.

• The policies after 1990, unevenly withdraw this support to the farming community.
• The reduction of domestic support in terms of subsidy and credit on the one hand and drastic price fall of agricultural commodities in the international market, on the other hand, led to distress in the farming class.
• The main factors that led to a slowdown in agriculture at the national level after 1996-97 are:
• The decline in the area under cultivation, which seems to be a result of expanding urbanization and industrialization,
• Deterioration in the terms of trade for agriculture,
• Stagnant crop intensity,
• Poor progress of irrigation and fertilizer,
• The decline in the supply of electricity to agriculture
• Slowdown in diversification
• Technological factor
• Some of the deceleration in agricultural growth in Post reform period are as follows,
• The deceleration in public and general investment in agriculture, especially in infrastructure, which includes irrigation, power, roads, market linkages, and research and extension
• Dwindling farm size
• Failure to develop new technologies

Green Revolution in India:

• The term green revolution was first used by William Gaud and Norman Borlaug is the Father of the Green Revolution.
• In the year 1965, the government of India launched the Green Revolution with the help of a geneticist, now known as the father of the Green revolution (India) M.S. Swaminathan.
• The movement of the green revolution was a great success and changed the country’s status from a food-deficient economy to one of the world’s leading agricultural nations.
• It started in 1967 and lasted till 1978.

Important Points

Major aspects:

1. High Yielding Varieties (HYV)
2. Mechanization of Agriculture
3. Use of Chemical Fertilizers and Pesticides
4. Irrigation

Impacts of Green Revolution:

• Green Revolution has remarkably increased Agricultural Production.
• Foodgrains in India saw a great rise in output.
• The biggest beneficiary of the revolution was the Wheat Grain. The production increased to 55 million tonnes in the early stage of the plan itself.
• Not just limited to agricultural output the revolution also increased per Acre yield.
• Green Revolution increased the per hectare yield in the case of wheat from 850 kg per hectare to an incredible 2281 kg/hectare in its early stage.
• With the introduction of the Green revolution, India reached its way to self-sufficiency and was less dependent on imports.
• The production in the country was sufficient to meet the demand of the rising population and to stock it for emergencies.
• Rather than depending on the import of food grains from other countries India started exporting its agricultural produce.
• The introduction of the revolution inhibited a fear among the masses that commercial farming would lead to unemployment and leave a lot of the labor force jobless. But the result seen was totally different there was a rise in rural employment.
• The tertiary industries such as transportation, irrigation, food processing, marketing, etc created employment opportunities for the workforce.
• Green Revolution ensured mechanization in farms
• The Green Revolution in India majorly benefited the farmers of the country.
• Farmers not only survived but also prospered during the revolution their income saw a significant rise which enabled them to shift from sustenance farming to commercial farming.

Negative impacts:

• Retardation of agricultural growth
• Regional dispersal of the evolution created regional inequalities
• Interpersonal inequalities between large and small scale farmers

Therefore it can be said the option 'A' is not true for the green revolution in India.

• Carbon dioxide (CO2): it has a greenhouse effect and described as "the leading pollutant" and "the worst climate pollutant".
• Due to human activities, the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has been rising extensively since the Industrial Revolution and has now reached dangerous levels not seen in the last 3 million years.

The major sources of carbon dioxide can be categorized under two heads are as follows,

• | Types | Natural sources | Anthropogenic sources | | --- | --- | --- | | Sub-type | 1.Volcanic eruption 2.Ocean-atmosphere exchange 3.Respiration 4.Soil respiration and decomposition 5.Forest fire | 1.Combustion of fossil fuels 2.Deforestation 3.Industrial processes 4.Landuse change 5.Animal and human respiration, etc. |

• Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and certain other gases absorb IR radiation from the Earth's surface and re-emit it in all directions.

• These gases act like the glass in a greenhouse to increase the temperature of the planet.

Therefore, (A) is correct but (R) is not correct

The correct answer is Statement I is correct but Statement II is false.

Key Points

Statement I: All moving objects, by virtue of their motion, are capable of doing work is true because-

• Work is defined as the transfer of energy through motion, and an object in motion can perform work by transferring energy to another object or system.
• The amount of work done depends on the force exerted and the displacement of the object in the direction of the force.
• A moving object has kinetic energy, and when this energy is transferred to another object, work is done.
• For example, a moving car can do work by applying force on a rock, or a falling ball can do work on the ground by exerting force upon impact.

Statement II: Potential energy is the energy of motion is false because-

• Potential energy is not the energy of motion; it is the energy possessed by an object due to its position or configuration.
• Potential energy depends on factors such as height (gravitational potential energy) or the compression/stretching of an object (elastic potential energy).
• The energy of motion is actually called kinetic energy, not potential energy.
• For example, an object at the top of a hill has potential energy due to its position, but it is not moving until it starts to fall, converting potential energy into kinetic energy.

Additional Information

• Kinetic Energy: The energy possessed by an object due to its motion. It is given by the formula K.E. = (1/2)mv², where m is the mass and v is the velocity of the object.
• Potential Energy: The stored energy of an object due to its position or condition. The most common form is gravitational potential energy, which is given by U = mgh, where m is mass, g is acceleration due to gravity, and h is height above a reference point.
• Potential energy can be converted into kinetic energy, but they represent different types of energy: potential energy is energy "stored" due to position, while kinetic energy is the energy of motion.

Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the water vapour in free air at considerable elevations. As the clouds are formed at some height over the surface of the earth, they take various shapes.

Key Points

Classification of clouds is based on a combination of forms, heights, and appearance.

There are 4 major cloud type 

• high clouds(20000-40000 feet)
• medium clouds(7000-20000 feet)
• low clouds(below-7000 feet)
• clouds with great vertical extent(2000-30000 feet)

high clouds

• cirrus(Ci)
• looks like fibrous
• appears like a wisp in a blue sky
• called mares tail
• fair weather, brilliant sunshine
• cirrocumulus(Cc)
• appears like globular masses
• forms ripple in a mackerel sky
• cirrostratus(Cs)
• looks like a thin white sheet
• the sky looks milky and sun and moonshine through it
• characteristic halo

medium clouds

• altocumulus(Ac)
• woolly bumpy clouds arranged in layers
• appears like a wave in the blue sky
• indicates fine weather
• altostratus(As)
• denser greyish cloud, with a watery look
• the fibrous structure through which sunshine faintly

low clouds

• stratocumulus(St-Cu)
• rough bumpy clod with waves pronounced than altocumulus
• great contrast between the bright and shaded part
• stratus(St)
• very low cloud
• uniformly grey and thick
• appears like low sealing or highland fog
• dull weather with drizzle reduced visibility
• nimbostratus(Ni-St)
• dark dull cloud, clearly layered
• known as a rain cloud
• it brings continuous rain snow or sleet

clouds with a great vertical extent

• cumulus(Cu)
• vertical cloud with a rounded top and horizontal base
• typical of the humid tropical region
• associated with uprising conventional currents
• great white globular masses
• fair weather clod
• cumulonimbus(Cu-Ni)
• overgrown cumulus cloud
• tremendous vertical height(2000-30000 feet)
• black and white globular masses
• cauliflower top or anvil shape
• seen in tropical afternoon
• referred to as thunder cloud and brings convectional rain, lightning, and thunder

Processes of heating of ocean water:

• The ocean is the largest solar energy collector on Earth.
• It can absorb large amounts of heat without a large increase in temperature.
• This tremendous ability to store and release heat over long periods of time gives the ocean a central role in stabilizing Earth’s climate system.
• The main source of ocean heat is sunlight.
• Additionally, clouds, water vapor, and greenhouse gases emit heat that they have absorbed, and some of that heat energy enters the ocean.
• Waves, tides, and currents constantly mix the ocean, moving heat from warmer to cooler latitudes and to deeper levels.
• Heat absorbed by the ocean is moved from one place to another, but it doesn’t disappear.
• The heat energy eventually re-enters the rest of the Earth system by melting ice shelves, evaporating water, or directly reheating the atmosphere.
• Thus, heat energy in the ocean can warm the planet for decades after it was absorbed.
• If the ocean absorbs more heat than it releases, its heat content increases.
• Knowing how much heat energy the ocean absorbs and releases is essential for understanding and modeling global climate.

Therefore,  ​A and B only true here.

Kinetic energy:

• Moving objects are capable of causing a change, or, put differently, of doing work.
• Energy means the ability to do work, so all moving things have energy by virtue of their motion. This type of energy is called kinetic energy.
• A speeding bullet, a walking person, and electromagnetic radiation like a light all have kinetic energy.
• Another example of kinetic energy is the energy associated with the constant, random bouncing of atoms or molecules.
• This is also called thermal energy – the greater the thermal energy, the greater the kinetic energy of atomic motion, and vice versa.
• The average thermal energy of a group of molecules is what we call temperature, and when thermal energy is being transferred between two objects, it’s known as heat.

Key Points

Pacific Ring of Fire:

• The Ring of Fire also referred to as the Circum-Pacific Belt, is a path along the Pacific Ocean characterized by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.
• The Ring of Fire is stretched to approximately 40,000 kilometres (24,900 miles) tracing boundaries between several tectonic plates including the Pacific, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Indian-Australian, Nazca, North American, and Philippine Plates.
• The chain runs up along the western coast of South and North America crosses over the Aleutian Islands in Alaska, runs down the eastern coast of Asia past New Zealand, and into the northern coast of Antarctica.
• Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, United States, Canada, Russia, Japan, Philippines, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, New Zealand, and Antarctica are some of the important places located in the ring of the fire.
• There are 512 active volcanoes.

Convergent plate margins:

• Also is known as the destructive margin of the plate plates.
• These are related to the subduction of the denser plate along the zone of collision/ Benioff zone.
• the associated features are as follows,
• Explosive type of volcanic eruption
• Deep focus earthquake
• Formation of folded mountains
• Festoons, islands, oceanic trenches, etc.

Therefore, Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)

Tide:

• Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun, and the rotation of the Earth.
• Tide tables can be used for any given locale to find the predicted times and amplitude.

Key Points

Tidal cycle:

• Most coastal areas, experience two high tides and two low tides every lunar day.
• Almost everyone is familiar with the concept of a 24-hour solar day
• A lunar day is a time it takes for a specific site on the Earth to rotate from an exact point under the moon to the same point under the moon.
• Unlike a solar day, however, a lunar day is 24 hours and 50 minutes.
• The lunar day is 50 minutes longer than a solar day because the moon revolves around the Earth in the same direction that the Earth rotates around its axis.
• So, it takes the Earth an extra 50 minutes to “catch up” to the moon
• Because the Earth rotates through two tidal “bulges” every lunar day, coastal areas experience two high and two low tides every 24 hours and 50 minutes.
• High tides occur 12 hours and 25 minutes apart.
• It takes six hours and 12.5 minutes for the water at the shore to go from high to low, or from low to high.

Therefore, Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Key Points

Salinity in oceanwater:

• Salinity, along with temperature, determines the density of seawater, and hence its vertical flow patterns in the thermohaline circulation.
• Salinity records the physical processes affecting a water mass when it was last at the surface.
• precipitation/evaporation – salts excluded from vapor
• freezing/thawing – salts excluded from the ice
• Salinity can be used as a conservative (unchanging) tracer for determining the origin and mixing of water types.
• Isotherms - lines of equal temperature
• Isoline - lines of equal salinity
• Due to variations in precipitation and evaporation
• Highest salinity - between 20°-30° north and south of the equator (evaporation exceeds precipitation)
• Lower salinity - at equator and poleward of 30° (precipitation exceeds evaporation)
• Halocline may be present -zone of rapid change of salinity with water depth
• Water stratification (layering) – more pronounced between 40°N and 40°S

Globalization:

• Globalization means the growing interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment, people, and information.
• Globalization raises the degree of independence resulting in lesser control over the domestic economy and loss of economic sovereignty.
• Countries have built economic partnerships to facilitate these movements over many centuries.
• These cooperative arrangements shaped modern everyday life.
• The globalization of production is concomitant to the globalization of trade. as one can't function without the other.

The historical expansion:

• Exports nearly doubled from 8.5% of total gross world product in 1970 to 16.2% in 2001.
• Since the 1970s, aviation has become increasingly affordable to middle classes in developed countries.
• The term globalization as it's used today came to prominence in the 1980s, reflecting several technological advancements that expediated international transactions.
• The term 'Globalization' gained popularity after the Cold War in the early 1990s.

Globalization and trade:

• The globalization of production is concomitant to the globalization of trade as one cannot function without the other.
• This process has been facilitated by significant technical changes in the transport sector.
• The scale, volume, and efficiency of international trade have all continued to increase since the 1970s.
• As such, global space/time convergence was an ongoing process that implied a more extensive market coverage that could be accessed with a lower amount of time.
• It has become increasingly possible to trade between parts of the world that previously had limited access to international transportation systems.
• Further, the division and the fragmentation of production that went along with these processes also expanded trade.
• Trade thus contributes to lower manufacturing costs.

There are three types of globalization,

Therefore, Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)

The density of seawater:

• Density refers to the amount of mass per unit volume, such as grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3).
• The density of freshwater is 1 g/cm3 at 4o C (see section 5.1), but the addition of salts and other dissolved substances increases surface seawater density to between 1.02 and 1.03 g/cm3.
• The density of seawater can be increased by reducing its temperature, increasing its salinity, or increasing the pressure.
• As pressure increases, so does water density.
• The water molecules pack together tighter as pressure increases -the pressure increase with depth, due to the weight of the water above, and causes the greatest density changes in seawater with depth (greater than the density changes due to temperature and salinity changes).
• ​Surface zone - upper layer containing the least dense water; about 2% of total ocean volume; most variable part of the ocean because it is in contact with the atmosphere
• Pycnocline - zone in which density increases rapidly with depth; about 18% of ocean water
• Deep zone – about 80% of all ocean water; little change in density; originates at the surface in high latitudes where it cools, becomes dense, sinks to the seafloor, and flows equatorward across the ocean basin

Upwelling of seawater:

• Upwelling is a process in which deep, cold water rises toward the surface

• If light surface water is driven away by winds, dense sub-surface water upwells on the surface.

• Coastal upwelling occurs where Ekman transport moves surface waters away from the coast; surface waters are replaced by water that wells up from below.

Therefore, Both Statement I and Statement II are true.

Energy:

• Energy is defined as the ability to do work – which, for biology purposes, can be thought of as the ability to cause some kind of change.
• Energy can take many different forms: for instance, we’re all familiar with light, heat, and electrical energy.
• There are three important types of energy in the biological system,
• Kinetic energy (the energy of motion),
• Potential energy (energy due to position or structure),
• Chemical energy (the potential energy of chemical bonds).

Energy flow in the ecosystem:

• The chemical energy of food is the main source of energy required by all living organisms. This energy is transmitted to different trophic levels along the food chain. This energy flow is based on two different laws of thermodynamics:
• The first law of thermodynamics, that states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only change from one form to another.
• The second law of thermodynamics, that states that as energy is transferred more and more of it is wasted
• In a food chain, the energy flow follows the 10 percent law.
• According to this law, only 10 percent of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the other; the rest is lost into the atmosphere.
• This is clearly explained in the following figure and is represented as an energy pyramid.
• This energy is stored in various organic products in the plants and passed on to the primary consumers in the food chain when the herbivores consume (primary consumers) the plants as food.
• Then conversion of chemical energy stored in plant products into kinetic energy occurs, degradation of energy will occur through its conversion into heat.
• The energy flow in the ecosystem is clearly unidirectional.

Therefore, Statement I is correct but Statement II is incorrect.

The land capability approach:

• Land capability may be defined as the ability of the land surface to support natural plant growth/ wildlife habitat or artificial crop growth/ human habitat.

• Thus, it indicates the type of land use [viz., human habitation, agriculture, pastures, forests, wildlife habitat, etc.] that is suitable over a particular type of land.

• Different lands have different capabilities depending on the land characteristics like slope, soil type, soil depth, and erosion conditions.

• If certain land characteristics are not conducive for agriculture, it is desirable to utilize or ensure the continuity of that land area for other land uses as mentioned earlier.

• The ultimate goal of allocation of various land capabilities over a vast land area with varied characteristics is to achieve complete soil conservation.

• Complete soil conservation implies perfect soil health and zero soil erosion on a sustained basis. It also facilitates total water conservation and total vegetation conservation.

• Thereby it results in integrated watershed management on a long-term basis.

• This land capability classification should ensure appropriate land use for every land area for the peaceful coexistence of different flora and fauna including human habitation and also sustained productivity through human activities.

• The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has done pioneering work on land capability classification

• Most poor people live in rural areas of developing countries and are dependent on agriculture for their livelihood.

• Farming systems within which the rural poor live and work can provide powerful insights into strategic priorities for the reduction of poverty and hunger now affecting so many of their lives.

• It is evident that the most demanding system of production would therefore concentrate on the best and the most extensively on the poorest land.

Therefore, Both (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is NOT the correct explanation of (A).

Relative Frequency:

• Relative frequency is simply the class frequency (f_i)
• It is expressed as a proportion of the total frequency (N) of a given distribution
• It is sometimes measured as a percentage of the total frequency
• The sum of all relative frequencies in a given distribution is equal to the total frequency.
• Relative frequency = f_i / N * 100

Example:

Therefore the relative frequency for the class limit 301-400 is 24 and it is 19.2% of the total frequency.

Cumulative frequency:

• The accumulated frequency above or below a class boundary is known as cumulative frequency.
• It is useful to know how many or what proportion of districts less than or more than certain specified population density levels exists.
• the fractiles are plotted in Ogive

Example:

Explanation:

• In general, the cumulative frequency (less than) is considered as the cumulative frequency for the whole data set.
• Therefore, the cumulative frequency of the entire data set is 125.
• The cumulative frequency for the class limit 401-500 is 80.

Cumulative frequency:

• The accumulated frequency above or below a class boundary is known as cumulative frequency.
• it is useful to know how many or what proportion of districts less than or more than certain specified population density levels exists.
• the fractiles are plotted in Ogive

Example:

In general, the cumulative frequency (less than) is considered as the cumulative frequency for the whole data set.

Therefore, the cumulative frequency of the entire data set is 125.

Measures of  central tendency: According to Prof Bowley “Measures of central tendency (averages) are statistical constants which enable us to comprehend in a single effort the significance of the whole.” 

Arithmetic Mean:

• A.M. satisfies almost all the requisites of a good average and hence can be regarded as the best average but it cannot be used

1. in case of highly skewed data.
2. in case of uneven or irregular spread of the data.
3. in open-end distributions.
4. When average growth or average speed is required.
5. When there are extreme values in the data.

• Except in these cases, AM is widely used in practice

The formula of mean:

Where,

• f_i = Frequency of i^th class
• x = class mark of the i^th class
• n = no of classes

Calculation:

Arithmetic Mean = (∑f_ix_i)/(∑f_i) = 60312.5/125 = 483

Key Points

Measures of  central tendency: According to Prof Bowley “Measures of central tendency (averages) are statistical constants which enable us to comprehend in a single effort the significance of the whole.” 

Mode:

• The mode is the most frequent data value.
• The mode is the value of the variable which is predominant in the given data series.
• Thus in the case of discrete frequency distribution, the mode is the value corresponding to the maximum frequency.
• Sometimes there may be no single mode if no one value appears more than any other.
• There may also be two modes (bimodal), three modes (trimodal), or more than three modes (multi-modal).

Mode = $L + ((𝑓𝑚 −𝑓𝑝))/((𝑓𝑚 −𝑓𝑝)+(𝑓𝑚 −𝑓𝑓)) * w$

L = Lower boundary of the median class

f_m = Frequency of the modal class

f_p  = Frequency of the class just preceding the modal class

f_f = Frequency of the class just following the modal class

w = interval of the median class

N = Total frequency

Calculation:

Mode = $400.5 + ((40 −24))/((40 −24)+(40 −16)) * 100$

Mode = 441 persons/sq. km.

Therefore, the mode for the following data set is 441 persons/sq. km.

Ria coast:

• A ria coast is a combination of parallel rias on the coast of a landmass
• Portuguese word 'Ria' means river. At the same time, the Spanish word 'Ria' means coast.
• A ria forms when the sea level rises and floods a river valley.
• It formed due to the submergence of an unglaciated river valley.
• The result is almost always an estuary surrounded by many hills that once were the valley.
• It is also known as a drowned river valley.
• Some of the examples are- Deseado Ria in Argentine, Ria de Aveiro in Portugal, Prince Edward Island in Canada.

Formation of a Ria coast:

• A ria begins as a simple river valley.
• Essentially, many hills with a river running through them.
• During the ice age, there were many rivers close to the ocean.
• Eventually, the ocean sea level rose so much that it begins to fill up the valleys around the hills.
• After some time, the valley is full of ocean water and the river still leads into it.
• The combination of ocean water and river water forms the estuary.
• The ria coast has a V-shaped channel running through it.
• It also has many small “feeder rivers” branching off of it

1. Submerged upland shore: Also known as drowned coastline inundated by the sea by a relative rise in sea levels. For example, Norway coast, Alaska coast, Konkan coast.
2. Emerged upland shore: exposed by sea due to relative fall in sea level. For example, the Malabar coast,
3. Neutral Shore: no relative change between sea level and coastal region. Delta coastline, volcano coast
4. Compound Shore: experience both submergence and emergence. For example, Norway coast, Sweden coast.

The theory of evolution is one of the great intellectual revolutions of human history, drastically changing our perception of the world and of our place in it.

Charles Darwin put forth a coherent theory of evolution and amassed a great body of evidence in support of this theory. In Darwin's time, most scientists fully believed that each organism and each adaptation was the work of the creator.

Darwin's Theory

• Darwin’s theory of evolution entails the following fundamental ideas. The first three ideas were already under discussion among earlier and contemporaneous naturalists working on the “species problem” as Darwin began his research.
• Darwin’s original contributions were the mechanism of natural selection and copious amounts of evidence for evolutionary change from many sources.  He also provided thoughtful explanations of the consequences of evolution for our understanding of the history of life and modern biological diversity.
• Species (populations of interbreeding organisms) change over time and space.  The representatives of species living today differ from those that lived in the recent past, and populations in different geographic regions today differ slightly in form or behaviour.
• These differences extend into the fossil record, which provides ample support for this claim. All organisms share common ancestors with other organisms.  Over time, populations may divide into different species, which share a common ancestral population.  Far enough back in time, any pair of organisms shares a common ancestor.
• For example, humans shared a common ancestor with chimpanzees about eight million years ago, with whales about 60 million years ago, and with kangaroos over 100 million years ago.   Shared ancestry explains the similarities of organisms that are classified together: their similarities reflect the inheritance of traits from a common ancestor.
• Evolutionary change is gradual and slow in Darwin’s view.  This claim was supported by the long episodes of gradual change in organisms in the fossil record and the fact that no naturalist had observed the sudden appearance of a new species in Darwin’s time.
• Since then, biologists and palaeontologists have documented a broad spectrum of slow to rapid rates of evolutionary change within lineages. The primary mechanism of change over time is natural selection.  This mechanism causes changes in the properties (traits) of organisms within lineages from generation to generation.

Darwin’s process of natural selection has four components.

• Variation.  Organisms (within populations) exhibit individual variation in appearance and behavior.  These variations may involve body size, hair color, facial markings, voice properties, or number of offspring.  On the other hand, some traits show little to no variation among individuals—for example, number of eyes in vertebrates.
• Inheritance.  Some traits are consistently passed on from parent to offspring.  Such traits are heritable, whereas other traits are strongly influenced by environmental conditions and show weak heritability.
• High rate of population growth.  Most populations have more offspring each year than local resources can support leading to a struggle for resources.  Each generation experiences substantial mortality.
• Differential survival and reproduction.  Individuals possessing traits well suited for the struggle for local resources will contribute more offspring to the next generation.

From one generation to the next, the struggle for resources (what Darwin called the “struggle for existence”) will favour individuals with some variations over others and thereby change the frequency of traits within the population.  This process is natural selection.  The traits that confer an advantage to those individuals who leave more offspring are called adaptations.

• 'Survival of the fittest' is a phrase that describes the mechanism of natural selection.
• It originated from the Darwinian Evolutionary theory and reproductive success is the biological concept of it.
• In simpler terms, it means, that the form which will leave the most copies of itself in the successive generations will survive.

The correct answer is Osmosis

The process that is related to the absorption of inorganic salts and water by plant roots is Osmosis.

• A hypermarket is a retail store that combines a department store and a grocery supermarket. Often a very large establishment, hypermarkets offer a wide variety of products such as appliances, clothing, and groceries.
• Hypermarkets offer shoppers a one-stop shopping experience. The idea behind this big box store is to provide consumers with all the goods they require, under one roof. Some of the most well-known hypermarkets include the Walmart Supercenter, Fred Meyer, Meijer, and Super Kmart.
• The structural evolution of many towns and cities has been based to a considerable extent upon accessibility, and this is particularly true of the central shopping areas which, in order to survive economically, have to attract large numbers of customers. Yet accessibility is decreasing in most city centres, as is evidenced by the increased traffic congestion - both vehicular and pedestrian - and spiralling demands for greater amounts of parking space. The separation of pedestrians and vehicles in traffic-free shopping streets and the redevelopment of city centres have managed to alleviate the problem temporarily in some urban areas. Retailers and developers, however, have realized that increased car ownership means that customers need not necessarily be so dependent upon the city centre shopping area if alternatives are available, and the result has been the proliferation of planned suburban shopping centres in recent years. Many of these centres cater not only for the day-to-day needs of the population but also contain higher-order functions, such as jewellers, men's outfitters and furnishing stores.
• An important aspect of these centres is the large amount of space devoted to car parking, which, together with such facilities as crèches, restaurants and licensed premises, is designed to make the shopping experience as pleasant and easy as possible, even to the extent of attracting the whole family.
• In North America many of these planned shopping centres have been located beyond the suburbs and are referred to as "out-of-town" shopping centres. These centres differ from the planned suburban shopping centre in that they are usually much larger, often with a considerable variety of high-order functions, and have been designed to serve the shopping needs of a large regional population.
• Their development is related not only to the increasing congestion in the downtown areas of North American towns and cities but also to the much higher mobility of shoppers compared to their counterparts in Britain. High car ownership and the widespread network of fast efficient highways in rural areas have played a major role in the development of out-of-town shopping centres.
• Possibly one of the most important factors that have assured the success of the North American out-of-town shopping centre has been the way in which downtown retailers have reacted to the changes taking place in the city centres.

• Hirschman contends that deliberate unbalancing of the economy according to the strategy is the best method of development and if the economy is to be kept moving ahead, the task of development policy is to maintain tension, disproportions, and disequilibrium.
• Balanced growth should not be the goal but rather the maintenance of existing imbalances, which can be seen from profit and losses.
• Therefore, the sequence that leads away from equilibrium is precisely an ideal pattern for development.
• The unequal development of various sectors often generates conditions for rapid development.
• More-developed industries provide undeveloped industries with an incentive to grow.
• According to Hirschman, “Development is a chain of disequilibria that must be kept alive rather than eliminate the disequilibrium of which profits and losses are symptoms in a competitive economy.
• If the economy is to keep moving ahead, the task of development policy is to maintain, tension, disproportions and disequilibria.”

Globalization:

• Globalization means the growing interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment, people, and information.
• Globalization raises the degree of independence resulting in lesser control over the domestic economy and loss of economic sovereignty.
• Countries have built economic partnerships to facilitate these movements over many centuries.
• These cooperative arrangements shaped modern everyday life.
• The globalization of production is concomitant to the globalization of trade. as one can't function without the other.

The historical expansion:

• Exports nearly doubled from 8.5% of total gross world product in 1970 to 16.2% in 2001.
• Since the 1970s, aviation has become increasingly affordable to middle classes in developed countries.
• The term globalization as it's used today came to prominence in the 1980s, reflecting several technological advancements that expediated international transactions.
• The term 'Globalization' gained popularity after the Cold War in the early 1990s.

Globalization and trade:

• The globalization of production is concomitant to the globalization of trade as one cannot function without the other.
• It has enhanced the spatial integration of the world economy
• This process has been facilitated by significant technical changes in the transport sector.
• The scale, volume, and efficiency of international trade have all continued to increase since the 1970s.
• As such, global space/time convergence was an ongoing process that implied a more extensive market coverage that could be accessed with a lower amount of time.
• It has become increasingly possible to trade between parts of the world that previously had limited access to international transportation systems.
• Further, the division and the fragmentation of production that went along with these processes also expanded trade.
• Trade thus contributes to lower manufacturing costs.
• The role of digital technologies in the facilitation of trade has become increasingly important

There are three types of globalization,

Therefore, Regional comparative advantage is on the decline is not true about International trade in the post-globalization phase.

• The term chorology traces its origin in the Greek etymology which means the ‘science of places’.
• Chorology stems from the Greek word khoros for “place” or “space” and the suffix -logy for the study of. The term chorology is also known as ‘Areal Differentiation’ is in vogue in the geographical study since the days of Strabo (64 BC to AD 24).
• Ptolemy (AD 87-150) a Roman Geographer believed that geography should concentrate on the study of the earth in a holistic manner considering the earth as a unit.
• According to Ptolemy, the regional analysis is like describing only the certain features of a whole and leaving aside the rest, thus not bringing forth the complete picture.
• He differentiated among geography as the study of universals, topography as the study of localities, and chorography as integrating the two. The author of the seminal book ‘Geographia Generalis’ in 1650, Varenius (1622-1650) started a debate in geographic academic circle regarding the Special/specific Geography and General Geography.
• According to him, specific geography is interested in studying the unique and specific feature or character of the places, whereas general geography is concerned with universal laws.
• This division of geography between special and general later on became the 4 rallying points for propagators of Regional Geography and Systematic Geography, thus providing a renewed thrust in the regional vs. systematic geography dualism or dichotomy.
• Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), contributed significantly to historically shaping up of the evolution of the concept of geography as a chorological science. Kant provided substantial theoretical and conceptual framework for the development of the concept of chorology and was inspirational for the Geographers like Hettner and Hartshorne, who further popularized the concept of geography as a chorological science.
• Kant was of the view that Geography is descriptive while History is analytical. He believed that unlike theoretical sciences History and Geography are concerned only with Empirical and Unique.
• Kant pointed out that there are two ways to classify empirical phenomena, one in synchronization and accordance with the nature while other in accordance with their arrangement or location in time and space. The disciplines like Zoology, Botany, Chemistry, and likes are grouped in the former category whilst History and Geography in the later. The temporal occurrence of events is chronologically studied in History whereas phenomenon lying side by side in the space is chorological and studied in Geography.

Therefore, correct matching is A-IV, B - III, C - II, D - I

Characteristics of a histogram:

• A histogram is a chart that plots the distribution of a numeric variable’s values as a series of bars.
• Each bar typically covers a range of numeric values called a bin or class.
• A bar’s height indicates the frequency of data points with a value within the corresponding bin.
• The histogram generally shows a frequency distribution.
• In order to use a histogram, we simply require a variable that takes continuous numeric values.
• Histograms are good for showing general distributional features of dataset variables.
• A histogram is used to summarize discrete or continuous data.

Parts of a Histogram

1. The title: The title describes the information included in the histogram.
2. X-axis: The X-axis are intervals that show the scale of values under which the measurements fall.
3. Y-axis: The Y-axis shows the number of times that the values occurred within the intervals set by the X-axis.
4. The bars: The height of the bar shows the number of times that the values occurred within the interval, while the width of the bar shows the interval that is covered. For a histogram with equal bins, the width should be the same across all bars.

A graphical presentation of a histogram,

Therefore, it is clear that Histogram is associated with Continuous frequency distribution.

In which of the following maps average slope and relative relief are shown simultaneously is known as Trachographic map.

Nodal region:

• A region develops around a node or focal point i.e. transport network, service center, communication network, etc.

• It is an interaction between the core and its hinterland

• It is also known as a functional region

• It is characterized by linkage and flow

• NCR Delhi is a good example of the nodal region in India.

National Capital Region:

• The National Capital Region (NCR) is a central planning region centered upon the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi in India.
• It encompasses Delhi and several districts surrounding it from the states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
• The NCR and the associated National Capital Region Planning Board were created in 1985 to plan the development of the region and to evolve harmonized policies for the control of land-uses and development of infrastructure in the region.
• Prominent cities of NCR include Faridabad, Ghaziabad, Gurgaon, New Delhi, and Noida.
• Out of the 8 identified RRTS Corridors, three were prioritized for implementation by Planning Commission. These three are:
• Delhi-Ghaziabad-Meerut
• Delhi-Gurugram-SNB-Alwar
• Delhi-Panipat
• The flow of transport and labor is very significant in this region.

• Carbon dioxide (CO2): it has a greenhouse effect and described as "the leading pollutant" and "the worst climate pollutant".
• Due to human activities, the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has been rising extensively since the Industrial Revolution and has now reached dangerous levels not seen in the last 3 million years.
• The major sources of carbon dioxide can be categorized under two heads are as follows,

Therefore, A and B only correct options.

The theory of Heartland by H. J. Mackinder:

• Born in 1861 and passed away in 1947

• He was a professor of Geography at the London University

• Director of the London School of Economics

• Member of British Parliament

• Famous for his paper entitled The Geographical Pivot of History in 1904

• After that, he modified the concept two times

• He assumes three things,

• Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland

• Who rules Heartland commands the World Islands

• Who rules the World-Island command the world.

• This theory completely emphasis on land-power concept.

Concept od heartland:

• The huge area of inner Eurasia
• Surrounded by mountains by three sides and Arctic ice-bound region in the north
• Inaccessible to sea power
• Strategically secured like a fortress
• Easily accessible through a narrow strip of land covered by Steppe grassland
• Heartland was a region of permanent difficulties because of its location and resultant extreme climate.

Therefore, Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Darwinian theory of the origin of species:

• It is a theory of biological evolution
• The theory of evolution by natural selection, first formulated in Darwin's book "On the Origin of Species" in 1859.
• It is the process by which organisms change over time as a result of changes in heritable physical or behavioral traits.
• Changes that allow an organism to better adapt to its environment will help it survive and have more offspring.
• There are heritable variations in the individual species.

Law of uniformitarianism:

• Uniformitarianism is the doctrine that existing processes acting in the same manner and with essentially the same intensity as at present are sufficient to account for all geologic change.
• Uniformitarianism posits that natural agents now at work on and within the Earth have operated with general uniformity through immensely long periods of time.
• Scottish geologist James Hutton in 1785 presented his ideas that the laws that govern geologic processes have not changed during the history of the Earth
• Later published in two volumes as Theory of the Earth (1795).
• The history could be interpreted in terms of processes observed at the present, 'Present is the Key to the Past'.
• For example, the process of formation of soil by the weathering of rocks and how layers of sediment accumulated.
• The evolution of landform is as same as the evolution of the species and origin of a new character.

Therefore, Both Statement I and Statement II are correct.

Assertion:

• The government provides IT resources to its employees to enhance their efficiency and productivity
• The resources include desktop devices, portable and mobile devices, networks including wireless networks, Internet connectivity, external storage devices and peripherals like printers and scanners, and the software associated therewith.
• These resources are meant as tools to access and process information related to their areas of work.
• Some of the uses are like
• Access to Internet and Intranet
• Access to Government Wireless Networks
• Filtering and blocking of sites under the IT Act 2000
• Monitoring and Privacy
• E-mail Access from the Government Network
• Access to Social Media Sites from Government Network
• Guidelines for Use of IT Devices on Government Network
• Maintenance of availability, integrity, confidentiality, and authority of Government data

Hence, the assertion is correct.

Reason:

• NINC means Notice of an Incomplete application (various organizations)
• In the contemporary world economy, India is the largest exporter of IT.
• Exports dominate the Indian IT industry and constitute about 79% of the industry's total revenue.
• However, the domestic market is also significant, with robust revenue growth.
• The IT exports dominate the industry and constitute the majority of the total revenue.
• The Indian companies have outperformed NINC's in the total revenue and even IT export market share.

Hence, the reason is also correct.

Therefore, Both (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is NOT the correct explanation of (A).

• The assertion is talking about the domestic use of IT goods by the government in various sectors.
• It is not fulfilling the criteria of the export-related services and the policies.
• The reason is totally related tο the export-related issues of the IT products by the Indian company.
• So the reason is not satisfactory though it is true.

Nearest neighbor statistic: 

• Nearest Neighbor Analysis measures the spread or distribution of something over geographical space.
• It provides a numerical value that describes the extent to which a set of points are clustered or uniformly spaced.
• This command uses the Clark and Evans (1954) aggregation index R as the basis for a crude test of clustering or order of a point pattern.
• The Rn value determines the randomness of the given settlements.
• For this two things are requires, Area (a) and the length between settlements.
• The formula is, $\rm Rn = \dfrac{\bar{D}(Obs)}{0.5 \sqrt{\dfrac{a}{n}}}$
• Where, a = total area, n  = number of settlement, D = mean distance

Important Points

Analysis of the question:

Therefore, the correct matching is A-II, B-I, C-IV, D-III

The correct answer is A-III, B-I, C-II, D-IV

Globalization:

• Globalization means the growing interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment, people, and information.
• Globalization raises the degree of independence resulting in lesser control over the domestic economy and loss of economic sovereignty.
• Countries have built economic partnerships to facilitate these movements over many centuries.
• The term 'Globalization' gained popularity after the Cold War in the early 1990s.
• These cooperative arrangements shaped modern everyday life.
• The Economic Survey of 2018-19, released on July 4, 2019, says "almost 93%" of the total workforce is 'informal'.
• But the Niti Aayog's Strategy for New India at 75, released in November 2018, said: "by some estimates, India's informal sector employs approximately 85% of all workers".

There are three types of globalization,

Effects of Globalization:

• Globalization effects at three levels,
• The individual level:  includes the way international influence affects ordinary people within a nation or region
• The community-level: includes effects on local or regional organizations, businesses, and economies
• The institutional level:  It includes effects to multinational corporations, national governments, and higher education institutions that have international students. At this level, decisions are made that affect the lower levels.

Therefore, (A) is correct but (R) is not correct

'Household register' in Japan was known by the name Koseki.

• “Koseki” is an official document that every Japanese citizen has, and it tells you about your birth date, birth address, parents’ names, etc.
• People usually have it registered to the birthplace. If you know where your “Koseki” is registered to, as well as your family’s official Japanese name in Japanese writing.
• The koseki is often confused with the jyuminhyou.
• The jyuminhyou registers your current address and is not the same document as the koseki.
• The koseki, or Family Registration, is the system by which births, deaths, marriages and divorces of Japanese nationals are recorded.
• In some sense, it is a national identity registration, since Japanese public offices collect and maintain these detailed records about all Japanese citizens.
• Under Family Registration Law, foreign nationals living in Japan also have to notify a municipal office of the births and deaths of their family members.
• When they marry, divorce, or have children, Japanese nationals, must notify a municipal office.
• All this and more are recorded in the koseki. A person’s koseki follows them for their entire life.
• The format of a koseki has changed over the years.
• It used to be handwritten, but is now, of course, printed on a computer, and then stamped with a hanko to verify authenticity.

Correct matching:

The correct option is A-III, B - IV, C - I, D - II

Key Points

Precipitation:

• It is any liquid or frozen water that forms in the atmosphere and falls back to the Earth.
• It comes in many forms, like rain, sleet, and snow.
• Based on the diameters they can be classified in to follows,

R. Johnson is not associated with political Geography.

Important Points

R. Johnson:

• He is associated with the study of coastal morphology.
• He recognizes the concept of shoreline zones.

Additional Information

• Isaiah Bowman was an American geographer and President of Johns Hopkins University, 1935–1948. He was Political geographer of the past.
• Friedrich Ratzel was a German geographer and ethnographer, notable for first using the term Lebensraum ("living space") in the sense that the National Socialists later would.
• Halford Mackinder, a British political geographer noted for his work as an educator and for his geopolitical conception of the globe as divided into two camps, the ascendant Eurasian “heartland” and the subordinate “maritime lands,” including the other continents. He was knighted in 1920.

34.13% of frequencies between the range of 0 to + 1.00 (σ) standard deviation.

Key Points

Normal distribution curve:

• Normal distribution function gives a bell-shaped symmetrical curve around mean and its mean, median and mode coincide.

• It is a unimodal distribution.

• From the lowest value to a value of (Mean –Standard Deviation) the curvature of the normal curve is concave i.e. it has an increasing rate of change of frequencies. At this point, it changes its curvature and becomes convex i.e. it starts having a decreasing rate of change of frequencies. Such a point is known as the point of inflection.

• Another point of inflection will be at the mean itself where instead of having increased it shows a decrease in the frequencies.

• The next point of inflection will occur at a value of ( Mean + Standard Deviation).

• Here again, the curvature of the curve will change from concave to convex and will show an increasing decline in the frequencies.

• In the range of Mean – S.D. to Mean + S.D. 68.23 % observations will fall and,

• In the range of Mean – 2 Standard Deviation (M – 2SD) to Mean + 2Standard Deviation ( M + 2SD) 95.46 % observations will fall and finally

• In the range of Mean – 3Standard Deviation (M – 3SD) to Mean + 3Standard Deviation (M + 3SD) 99.73 % observations will fall.

• Theoretically, the range of values of a normal distribution is from minus infinity to plus infinity

• One can think of the area under a normal "curve" as equaling 100% or 1.0, depending on whether one wants to talk about a percent of an area under the curve or a proportion of the area under the curve.

Therefore the correct option is A-IV, B - III, C- I, D - II

The 'Arabian Sea Branch' and 'Bay of Bengal Branch of Indian monsoon merge together over Punjab and adjoining Himalayas.

• South-West Monsoon Season – June to mid-September.
• South-West Monsoon Season is also known as a hot-wet season.
• Sudden onset is an important feature of South West Monsoons.
• With the onset of monsoons, the temperature falls drastically and humidity levels rise.
• Low-pressure conditions prevail over northwest India due to high temperature.
• ITCZ (monsoon trough) lies along the Ganga plain. There are frequent changes in its location depending upon the weather conditions.
• The atmospheric pressure increases steadily southwards.
• Over the peninsular region, due to the pressure gradient between north and south, winds blow in a southwest to northeast direction from the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.
• Their direction undergoes a change in the Indo-Gangetic plain where they move from east to west.
• The advance of the monsoon is much faster in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea.

Again these two branches join together over Punjab and adjoining Himalayas already depicted in the image above.

Von Thunen's system of Agriculture:

• The theory of agricultural location was developed by von Thunen in the year 1826
• His work was based on the data obtained by practical experience from his agricultural estate in Mecklenburg in Germany.
• The models show the agricultural land use pattern varies with distance
• He assumes the following,
• There is an ‘isolated state’ (as von Thunen called his model economy), consisting of 1 market city and its agricultural hinterland.
• This city is the market for surplus products from the hinterland and receives products from no other areas.
• The hinterland ships its surpluses to no other market except the city.
• There is a homogeneous physical environment, including a uniform plain around the city.
• The hinterland is inhabited by farmers who wish to maximize their profits, and who adjust automatically to the market’s demands.
• There is only one mode of transport – the horse and wagon (as this was 1826).
• Transportation costs are directly proportional to distance and are borne entirely by the farmers, who ship all products in a fresh state.

Distance decay system after Von Thunen:

• The land rent gradually declines with increasing distance from the market
• The rate of decline differs for different commodity
• The market price of the commodity determines the maximum rent at the market point
• It resulted in a zonal distribution of the commodities

Sectoral field system:

• Agricultural Sector is divided into four main sub-sectors, namely:
• Crops;
• Livestock (both production and animal health);
• Fisheries and Aquaculture (including capture fisheries); and
• Forestry.
• Sectoral fields are not common but they are used in varying farming systems and environments.
• To formulate the Agricultural Sector the following information take into consideration,
• The people (farmers, fisherfolk, and pastoralists) and their principal livelihood activities;
• Infrastructure and livelihood assets related to agriculture (including physical assets and productive equipment and inputs used to sustain agricultural livelihoods), as well as land ownership arrangements;
• Production of, delivery of, and access to agricultural goods and services;
• Governance and decision-making processes linked to and supporting the Agricultural Sector (including institutions, social organization, and the policy environment); and
• Pre-existing risks and vulnerabilities (including existing preparedness plans).

Von Thunen has suggested the zonal pattern which completely matches the sectoral system of agriculture. Therefore, it is clear that (A) is not correct but (R) is correct.

Thermal infrared energy in remote sensing:

• Infrared remote sensing makes use of infrared sensors to detect infrared radiation emitted from the Earth's surface.
• The middle-wave infrared (MWIR) and long-wave infrared (LWIR) are within the thermal infrared region.
• In terrestrial remote sensing, the region of 3 to 35 µm is popularly called thermal-infrared
• The excellent atmospheric window lies between 8-14 µm wavelength.
• These radiations are emitted from warm objects such as the Earth's surface.
• They are used in satellite remote sensing for measurements of the earth's land and sea surface temperature.
• Thermal infrared remote sensing is also often used for the detection of forest fires.

Infrared radiometer in Thermal remote sensing:

• Non-imaging IR radiometers measure the radiant temperature using detectors sensitive to 8 to 14 mm wavelengths.
• Temperature sensitivity is typically 0.2°C. The instantaneous field of view of a typical radiometer is either 2° or 20°.
• The radiant temperature may be measured either from the air or on the ground using portable IR radiometers.
• Thermal remote sensing data is collected by radiometers and scanners.
• The most basic form of radiant temperature is the thermal radiometer.
• This non-imaging device measures the radiant temperature using detectors sensitive to 8-14mm wavelengths.

Therefore, Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)

Laterite soil:

• ‘Laterite’ means brick in Latin. They harden greatly on losing moisture.
• Laterite soils are mostly the end products of weathering.
• They are formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods.
• Heavy rainfall promotes leaching (nutrients get washed away by water) of soil whereby lime and silica are leached away and a soil rich in oxides of iron and aluminium compounds is left behind.
• Laterite soils are red in colour due to little clay and more gravel of red sand-stones.
• Laterite soils are rich in bauxite or ferric oxides.
• They are very poor in lime, magnesia, potash, and nitrogen.
• Sometimes, the phosphate content may be high in the form of iron phosphate.
• In wetter places, there may be a higher content of humus.
• A continuous stretch of laterite soil is found on the summits of Western Ghats at 1000 to 1500 m above mean sea level, Eastern Ghats, the Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyan, Satpuras, and Malwa Plateau.
• They also occur at lower levels and in valleys in several other parts of the country.
• They are well developed in south Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka, etc., and are widely scattered in other regions.
• Laterite soils lack fertility due to intensive leaching.
• When manured and irrigated, some laterites are suitable for growing plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut, areca nut, etc.
• In some areas, these soils support grazing grounds and scrub forests.

Therefore, it is clear that (A) is correct but (R) is not correct.

Crop combination.:

• It is related to the diversity of crops grown in a particular area at a specific time
• It is the main basis of agricultural regionalization
• Crop combination also helps to understand the crop distribution in an area
• It helps to understand the density and concentration of individual crops and their assemblage in a region
• Sometimes livestock was also taken into consideration for the ranking
• There are two methods of crop combination
• Arbitrary choice method
• Statistical method
• The methods suggested by J. C. Weaver, Doi, and Rafiullah all are statistical methods of crop combination

Key Points

Crop combination by J. C. Weaver:

• J. C. Weaver proposed a scheme of crop combination in 1954
• It was based on a statistical analysis
• Here he used the variance and standard deviation method
• Collect the data about the total cropped area of a region
• Identify the area under each crop
• Calculate the percentage using the formula
• *Percentage of area = (area under each crop/total cropped area)100
• Based on the percentage do the ranking Calculate the variance and standard deviation.

Build operate transfer (BOT):

• A build-operate-transfer (BOT) contract is a model used to finance large projects, typically infrastructure projects developed through Public-Private-Partnership.
• BOT projects are normally large-scale, greenfield infrastructure projects that would otherwise be financed, built and operated solely by the government.
• Under a build-operate-transfer (BOT) contract, an entity—usually a government—grants a concession to a private company to finance, build and operate a project for a period of 20-30 years, hoping to earn a profit.
• After that period, the project is returned to the public entity that originally granted the concession.
• Examples include a highway in Pakistan, a wastewater treatment facility in China and a power plant in the Philippines.
• Build operate transfer (BOT) is a scheme under which public operators are invited to construct roads and bridges.

The national highways act:

• The national highways act was an Act to provide for the declaration of certain highways to be national highways and for matters connected therewith.
• It was enacted by Parliament in the Seventh Year of the Republic of India in 1956.
• This Act may be called the National Highways Act, 1956.
• The amendment has done in 1997 aimed at revamping the existing one.

Therefore, (A) is correct but (R) is not correct.

In geography, a drypoint is an area of the firm or flood-free ground in an area of wetland, marsh, or flood plains. The term typically applies to settlements, and drypoint settlements were common in history.

• In the United Kingdom extreme examples of drypoint settlements include Glastonbury, situated on a low hill in the marshy, and once frequently flooded,
• Somerset Levels, and Wareham in Dorset surrounded by flood plains to the west and Poole Harbour to the east.

A drypoint has the advantages of flood protection, fertile soil, and fairly flat land which is ideal for agriculture and building. Hence, one can easily conclude that "Drypoint" settlements are common in the Deltas area.

Important Points

Wet point settlements

• River valleys, lakes, and ponds are examples of wet points.
• People prefer such a location to get the benefit of available water resources.
• In Asia such settlements are common.

Drypoint settlements

• Upland regions in low-lying areas are an example of drypoint settlement.
• People prefer such a location to save themselves from floods, insects, and pests.

A resource is a source or supply from which a benefit is produced and that has some utility. Resources can broadly be classified upon their availability. They are classified into renewable and non-renewable resources.

Key Points

Renewable resources

• Resources that are used by humans since human life exists.
• These resources are used by our ancestors for their daily purposes like lighting, shelter, transportation, cooking, heating, protection from harm.
• These are also known as non-conventional sources of energy.
• For example Soil, water bodies, solar, wind, tidal energy, geothermal, forest, mountains, wildlife, atmospheric resources.
• These can be used unlimited.
• They are environment friendly.
• The cost is low.
• They are pollution-free.
• They require high maintenance costs.
• They are sustainable resources.
• They cause no harm to life to exist on earth.

Non-Renewable resources

• The sources that cannot be replaced or reused once they are destroyed are called non-renewable resources.
• These are limited resources. So these are used limitedly.
• These are not environmentally friendly because the amount of carbon emission is high.
• The cost of these resources is high.
• They are not pollution-free.
• They require low maintenance cost.

 There are four major types of non-renewable resources: oil, natural gas, coal, and nuclear energy. Oil, natural gas, and coal are collectively called fossil fuels. Fossil fuels were formed within the Earth from dead plants and animals over millions of years—hence the name “fossil” fuels.

Core frame model:

• The model was first suggested by Ronald R. Boyce and Edgar M. Horwood in 1959.
• The most common way to view the distribution of economic activities within the CBD is the Core Frame Model.
• This model includes five zones, 
• ​Inner core: the land is expensive and used intensively. Vertical development found. Focused on retail and entertainment.
• Outer core: lower land values and are less intensively developed. It contains economic activities that require proximity to the CBD
• Frame: lower land values and are less intensively developed.
• Zone of assimilation or zone of discard: transitional zone
• Residential area

'Zone of assimilation' and 'Zone of discard':

• This is also known as the zone of transition
• The area which increasingly develops the functions of the CBD; the CBD of the future, characterized by the wholescale redevelopment of shops, offices, and hotels.
• The zone of discard is that area that was once a part of the CBD but is now in decline and characterized by low-status shops and warehouses, and vacant property.
• This zone originates when the core and inner-frame activities of the CBD are pulled outwards in that direction.
• New investments such as new transport links, urban redevelopment projects, or a new major store opening in that area.
• For example, Manchester’s bar area of Canal Street in the UK, Kennedy Town in Hong Kong

So it is clear that 'Zone of assimilation' and 'Zone of discard' these terms are related to the delimitation of CBD of a city.