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Most of the learning in human beings takes place not only through observation or imitation but also by solving problems that they come across in their day-to-day life. While solving a problem if an individual reaches the solution all of a sudden, we say that he has learned by insight. 

• In fact, the person reaches the solution by understanding the relationship between different aspects of the problematic situation. In our daily life, we describe the mode of learning by using phrases like seeing the point or getting the idea.

Important Points 

• Wolfgang Kohler, insight learning refers to the sudden realization of a problem’s solution. Kohler proposed that not all kinds of learning depend on trial-error or conditioning, we use our cognitive processes also to learn.
• Gestalt Psychology used the term ‘insight’ to describe the perception of the whole situation by the learner and of his intelligence in responding to the proper relationships.
• Even though this learning takes place implicitly, the change in the behavior is long-lasting. To prove his point, he conducted a series of an experiment on chimpanzees, with which we humans share 99 percent of DNA.

Key PointsOn the basis of his experiments, he described the process of learning in insight as follows:

• The learning perceives the situation in its totality.
• The child analyses the various aspects of the situation and tries to establish a meaningful relationship among them. On the basis of this new perception, the child redefines the situation.
• The process goes on till the child solves the problematic situation all of a sudden. That is what we mean when we say that the child suddenly gets an insight into the solution.

Thus, it is concluded that through his experiment Kohler wanted to prove that learning is the perception of a whole situation.

The five stepped system of lesson planning was started by J. Friedrich Herbert, a German psychologist**.** His five-stage system of lesson planning involves five discrete steps including preparation, presentation, association, generalization, and application.

• This is also known as Herbartian five steps, these steps are used for the students for receiving new knowledge in educational fields.
• J. Friedrich Herbert strongly believed that when a topic properly presented to the students they associate that topic with their existing ideas and learn in a coherent way.

Important Points

Let's understand the five stages advocated by him for lesson planning:

• Preparation: It refers to the process of activating previous knowledge of the learners to receive the new one.
• Presentation: It refers to present the concept using concrete objects for a quality experience
• Association: It refers to the process of comparing new knowledge with the previous knowledge to be familiar with the differences in order to assimilate the new one.
• Generalization: it refers to arrive at general ideas or necessary conclusion by comparing learning materials presented by the teacher.
• Application: It refers to use of acquired knowledge by the learners in real-life for a better understanding and meaningful learning.

According to Herbert, these steps would make the students able to acquire, assimilate, and apply knowledge efficiently.

Hence, it could be concluded that the five stepped system of lesson planning was started by J. Friedrich Herbert.

Psychologically speaking personality is all that a person is. It includes everything about the person, his physical, emotional, social, mental, and spiritual makeup. The term personality signifies something deeper than more appearance or outward behavior. 

Factors Influencing Personality: The following factors influence the development of the personality of an individual. There are various glands in our body. These glands are cell structures. They are important for the individual’s physical and mental health and development. They secrete different substances which are responsible for this development.

Key Points

Cannon described different types of personality based on glands.

There are two types of glands:

1. The Duct Glands
2. The Ductless Glands.

The Duct Glands :

• The duct glands secrete their fluids through ducts and channels.
• These glands help in the digestive process.
• If the digestion is proper, then the individual becomes healthy.

The Ductless Glands:

• The ductless or endocrine glands exercise a great influence on the development of the various parts of the body and their activities' emotional stability and temperament.
• The hormones secreted by these glands play a vital role in the making of personality.
• The three important ductless glands are:

Hence, from the above, we can conclude that Cannon described different types of personalities based on glands.

Confusion Points 

• Kretschmer described personality on the basis of different body types.
• Kretschmer was a German psychiatrist who on the basis of his observation of patients classified people into four types. He used the physical constitution and temperament for this purpose The four types he talked about included: (i) Pyknik type (ii)Asthenic type (iii)Athletic type (iv) Dysplastic type.

Creativity is the phenomenon whereby imaginative and original ideas are turned into reality. It relates to divergent thinking that refers to a way of solving problems by more than one approach.

The above-mentioned statement is given by 'Crow and Crow' as:

• It is the ability possesses by the people who are creative, persistent, and imaginative.
• Creativity is a cognitive ability to produce something original by offering a fresh perspective.
• It is related to divergent thinking which refers to a way of solving problems by more than one approach.
• It is goal-directed thinking which is unusual, novel, and useful and includes brainstorming and out of the box thinking in it

Hence, it could be concluded that the above-mentioned statement is given by 'Crow and Crow'.

Additional Information

Characteristics of Creative Children:

• Perceive relation between impossible things.
• Think quickly and solve problems in a novel way.
• Convert imaginative and original ideas into reality.
• Try new things and risk failure in executing innovative ideas.
• Use divergent and out of the box thinking in different situations.

Important Points

Language, which is considered as the most awesome of universal human achievements, develops with extraordinary speed in early childhood**.​ Language development** refers to the words, their pronunciation, and the methods of combining them for the understanding of the others. Language development concerns itself with the length and the patterns of sentence structure, grammatical construction, and syntax.

Key Points

• B.F Skinner believed that children learn language through operant conditioning. Language is learned through imitation and reinforcement.
• Reinforcement is something that enhances the strength of the response and prompts repetitions of the behavior that preceded reinforcement.
• Children receive “rewards” for using language in a functional manner. Skinner also tells that children learn language through imitation of others and prompting.
• According to Skinner, the child learns language by imitating their parents or the persons around them. Children strengthen their responses by the repetitions, corrections, and other reactions that adults provide, thus language is practice-based.

Thus, it is concluded that according to B.F. Skinner's language development in children takes place as an outcome of imitation and reinforcement.

Instincts are goal-directed and innate behavior that is not due to learning or experience.

McDougall tried to explain behavior in terms of a few distinct inherited tendencies which he called instincts.

• For him, instinct and emotion are always unified.
• Emotion is the conscious aspect of an instinctive activity.
• An instinct is an innate disposition that makes the organism sensitive to objects and disposes it to appropriate action.
• He states that "An instinct determines it's possessor to perceive and to pay attention to objects of a certain class, to experience emotional excitement of a particular quality upon perceiving such an object and to act in regard to it in a particular manner or at least to experience an impulse to action”.
• Further, he feels that an instinctive action is an outcome of, "A distinctly mental process, one which is incapable of being described in purely mechanical terms because it is a psychophysical process involving psychical as well as physical changes and like every other mental process.
• It stated three aspects, the cognitive, the affective, and the conative aspects; every instance of instinctive behavior involves knowing of something or object, a feeling in regard to it, and a striving toward or away from the object”

Additional Information

• Thorndike divided intelligent activity into three types :
• Social Intelligence or the ability to understand and deal with persons;
• Concrete intelligence or ability to understand and deal with things, as in skilled trades and scientific appliances and
• Abstracts intelligence, or the ability to understand and deal with verbal and mathematical symbols
• According to Woodworth, Both behavior and consciousness were the subject matter of psychology. His 'Dynamic Psychology' (1918) tried to explain behavior by merging theories of motivation, perception, learning, and thinking, also his book 'Psychology' (1921) became a standard textbook.
• Drever emphasized the element of satisfyingness in interest. To him, interest is a feeling of worthwhileness passing into satisfyingness.

Hence, it's clear that McDougall classified instincts into fourteen types

Attention refers to the active processing of specific information present in the environment by an individual.

• ‘Attention is the concentration of consciousness upon one subject rather than upon another’ Dumville (1938)
• It allows us to 'tune out' information, sensations, and perceptions that are not relevant at the moment and instead focus energy on the information that is important.
• Attention is the most consequential of all the tasks the human brain performs.
• Perceiving, thinking, learning, deciding, and acting deliberately, all depend on attention.
• Attention is the means by which one actively processes a limited amount of information from the enormous amount of information available through one‟s senses, stored memories, and other cognitive processes.

Additional Information

• Attention refers to the processing or selection of some information at the expense of other information (Pashler, 1998).
• Ross (1951): Attention is the process of getting an object or thought clearly before the mind.
• Morgan & Gilliland (1942): Attention is being keenly alive to some specific factor in our environment.
• McDougall states that emotions are the conscious concomitants of instinctive impulses at work.
• Norman L. Munn (1972) defined personality as the most characteristics, integration of an individual’s, structure, attitudes, capacities, abilities, and aptitudes

From the above, it's clear that the statement “Attention is the concentration of consciousness upon one object rather than upon another" is given by Dumville.

The term 'Eugenes' in Greek means good in stock; hereditarily endowed with noble qualities. 'Eugenics' is the study of the agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations either physically or mentally.

• The word 'eugenics' was initially proposed and defined by a Victorian scientist, Sir Francis Galton (1822—1911). He is the 'Father of the Eugenics'.
• A cousin of Charles Darwin, he was greatly influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution.
• He defined eugenics to mean 'the science of improving the inherited stock of a population, not only by judicious matings but by all other means' the word eugenics come fi-om the Greek word EU -good, genesis creation or birth.
• It is a polar opposite to the word 'euthanasia' EU - good than those - dead.
• Eugenics might be formulated as 'science applied to the qualitative improvement of the set of human genes to be transmitted to the next generation.
• This definition could be extended to cover methods for regulating population numbers as well as trying to improve the genetic composition of the next generation.

Hence, we can conclude that Francis Galton is the 'father of eugenics'.

Intelligence is an umbrella term used to describe a property of the mind that encompasses many related abilities, such as the capacities to reason. From various meanings of intelligence, it could be concluded that intelligence means the ability of an individual to solve the problems that have been received from general learning, experience, schools, and the environment. 

Verbal Intelligence Test

• Verbal tests use written language for their items and therefore, require the examinees to be literate.
• Most of the widely used mental ability tests, to some degree, depend on language and include tasks presented in verbal terms. S-B test, General Mental Ability Test (GMAT), and Army Alpha Test include the tasks testing the vocabulary by identifying the meaning synonym, antonym, completion of the sentences, etc. The tests in which this type of items is included are called the verbal tests

General Mental Ability Test (GMAT) :

• It is defined as the ability to understand and interpret verbal information, the ability to recognize and process numbers and information stated in tabular/ graphical format, ability to think broadside, and construct logical connections between unassociated concepts.
• Dr. S.S. Jalota propounded this test in Hindi to measure intelligence.
• By this test, we can measure the intelligence of a group and classify intelligent, average, and dull categories.

Additional Information

Army Alpha Test:

• First administered to nearly two million new recruits in World War I, and the Otis Group Intelligence Scale were forerunners of many other group tests that are administered economically and quickly to large numbers and were thus effective for use in schools and industry.
• Standardized group tests are administered for college and graduate school entrance, and for a number of civil service positions.

Non-verbal Intelligence Test:

• Tests, which require no reading and writing activity on the part of the subjects, are described as non-verbal tests such as Progressive Matrices, Pinter General Ability Test, Picture drawing test.
• The children's mental ability can be tested by means of pictures.
• This type of test consists of all the items in pictorial form.
• They are valuable for better diagnosis of cases that scoreless on verbal tests.
• It is better to use terms as 'pictorial' or 'no reading rather than Non-verbal.

Picture drawing test:

• ​Through this, we can analyze different areas of a person's subconscious, for instance, fears, dreams, and main personality traits in general.
• However, Projective personality tests, specifically, evaluate how a person responds to particular situations through a drawing.

Hence, it's clear that GMAT was propounded by Dr. S.S Jalota in Hindi.

Intelligence has been defined as the total of everything you know, as the ability to learn or profit from experience, as the ability to solve problems, or as the ability to cope with the demands of the environment.

Key Points The two-factor theory of intelligence: Charles Spearman proposed his theory in the year 1923.

• According to his theory, intelligence consists of two factors: ‘g’ and ‘s’, where ‘g’ stands for generalized factor and ‘s’ stands for the specific factor.
• As per him, the ‘g’ factor is responsible for different tasks which are common for all people while the ‘s’ factor is for abilities like musical, spatial, mechanical, etc.
• S-factor is applicable in specific fields and changeable in nature while G-factor is a universal innate ability to perform all cognitive tasks effectively.

Hence, we can conclude that Charles Spearman proposed the two-factor theory of intelligence.