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Conditioning is a term used to describe the process by which a neutral stimulus gains the power to elicit a specific conditioned response whereas here it is not happening.

Extinction refers to gradually diminishing the response by the repetition of the conditioned stimulus (bell) without the unconditioned stimulus. A response that has been extinguished, does come-up later on its own, this is called spontaneous recovery. At this stage, if reinforcement (US) is not presented with CS, the response extinguishes permanently. 

NOTE:

• Classical conditioning: This is the simplest form of conditioning, described Pavlov, a Russian Psychologist. He associated the presentation of food to the dog with another stimulus as the sound of the bell. After giving some trials in which the bell preceded the presentation of food, the dog started salivating at the sound of the bell.
• Operant conditioning: This is another approach to the study of associative learning. The term coined by B.F. Skinner means that the likelihood of a behaviour depends on the significance of the event immediately following it to a person showing the behaviour. If the event following the behaviour is positively reinforcing or rewarding, then it will recur.

Hence, extinction is not the type of conditioning.

SQ4R Technique: This method is useful for reading and studying textbook effectively. SQ3R is a study technique, which was discussed by Robinson in 1961. This technique was modified into a system called SQ4R by Thomas and Robinson, 1972. SQ4R stands for the initial letters of the six steps that should be taken in studying a text. The six steps are:

• Survey: It refers to a quick glance through the chapter of the course work. For example, after receiving the study materials you tend to open the materials and give a glance at the contents. This is known as a survey.
• Question: There is a purpose why you choose to read the particular content of the course material. You ask yourself certain questions regarding the content such as, ‘Are the contents worth reading’? ‘Will the contents be relevant to my field’? ‘How much time will I take to complete this Unit’? The important things to learn are usually answers to questions
• Read: Reading requires active participation: it is NOT just running your eyes over the contents of the book. You as a learner need to develop a critical mind so as to answer questions you have asked yourself in relation to the contents of the subject matter
• Reflect: It is good to reflect upon certain things similarly, while learning one should also reflect on the study materials as it helps to develop more ideas about the content and the meaning of the text. Reflecting helps you to remember information that is contained in the text.
• Recite: Reading a text is not the final step in learning; instead, it is the first step. Units/chapters that have been read need to be retained. Retention of what has been read will help you to improve the learning vis-à-vis improvement in concentration, enable you to ask questions pertaining to the text and develop critical thinking.
• Review: It is a quick repeat of the other above steps: namely, survey, question, read and recite. It is a review of what you as a learner have achieved while reading the text. During review, you should also go over the notes that you have written to help clarify points that you didn’t understand. The best time to review is when you have finished studying the whole block.

Hence, the SQ4R technique in the development of learning was proposed by ​Thomas and Robinson.

The education system included all forms including formal, informal, special and non-formal education.

• Non-formal education- It has not a well-defined set of features. The strategy does not require student attendance, decreasing the contacts between teacher and student and most activities take place outside the institution, like home-based reading and other assignments. This endowed with flexible curricula and methodology, capable of adapting to the needs and interests of students, for their own speed, pace and requirement.
• Formal education: It is organized, guided by a formal curriculum, leads to a formally recognized credential such as a high school completion diploma or a degree. It is often guided and recognized by the government at some level. Teachers are usually trained as professionals in some way.
• Informal education: It is a general term for education outside of a standard school setting. It is the wise, respectful, and spontaneous process of cultivating learning. It works through conversation, exploration, and enlargement of experience. It is the oldest form and its existence is as long as society itself. Formal and non-formal are plays later development. Informal education is characterized by a changed relationship between learner and teacher in an informal learning context.

Hence, non-formal educational includes such learning situations which do not have curriculum, syllabus or certification but typically take place naturally as part of other activities.

A learning error is an incorrect form and is a sure indication that the learner has not mastered the core of the selective topic in a learning process. 

• The errors are important part of learning process. It can be referred as the difference between the correct response and the answered one.
• The errors in learning can be caused due to the technical failures, inadequate flow of information, communication problems, and wrong understanding of concepts.

Key Points

Mathematical errors:

• The mathematical errors are the learning errors that students made while learning the concepts due to the lack of attention, clarity, and wrong calculations that leads them to the wrong response.
• The students generally does the following learning errors in mathematics:
• Errors due to carelessness - These types of errors occurs simply because the students did not pay the attention and wants to answer hurriedly. They write a wrong problem and so came up with the wrong response, dropping a negative sign, and by not following the given directions.
• Computational errors - These types of errors are generally in the process of solving a problem by doing wrong addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Making one computational mistake in a multi-step problem means the rest of their work and the final solution wrong will be wrong.

​**Writing errors:**​​

• The writing errors include the spellings errors, grammatical mistakes, and the errors in usage of the language. These types of errors should be corrected by practicing, dictation tests, and by giving creative writing worksheets.
• Writing errors that are commonly found among learners are 
• The letters which are not distinctly written e.g. b-d, j-g: v-u, etc. in the English language. There is no proper spacing between letters in a word, words in a line and lines in a paragraph.
• There is no uniformity in size, spacing and alignment particularly in the direction of strokes. The writing speed is very slow and inadequate practice in reading and writing.

Hence, it could be concluded that both mathematical and writing errors are the learning errors.​

Paraphrasing occurs when the counsellor states what the client has just said, using fewer words but without changing the meaning of what the client said.

When utilizing this skill, the counsellor tries to attempt to feedback on the essence of what the person has just said. This skill is very helpful when you want to:

• let the client know that the counsellor is listening and understand what they are saying,
• clarify confusing content,
• highlight the issues by stating them more concisely,
• check out the accuracy of your perceptions as the counsellor.

Hence, in a counselling session, when the counsellor states what the client has just said, using fewer words but without changing the meaning of what the client said, it is called ​paraphrasing.

Intelligence refers to the capacity to acquire and apply knowledge. It is the ability to solve problems, learn from experiences, and apply knowledge to deal with new situations.

• It enables an individual to use his mental and cognitive abilities (reasoning, thinking, etc.) to accomplish daily life tasks and to handle a particular situation of life.
• There are many theories related to intelligence. These theories are propounded by eminent psychologists to provide a framework to understand different aspects of intelligence.
• The theory of Multiple Intelligence which consists of seven different kinds of intelligence is propounded by an American psychologist 'Howard Gardner'.

Key Points

The theory of Multiple Intelligence emphasizes that:

• intelligence is of several kinds rather than dominated by a general factor.
• intelligence can't be tied to a single domain as each individual has his/her own abilities.
• how cultures shape the potential of the human using Intelligence as a multi-dimensional set of complex abilities.

Important Points

Types of intelligence suggested by Howard Gardner in this theory:

Hence, it could be concluded that none of the above is the correct in the context of the question.

Abraham Maslow was a social psychologist who was interested in a broad spectrum of human psychological needs rather than on individual psychological problems. 

Key Points

• The needs in Maslow’s hierarchy include physiological needs (food and clothing), safety needs (job security), social needs (friendship), self-esteem, and self-actualization.
• This hierarchy addressing five needs can be used by managers to better understand employees’ motivation and address them in ways that lead to high productivity and job satisfaction.
• At the bottom of the pyramid are the physiological (or basic) human needs that are required for survival: food, shelter, water, sleep, etc.
• If these requirements are not met, the body cannot continue to function. Faced with a lack of food, love, and safety, most people would probably consider food to be their most urgent need.

Hence, Physiological motives are considered as primary motives.

Learning Disability is an umbrella term that encompasses a variety of specific kinds of learning problems. Children with learning disabilities experience difficulty in learning and using certain skills namely reading, writing, listening, etc.

• Learning disabilities are diagnosed particularly when children start going to schools and are engaged in academic activities with other children in the school.
• Academic skill acquisition involves one or more of the basic psychological processes, such as attention, perception, memory, logical thinking, and so on.
• When there is some deficit in these basic processes, it may be seen in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations.

Key Points

Motor skills required the coordination of muscles. These skills are generally performed without any deep thinking. These skills are classified into:

• Gross motor skills: It includes large muscle activities like running, walking, climbing, etc.
• Fine motor skills: It includes the coordination and movements of small muscles like writing, drawing, etc.

​Dyspraxia:

• It is a motor skills disorder that is caused due to low birth weight and premature birth. It may be caused due to a family history of dyspraxia.
• It affects the fine and gross motor skills of a child. The child with dyspraxia will have:
• poor eye-hand coordination, lack of rhythm when dancing.
• problem in balancing body postures and integration of two sides of the body.
• the tendency to fall or bump on things and people because of poor balance and posture.
• There is no cure for dyspraxia but a number of therapies can make it easier for the child to cope up with their problems.

Hence, it could be concluded that the learning disability in motor skills is called Dyspraxia. So, none of the above is correct in the context of the question.

Additional Information

Originally derived from the Latin word, "consulo", or "consilium" meaning to advise, deliberate or consult, counselling can be conceptualized in different ways. 

Counselling is:

• Client-centred- specific to the needs, issues and circumstances of each individual client.
• An interactive, collaborative and respectful process.
• Directed towards developing autonomy and self-responsibility in clients.
• Considerate of interpersonal situation, social/cultural context, readiness to change.
• Asking questions, eliciting information, reviewing options and developing action plans.

Hence, we conclude that The term 'counselling' is derived from the Latin word "consilium".

Counselling refers to the process which gives importance to recognizing the root of the counsellee's problems to help them with proper guidance.

Key Points

• Community-based counselling involves groups of families having children with conduct disorders. It may also involve people who drop out of school and whose difficulties are likely to be more severe.
• Home or community-based counselling may not benefit the child who has such problems in the school setting.
• A common characteristic of Community-based counselling is that the professional develop close and personal bonds with his client.
• The counsellor needs to be professionally qualified and well-informed in his field and to understand how his work fits in with the work of others in the caring team; importantly, the counsellor should also be aware of how the physical,

emotional, social and spiritual distress of his patients or clients influences him on a personal level as well as in discharging his professional responsibilities.

Additional Information

• The School-based counselling/School Counseling Program is comprehensive in scope, developmental in nature, proactive in design, and differentiated in order to address individual and societal needs.
• School-based counselling fosters an environment that encourages students to develop self-awareness, as well as understanding, tolerance and acceptance of others’ diverse qualities, backgrounds, beliefs and aptitudes.

Confusion Points

• It should be noted that if a child is a droop out (that is, he has left school in the middle) can not be helped by school-based counselling.

Hence, the above statement is about Community-based counselling.