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Creativity is the most advanced thought process that involves goal-directed thinking which is unusual, novel, and useful.

• Problem Solving is the thought process involved in a person’s effort to remove obstacles in the way to achieving the goal. Both creativity and problem solving are advanced cognitive abilities.

Key Points​The brainstorming method was developed by Alex F. Osborn. It is the oldest and best-known technique for stimulating creative thinking. ​It is the most fruitful exercise to solve complex and critical problems.​

• Within the given time, the student must create ideas using critical thinking which focuses on applying reasoning and logic to new or unfamiliar situations, ideas, and opinions.
• Problems that demand creative or innovative solutions can be presented by the teacher to the students for brainstorming.
• Students present, share and analyze their understanding and look at any issues from different angles and others' points of view to solve the problem related to the concept.
• It helps to achieve the higher order of cognitive objectives as it just demands the active participation of the child in the learning process by making them think and note the ideas in their own style. i.e. It is based on psychological principles.
• It makes students able to take others' perspectives as in brainstorming, many creative minds work together and apply their diverse thinking patterns to generate creative ideas on a particular topic.

Hence, the Brainstorming strategy is a group creativity method for solving a specific problem by gathering a list of ideas.

Hint

• Mastery learning strategy is a teaching approach focused on ensuring that all students achieve a high level of understanding of a topic before progressing to the next.
• Problem-solving strategy begins with an obstacle or difference between the original or initial state and the goal or end state. The goal is desired by the person/s or operator/s in the situation and has some properties defined by the operator, defined by some rules, to convert the problem state into the goal state.
• Heuristic strategy is also named the 'discovery method' that helps in the development of a scientific attitude in the learner. It develops self-confidence, originality, independence, judgment, and thinking power in the learner.

“Motivation represents an unsatisfied need which creates a state of tension or disequilibrium, causing the individual to move in a goal-directed pattern towards restoring a state of equilibrium by satisfying the need.”

Key PointsIn classroom learning, different processes are directly related to the role of motivation :

• Knowledge of progress and result - It provides intrinsic motivation to the children.
• Praise and criticism - Praise and criticism act as a factor of motivation.
• Level of aspiration - Aspirations regulate the level of motivation in classroom learning.

​ Hence Interpersonal adjustment is not directly related to the role of motivation in classroom learning.

Hint

• Interpersonal adjustment is a social factor that is responsible for classroom adjustment.

NCF (National curriculum framework) 2005, which acts as a guideline for textbooks, syllabus, and all the teaching procedures, released by NCERT is the 4^th national curriculum framework and its predecessors were released in 1975, 1988, and 2000 respectively.

Key Points 

• The concept of "Learning without burden" was taken up from the "Yashpal-committee report, 1993".
• This concept is taken to provide advice on how to lessen the burden on school children at all levels, particularly kids, while boosting learning quality, including the opportunity for lifelong self-learning and skill development.
• NCF 2005 lays emphasis on learning without a burden in order to make learning a pleasurable experience and move away from textbooks as a basis for testing and relieve the stress of children.
• It is also recommended that children should learn in a natural environment without having any kind of performance pressure or fear of failure.

​​Hence, it is clear that Learning without a burden is the main philosophy of the National Curriculum Framework – 2005.

Hint

• CCE stands for continuous and comprehensive evaluation which is defined by National education Policy-2020.

The RTE Act of the Parliament of India was enacted on 4 August 2009 and came into force on 1 April 2010. 

• This act is also known as the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act because of its provision of, “the fundamental right of every child between the ages of 6 to 14 with specifies minimum norms in elementary schools.”

Key Points Important Provisions of RTE are as follows:

• Right of children to free and compulsory education till completion of elementary education in a neighborhood school.
• It makes provisions for a non-admitted child to be admitted to an age-appropriate class.
• It specifies the duties and responsibilities of appropriate Governments, local authorities, and parents in providing free and compulsory education.
• Provision of the school management committee.
• It lays down the norms and standards relating to Pupil Teacher Ratios (PTRs), buildings and infrastructure, school-working days, and teacher-working hours.
• According to the RTE Act, a teacher will spend a minimum of 45 hours in teaching including preparation hours in a week, and will be prohibited from the practice of private tuition.
• It provides for the appointment of appropriately trained teachers, i.e. teachers with the requisite entry and academic qualifications.
• The act prohibits physical punishment and mental harassment.
• It provides for the development of a curriculum in consonance with the values enshrined in the Constitution, which would ensure the all-round development of the child.

Hence, from the given points, it is clear that the working hours per week for teachers are 45 hours.

Action research is a form of interpretive research to study human actions and social practices with the participation of the researcher.

• It is applied research, which is focused on immediate application, not to develop any theory for general applications.

Key Points

• Kurt Lewin was a German-American psychologist. He was the first person to coin the term "Action Research".
• It was Stephen M Corey who used this term for the sake of education.
• Action research is a process of collecting data and information with proper research work to conclude the facts, information, and knowledge.
• There are several types of action research that are still in use in various fields of education since the time of Lewin.

Hence by all these references, we can conclude that Stephen M. Covey is not related to action research.

Hint

• Stephen M. Covey is an American writer.

Important Points Action research-

• Its primary aim is to solve an immediate problem. It is cyclic in nature.
• It is a form of interpretive research to study human actions and social practices with the participation of the researcher.
• It is applied research, which is focused on immediate application, not to develop any theory for general applications.
• It refers to the application of research to educational problems in a particular classroom setting.

Measurement is a quantitative description of one’s performance used as a process of quantifying the degree to which someone or something possessed a given trait, i.e., quality, characteristics, or features.

Measurement in educational psychology is used to check the validity and reliability of teaching methods, and educational outputs and for gathering data for research.

Key Points There are four levels of measurement scale :

• Nominal Scale: It is the crudest among all measurement scales but it is also the simplest scale in which the different scores on a measurement simply indicate different categories.
• It does not express any values or relationships between variables.
• Thus it is least useful in educational psychology.
• The ordinal Scale involves the ranking of items along the continuum of the characteristic being scaled. In this scale, the items are classified according to whether they have more or less of a characteristic.
• The ratio Scale is the highest level of measurement scale. This has the properties of an interval scale together with a fixed (absolute) zero point. The absolute zero point allows us to construct a meaningful ratio.
• An equal interval scale is a scale in which the numbers are used to rank attributes such that numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal distance in the characteristic being measured.

Thus by all these references, we can conclude that the Nominal scale level of measurement is least used in educational psychology

The term ‘development’ refers to qualitative changes in an individual such as changes in personality or other mental and emotional aspects. However, very often growth and development are used interchangeably.

• The process of development continues even after the individual has attained physical maturity (growth). The individual is continuously changing as he/she interacts with the environment.​

Key Points

• The Social Learning Theory of development proposed by Albert Bandura focuses on the part played by society in changing a child's behavior as they see and imitate their elders.
• Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was the most well-known and influential theorist of cognitive development.
• His views indicate that there is no knowledge that is pre-existing in the world such that it can be ‘taught’ to a child nor does knowledge comes innately (on its own) to the child.
• Knowledge develops when they act in the world.
• His theory also helps in understanding how children ‘construct’ knowledge. Thus, it is also known as a theory in ‘Constructivism’.
• Lev Vygotsky is a Russian Psychologist who proposed the theory of Socio-cultural development.
• In this theory, Vygotsky emphasizes the role of society and culture in the development of the child.
• Abraham Maslow, born in 1908, was an American psychologist. He is considered the father of humanistic physiology.
• He believed that experience is the primary phenomenon in the study of human learning and behavior.
• He emphasized creativity, choice, values, self-realization, and distinctiveness.
• He is famous for designing the hierarchy of needs, better known as Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs.

Thus by all these references, we can conclude that Abraham Maslow is Not related to theories of child development.

Heredity refers to the transmission of characters from one generation to the next" or 'The inheritance of characters from parents to the offspring. Inherited traits are determined by elements of heredity termed genes.

• Heredity plays a major role in the development of an individual.

Key Points The role of heredity can be studied by the following methods :

• Twin study - It is the study of genetic patterns of twins as they are the offspring of the same parents.
• Parent-Child analysis - Genes are transferred from the parents to the child. So, it also involves the role of heredity
• Adoption study - It can be used to find out about the genetic patterns and differences that also consider the role of heredity.​

Hence, a Peer group study is not valid to study the role of heredity.

Hint

• Heredity does not play any role in peer group study as the individuals in a peer group are from different families and heredity is not involved in the formation of the peer group.

Phenotype: It is the expression of the genes inherited by an individual. 

Key Points

• The observable physical and psychological characteristics of an individual are termed  Phenotype.
• It specifies the appearance of an individual in a given environment with respect to a certain inherited trait.
• Prototype: It is a basic structure or model of a product prepared to present a preexisting idea about the upcoming projects.
• Karyotype: It is a test to check the shape, size, and number of chromosome structures.
• Genotype: The genetic constitution of an organism, most often expressed in symbols, is its genotype. The genetic constitution of an individual is referred to as its genotype.

 Hence, the phenotype is the term used for observable physical and psychological characteristics of an individual.

Child development deals with the changes in the behavior of children over time and explains why and how it occurs.

• It is an interplay between the heredity and environment.

Key Points

• According to the Biological perspective, child development reflects a specific and prearranged scheme within the body. This perspective emphasizes the role of genetic inheritance and biological factors in human development. Various aspects of child development, such as growth rate, motor abilities, and maturation are all driven by an individual's biological makeup.
• Psychological Perspective: It is the area of study that takes into account the psychological basis to study child development. Also, child development is a branch of psychology.
• Environmental Perspective deals with the influence of the environment.
• Social Perspective is all about the influence of society and the social interactions of the child. It is a part of developmental psychology.​

Hence, we conclude that according to the  Biological perspective**, child development reflects a specific and prearranged scheme within the body.**