Search Previous Year Questions

Concept-

• Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) also called fetal growth restriction, or FGR describes a condition in which the unborn baby is smaller than expected for its gestational age or the number of weeks the baby has been in the uterus.
• For a newborn baby who is smaller than expected, there is a small gestational age (SGA).

Important Points

• Unborn babies with IUGR usually weigh less than the 10^th percentile. This means that they weigh less than 90 percent of unborn babies of the same gestational age. They can be proportionately small or disproportionately small as one part of the baby is smaller than expected.
• IUGR babies are sometimes born premature ie before 37 weeks of pregnancy.
• Premature birth, also called preterm, occurs when a baby is born too early before 37 weeks of pregnancy is complete.
• Babies with IUGR have a higher-than-normal risk of a variety of health problems before, during, and after birth.

Confusion Points

• Pre-term: less than 259 days (37 weeks), duration: 259-293 days (37-41 weeks).
• Post-term: 294 days (42 weeks) or more.
• A term birth is defined as between 37 and 42 weeks and is performed to indicate a good time for a good outcome for the mother and baby.

Concept-

• Red blood cells, also called erythrocyte, which are the cellular component of blood, give the blood its distinctive color in the circulation of millions of vertebrates
• Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body and then make the return journey, carrying the carbon dioxide back to the lungs to be excreted.

Important Points

• Anemia occurs when the body is not producing enough red blood cells or when the red blood cells are not working properly.
• When there is a problem with red blood cell production or function, the body does not get the oxygen it needs, which can lead to one or more symptoms.
• Weakness
• Difficulty breathing
• Dizziness
• Fast or irregular heartbeat
• Pounding or "whooshing" in your ears
• Headache
• Cold hands or feet
• Pale or pale skin
• Pain in chest

Key Points

• Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder in which the body makes an abnormal form of hemoglobin that results in the destruction of a large number of red blood cells, leading to anemia.
• Hemophilia is an inherited bleeding disorder where the blood does not clot properly. It occurs when there are not enough clotting factors in the blood.
• Leukemia is a cancer of the blood, characterized by the rapid growth of abnormal blood cells.

Concept-

• Viruses are microscopic infectious agents that contain genetic material, either DNA or RNA, and must invade a host in order to multiply.
• Japanese encephalitis virus is the most important cause of viral encephalitis.
• Japanese encephalitis virus is a mosquito-borne flavivirus, which belongs to the same genus as dengue, yellow fever, and West Nile viruses.

Explanation

• Most Japanese encephalitis virus infections are mild (fever and headache) or without obvious symptoms, but about 1 infection in 250 causes severe clinical illness.
• The incubation period is between 4-14 days.
• In children, gastrointestinal pain and vomiting may be major early symptoms.
• Japanese encephalitis virus is transmitted to humans by the bite of infected mosquitoes of the Culex species (mainly Culex tritaenorhynchus).
• Humans, once infected, do not develop enough viremia for mosquitoes to feed on.
• The virus is present in the transmission cycle between mosquitoes, pigs, and water birds (enzootic cycle).
• Severe illness has a rapid onset of high fever, headache, stiff neck, disorientation, coma, seizures, spastic paralysis, and eventually death.

Key Points

• Protozoa is an informal term for a group of single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic, that feed on other microorganisms or organic matter such as organic tissues and debris.
• Blue-green algae are a group of bacteria. They can be used as a source of protein, but contain no more protein than meat or milk.
• Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that exist in their millions, in every environment, both inside and outside other organisms.

Concept-

• Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi.
• Diseases can be spread directly or indirectly from one person to another.

Explanation

• Polio is a highly contagious disease caused by the poliovirus.
• It invades the nervous system and can cause complete paralysis within a few hours.
• The virus is spread primarily by the fecal-oral route or, less frequently, by a common vehicle (eg, Polio is spread through contaminated water or food or through contact with an infected person) and multiplies in the intestine.
• Initial symptoms are fever, fatigue, headache, vomiting, stiffness of the neck, and pain in the limbs.
• Polio mainly affects children under the age of 5. However, anyone of any age who has not been vaccinated can contract the disease.
• There is no cure for polio, it can only be prevented.
• The polio vaccine, given multiple times, can protect a child for life.
• Two vaccines are available: both effective and safe
• The oral polio vaccine
• The inactivated polio vaccine.

Key Points

• Protozoa is an informal term for a group of single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic, that feed on other microorganisms or organic matter such as organic tissues and debris.
• Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that exist in their millions, in every environment, both inside and outside other organisms.

Concept-

• An inanimate object is something that is not alive or something that does not move on its own, such as a rock, pencil, or TV (or guitar).
• Handkerchiefs, towels and combs, pens, pencils, and linen are personal items and should not be shared with others as their use can spread infectious diseases.

Important Points

• A fomite is any non-living object, also called an inanimate object, that can transfer disease to a new host when contaminated with or exposed to infectious pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or fungi.
• Contamination can occur when one of these objects comes into contact with bodily secretions such as nasal fluids, vomit, or feces. Many common objects can retain a pathogen until a person is exposed to the pathogen, increasing the chances of infection.
• Potential items are different in a hospital environment than in a home or workplace. Fomites such as splinters, barbed wire, or field surfaces, including soil, feeding troughs or barn beams, have been implicated as sources of the virus.
• Contaminated articles can infect a healthy person by contact. Hence sharing personal articles should be avoided.

Concept-

• The sinus venosus is a large quadrangular cavity that precedes the atrium on the venous side of the chordate heart.
• In mammals, it is clearly present only in the fetal heart, where it is found between the two vena cava.
• The sinus venosus persists in the adult.
• In the adult, it is incorporated into the wall of the right atrium as a smooth part called the sinus venerum, which is separated from the rest of the atrium by a ridge of fibers called the crista terminalis.

Important Points

• The crista terminalis or terminal crest represents the junction between the Sinus venarum and the atrium of the heart in the developing embryo.
• In the development of the human heart, the right horn and transverse part of the sinus venosus eventually join and become a part of the adult right atrium, known as the sinus venerum.
• The line of union between the right atrium and the right atrial appendage is present as a vertical crest on the interior of the atrium, known as the crista terminalis or their crista terminalis.

Key Points

• The fossa ovalis is a depression in the right atrium of the heart, at the level of the interatrial septum, the wall between the right and left atriums.
• The auricle or auricula is the visible part of the ear which is on the outside of the head. It is also called Pinna
• Venae cordis minimae the walls of all heart chambers contain many small veins.

Concept-

• The heart is a fist-sized organ that pumps blood throughout the human body.
• It is the primary part of your circulatory system.
• The heart has four main chambers that are made up of muscles and are driven by electrical impulses.
• It also works with other body systems to control your heart rate and blood pressure.

Explanation

• The heart is protected by a double-walled membrane known as the pericardium.
• It surrounds a cavity known as the pericardial cavity which contains a fluid known as pericardial fluid.
• It protects the heart from mechanical injury and shock.

Important Points

• The thin sac that surrounds the heart is called the pericardium.
• The pericardium is a serous membrane and is made up of two layers.
• The outer layer is called the fibrous pericardium which is made up of thick connective tissue.
• It is attached to the diaphragm and is responsible for holding the heart in place in the chest cavity. It also protects our hearts from infection.
• The inner layer is called the serous pericardium which helps lubrication of the heart.
• It is further divided into two layers called the visceral and parietal layers. Between the two layers of the heart lies the fluid-filled pericardial cavity.

Concept-

• A wound is an injury to the body from violence, accident, or surgery that usually involves tearing or rupture of membranes such as the skin and usually damage to the underlying tissues.
• Wound care is defined as the promotion of cleaning, monitoring, and healing of a wound closed with sutures, clips, or staples.
• Cross-contamination is the process by which bacteria or other microorganisms are inadvertently transferred from one substance or object to another with harmful effects.

Explanation

• Keeping hands clean is one of the most important steps during wound care that helps us to avoid getting sick and spreading germs to others, and prevents cross-contamination.
• Many diseases and conditions are spread by not washing hands with soap and clean, running water.

Important Points

• Hand hygiene is one of the most important processes of infection control.
• The purpose of hand washing is to remove transient micro-organisms from the surface of the hands acquired through everyday tasks in a clinical setting.
• Good hand hygiene protects both patients and staff.
• Cleaning the wound with dirty hands increases the risk of infection.
• Wash hands thoroughly with soap before doing anything on the wound, even if the hands appear clean.
• Rinse your hands under running water for at least 20 seconds and use soap to remove germs and bacteria that can cause wound infections.
• Use a sterile dressing to cover the wound. The goal is to protect the wound from outside elements while it heals.

Concept-

• Blood is a mixture of plasma and cells that travels throughout the body.
• It carries essential substances, such as sugars, oxygen, and hormones, to cells and organs, and removes waste from cells.
• Plasma is the largest part of the blood. It makes up more than half (about 55%) of its total content. When separated from the rest of the blood, plasma is a pale yellow liquid that contains water, salts, and enzymes.

Important Points

• Plasma is called the matrix of blood. It is composed of clotting factors, protein compounds, and serum.
• It consists of 92 percent water with proteins, salts, lipids, and glucose.
• Plasma is the main mode of excretory product transport.
• The main role of plasma is to transport nutrients, hormones, and proteins to the parts of the body that need them.
• Cells also dump their waste products into the plasma.
• The plasma then helps to remove this waste from the body.
• Blood plasma also carries all parts of the blood through the body's circulatory system.
• Proteins and antibodies in plasma are also used in the treatment of rare chronic conditions such as autoimmune disorders and hemophilia.

Concept-

• Nosocomial infections, also called hospital-acquired infections, are a subset of infectious diseases acquired in a health care facility.
• In order to be considered nosocomial, the infection must not be present at the time of admission.
• It must develop at least 48 hours after admission.
• These infections can lead to serious problems such as sepsis and even death.
• Blue-green algae are a group of bacteria. They can be used as a source of protein, but contain no more protein than meat or milk.

Important Points

• Factors that increase the risk of nosocomial infections include increasing age, length of hospitalization, excessive or inappropriate use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, and the number of invasive instruments and procedures such as central venous catheters, urinary catheters, surgical procedures, and mechanical ventilation.
• Nosocomial infections Various bacteria, viruses, and fungi all cause nosocomial infections, the most common of which is Staphylococcus aureus.
• Other common pathogens such as Escherichia coli, enterococci, and Candida are common culprits, and all can be found on the skin and mucous membranes in general.

Key Points

• Fungi: certain types of fungi are ubiquitous and can cause infections especially in immunocompromised individuals.
• Types of fungal nosocomial infections can be caused by candidiasis, aspergillosis, etc.
• Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that exist in their millions, in every environment, both inside and outside other organisms.
• A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates within the living cells of an organism.