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Research is a systematic way of investigation, a process of discovering new knowledge. Research is also considered as searching for and gathering information, usually to answer a particular question.

Each research study has its own specific purpose.

Action research 

• Its primary aim is to solve an immediate problem. It is cyclic in nature.
• It is a form of interpretive research to study human actions and social practices with the participation of the researcher.
• It is applied research, which is focused on immediate application, not to develop any theory for general applications.
• It refers to the application of research to educational problems in a particular classroom setting.

The Cycle of Action Research:

• Action Research achieves its goal by using a ‘cyclic research process’, where each cycle is made up of four phases - Plan, Act (implementing plans), Observe (systematically) and Reflect.
• It is a continuous cycle one can circle back to earlier phases within a cycle (e.g., cycle back and forth between reflection and planning).

Characteristics of Action Research:

• There is always room for improvement when it comes to teaching and educating others.
• The main traits of action research related to collaboration between teachers, educational managers, and members of the organization to solve problems.
• Possibility to gain in-depth knowledge about the problem.
• It can be used with quantitative as well as qualitative data.
• This research focuses on specific situations and their context.
• This type of research is facilitated by participation and collaboration of the number of individuals with a common purpose.

Empirical Research is a type of research methodology that makes use of verifiable evidence in order to arrive at research outcomes. In other words, this type of research relies solely on evidence obtained through observation or scientific data collection methods.

Conceptual Research is defined as a methodology wherein research is conducted by observing and analyzing already present information on a given topic. Conceptual research doesn't involve conducting any practical experiments. It is related to abstract concepts or ideas.

Fundamental research is a formal and systematic process where the researcher aims to develop a theory or a model by identifying all the important variables in a situation and by discovering broad generalisations and principles about those variables. It utilizes a careful sample so that its conclusion can be generalised beyond the immediate situation.

In research papers and reports, footnotes commonly acknowledge the sources of facts and quotations that appear in the text. Footnotes are notes placed at the bottom of a page. They cite references or comment on a designated part of the text above it.

"Ibid"

• (the abbreviation for "ibidem", meaning "in the same place") refers to the work cited in the preceding footnote or to the preceding work within the same footnote.
• The term should not be used when the preceding footnote includes more than one source.
• It is used when repeat footnote indicators are not used and to replace those elements that are identical in the preceding footnote or the preceding work within the same footnote.
• It is never used solely to replace the name of an author.
• When different works by the same author are cited in consecutive footnotes, the author’s name is repeated in full each time.

Hence, it is clear from the above points that "Ibid" is used when two or more successive footnotes refer to the same work.

NOTE-

et.al- Depending on the number of authors a source has, an APA in-text citation is shortened by using “et al.” (meaning “and others”) after the first author’s name. When there are six or more authors, cite the first author followed by “et al.” When a source has three, four, or five authors, list all authors the first time the source is cited. In all subsequent citations, give only the first author followed by “et al.”

op.cit- It is an abbreviation of the Latin phrase opere citato, meaning "in the work cited." It is used in an endnote or footnote to refer the reader to a previously cited work, standing in for repetition of the full title of the work. Op. cit. thus refers the reader to the bibliography, where the full citation of the work can be found, or to a full citation given in a previous footnote. 

loc.cit is a footnote or endnote term used to repeat the title and page number for a given work. Loc. cit. is used in place of ibid. when the reference is not only to the work immediately preceding, but also refers to the same page. Therefore, loc. cit. is never followed by volume or page numbers.

Research is a systematic inquiry towards understanding a complex social phenomenon or a process. Based on the research problem, the selection of research methods by the researcher may vary.

Experimental Method:

• It is a systematic and scientific approach to research on establishing causal relationships.
• It is designed for establishing cause and effect relationships between two or more variables.
• It investigates a hypothesis through experiments in a controlled environment where a variable is manipulated by the researcher and its impact is observed on the dependent variable.
• It tests the formulated hypothesis and uses the results to generalize to a larger population.
• It helps in establishing causal relationships among different events in the educational situation under controlled conditions
• There are four essential characteristics of experimental research:

1. control
2. manipulation
3. observation and
4. replication

​​Hence, the Absence of a treatment group is a process not needed in experimental research.

Literature refers to the collection of scholarly writings on a topic in the research. This includes peer-reviewed articles, books, dissertations, and conference papers. When reviewing the literature, be sure to include major works as well as studies that respond to major works. It is important to focus on primary sources, though secondary sources can be valuable as well.

A primary source is an original source that documents an event in time, a person, or an idea. It provides raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. A primary source gives you direct access to the subject of your research.

Continuous data is data that can take any value. Height, weight, temperature, and length are all examples of continuous data.

Some continuous data will change over time; the weight of a baby in its first year or the temperature in a room throughout the day.

Secondary sources build upon primary resources by analyzing, interpreting, synthesizing, or discussing them. Common examples include:

• Books, articles, and documentaries that synthesize information on a topic
• Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
• Encyclopedia and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
• Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

Hence, Encyclopaedia edited content called as Secondary source

In conducting research, the important consideration after the formulation of a research problem is the construction of the hypothesis. Any scientific inquiry starts with the statement of a solvable problem, when the problem has been stated, a tentative solution in the form of a testable proposition is offered by the researcher.

Hypothesis:

• A hypothesis is often considered a tentative and testable statement of the possible relationship between two or more events/variables under investigation.
• A hypothesis does not have to be right or wrong, but the person formulating the hypothesis does have to be prepared to test the theory to its limits.
• A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for an observable phenomenon.

Hence, it is concluded that a tentative proposition with unknown validity that specifies a relationship between two or more variables is called Research Hypothesis.

Note-

A theory on the other hand is a principle set to explain phenomena already supported by data. A theory is a well-established, tested explanation that provides a unified description of some aspect of the natural world. A theory is based on substantiated data, repeated testing, and the consensus of a wide group of scientists/researchers.

A principle is a fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behaviour or for a chain of reasoning. On the other hand, a hypothesis is an assumption, something proposed for the sake of argument so that it can be tested to see if it might be true.

A hypothesis is a theory that can after testing be accepted or rejected. A postulate is something that is assumed to be true without proof. Sometimes postulates are also called axioms. Hence, a hypothesis can not be termed as a postulate.

Hypotheses can be classified into several types, like; universal hypotheses, existential hypotheses, conceptual hypotheses, etc. Broadly, there are two categories of the hypothesis: i) Null hypothesis ii) Alternative hypothesis

Null Hypothesis: 

• The null hypothesis, H0 is the commonly accepted fact; it is the opposite of the alternate hypothesis.
• Researchers work to reject, nullify, or disprove the null hypothesis. Researchers come up with an alternate hypothesis, one that they think explains a phenomenon, and then work to reject the null hypothesis.

Alternate Hypothesis:

• In statistical hypothesis testing, the alternative hypothesis is a position that states something is happening, a new theory is preferred instead of an old one (null hypothesis).
• It is usually consistent with the research hypothesis because it is constructed from the literature review, previous studies, etc.

Different teaching methods are used by teachers as per the requirements of students. For choosing the one, the teacher may classify students based on their abilities (ability grouping) or he can choose it based on the compatibility of the topic.

Below discussed a few of them:

• Buzz groups are a cooperative learning technique consisting of the formation of small discussion groups with the objective of developing a specific task (idea generation, problem-solving, etc.) or facilitating that a group of people reach a consensus on their ideas about a topic in a specific period of time.
• The brainstorming technique involves the teacher posing an idea or question to students and asking them to contribute their ideas. The teacher may pose a question or a situation or a scenario to involve the students. This is the best technique to let students express their ideas and lets teachers tap their creativity levels.
• Role-playing is a learning structure that allows students to immediately apply content as they are put in the role of a decision-maker who must make a decision regarding a policy, resource allocation, or some other outcome. This technique is an excellent tool for engaging students and allowing them to interact with their peers as they try to complete the task assigned to them in their specific role.

Note- (Gossip is idle talk or rumor, especially about the personal or private affairs of others. Hence, it is not a formal teaching method and most certainly not an educative one)

A teacher is a person who teaches or instructs, especially as a profession. The term teaching method refers to the general principles, pedagogy, and management strategies used for classroom instruction.

The techniques used by a teacher to teach include-

Lecture-

• It is a method of teaching whereby the teacher attempts to explain facts, principles, or relationships to help students to understand.
• The teacher is an active participant, the students are passive listeners.
• The class listens, writes, and notes facts and the ideas for remembering and to think them over later. Usually, the students do not converse with the teacher during a lecture by the teacher. It is a one-way method.

Interactive lectures

• the instructor incorporates engagement triggers and breaks the lecture at least once per class to have students participate in an activity that lets them work directly with the material.
• It provides an opportunity for students to interact actively and directly with the material through a specific learning task.

Group work-

• It is an effective technique used by the teacher to motivate students and encourage them. It allows students to become active participants in their learning.

Note-

(Self-study is a learning method where students direct their own studying—outside the classroom and without direct supervision.) 

Hence, based on the above definition one can conclude that self-study is a voluntary exercise conducted by students and is devoid of teacher participation.

The lecture method is a method of teaching whereby the teacher attempts to explain facts, principles, or relationships to help students to understand.

• The teacher is an active participant, the students are passive listeners.
• The class listens, writes, and notes facts and the ideas for remembering and to think them over later. Usually, the students do not converse with the teacher during a lecture by the teacher.
• It is a one-way method.
• One of the major characteristics of this method is that in this the teacher provides information, concepts, facts, events, theories, laws, principles, etc. Therefore helps in aptitudes, attitudes, and Relationships kind of problem-solving questions. It imparts a large amount of factual information within a short period.
• The lecture method is only relevant in concepts dealing with theoretical understanding. But when it comes to the practical implementation of concepts dealing with learn by doing the lecture methods become inconsequential.

Therefore, skill development which is mostly a practical exercise is not much benefited from the lecture method.

Values are an integral part of every culture. Along with beliefs, they generate and have an impact on the behavior of an individual. Most of us learned our values - or morals, at home, at school, or from our community (neighborhood). Mostly, the values which we follow come from parents, teachers, and religious leaders.

The National Policy on Education has laid considerable emphasis on Value Education by highlighting the need to make education a forceful tool for the cultivation of moral values. The main objectives of the promotion of Ethics and Human Values are as under :

• value education is simply a matter of developing appropriate behavior and habits involving the inculcation of certain virtues and habits.
• Value education has an essentially cognitive component in it and that this should not be ignored.
• Actually the ability to make a moral judgment based on sound reasoning is a very important aim of value education and has to be deliberately cultivated.
• Moral values are connected to fundamental human emotions and experiences that motivate us in distinctive ways. Social, political, and economic values come from a separate stream of education.

Hence, The explicit objective of value education is to inculcate moral values.

Modes of learning are a set of guidelines that describe the methods humans use to acquire, process, and maintain knowledge. Individuals differ in how they learn most effectively; most people favor different combinations of visual, auditory, reading, or kinesthetic (VARK) learning modes. Effective learning is dependent on various factors including learner characteristics, quality of teaching, appropriate use of teaching strategies and methods, technological aids, classroom-related factors, etc.

• There are a lot of different strategies for learning. The education sector has benefited from a great many pioneers and the way our students are taught today is very different from how they were taught earlier.
• Much of this innovation has been related to the growth of technology. Computers have become extremely valuable teaching tools and have opened up a whole new world of online learning.
• Some of the most effective educational establishments are using dynamic digital tools such as e-learning software alongside more traditional classroom practices to create blended learning models.

Blended learning 

• is defined as a formal education program that’s made up of in-person classroom time as well as individual study online using e-learning software.
• It is a type of multichannel method that incorporates tutor-led activities, images, video, digital tasks, and face-to-face discussion.
• Courses that follow the blended learning model often take place in a real ‘brick and mortar’ classroom with a dedicated tutor but offer additional learning opportunities by way of a digital platform. Digital learning elements are often open to self-pacing by each individual student and can usually be logged in to at any time and in any place.
• It is the most effective mode of learning in the present-day because it is a multichannel teaching method that offers the best of the classroom and online learning all in one place.

Each student has a range of different strengths and requirements and a blended learning approach allows tutors to acknowledge this.

Note- 

Self-study- It is a learning method where students direct their own studying—outside the classroom and without direct supervision. 

Face to face learning- It can be defined as the traditional style of learning in which students show up at a venue at the same time following a prescribed schedule of taught sessions called a curriculum.

E-learning- A learning system based on formalized teaching but with the help of electronic resources. It can also be termed as a network-enabled transfer of skills and knowledge, and the delivery of education is made to a large number of recipients at the same or different times.