CTET Paper 1 - February 2015 (English-Hindi-Sanskrit) (Previous Year Paper)

Learning for the construction of knowledge is the basic presumption of constructivism which is a paradigm contrary to the traditional objectivist approach. National Curriculum Framework-2005 emphasized that there is a ‘need to recognize the child as a natural learner, and knowledge as the outcome of the child’s own activity. ’Knowledge is an active meaning-making process, in which learners construct their own meaning. It is not something that is imposed by the teacher on the learner.

Key Points

Teachers, in order to help learners construct knowledge who will:

• encourage and accept learner’s autonomy and initiative.
• use a wide variety of materials, including raw data, primary sources, and interactive materials, and encourage learners to use them.
• inquire about learner’s understandings of concepts before sharing his/her own understanding of those concepts.
• involve the learner for active participation in constructing ideas and knowledge.
• encourage them to engage in dialogue with the teacher and with one another.
• encourage learner inquiry by asking thoughtful, open-ended questions and encourage learners to ask questions to each other and seek elaboration of learners’ initial responses.
• engage learners in experiences that show contradictions to initial understandings and then encourage discussion.
• provide time for learners to construct relationships and create metaphors.
• assess learner’s understanding through application and performance of open structured tasks.

Hence, we can conclude that teachers, in order to help learners construct knowledge, need to focus on involving the learner for active participation.

Gifted children: Any child who is naturally brilliant with a high degree of general mental ability or extraordinary ability in a specific sphere of activity or knowledge. 

Important Points

Giftedness is a somewhat abstract term applied to people who, by virtue of outstanding abilities, are capable of high performance which includes the combination of high ability - high creativity- high commitment.

Lewis Terman held to the notion of giftedness as potential. On the other hand, Joseph Renzulli's definition leans toward giftedness as a product. When Renzulli undertook research with adult gifted individuals, he discovered that gifted and talented persons possess the high ability, high creativity, and high task commitment.

Key Points

Characteristics of gifted children:- 

• Rapid learners put thoughts together quickly.
• Highly sensitive
• Enjoys solving problems
• Longer attention span
• Learn all skills quickly
• Excellent memory
• Gifted children need recognition.
• The motives of gifted children should be satisfied.
• A teacher for gifted children must be flexible.

Hence, we can conclude that giftedness from a teacher’s point of view is a combination of high ability - high creativity- high commitment.

The National Council for Educational Research and Training (NCERT) published a document called the National Curriculum Framework (NCF).

• NCERT has published four national curriculum frameworks, first in 1975, second 1988, third 2000, and fourth 2005.
• NCF promotes universal enrollment and retention of children by formulating child-centered approach.
• The NCF has aimed at bringing reforms in the education system by creating constructive learning through developing a learner-centric curriculum, that fosters autonomy to the learner.
• In present time education runs according to NCF 2005.
• NCF 2005 has been translated into 22 languages and influenced the syllabi in 17 states.

Key Points

According to NCF 2005, errors are important because they provide an insight into the child’s thinking and help to identify solutions.

• If a child makes an error, then the teacher should not scold the child and should not remove that child from the class.
• The error should not classify the students into groups of passed and failed.

The teacher should explain to the students about the error and teach them how to correct it and how it should not be repeated. Then only the students can get the insights that help them to identify the solution easily.

Hence, it becomes clear that according to NCF 2005, errors are important because they provide an insight into the child’s thinking and help to identify solutions.

Learning disability includes distinguished from the things related to a logical arrangement like unable to write, read or sturring, etc.

• Children with learning disabilities experience difficulty in learning and using certain skills namely reading, writing, listening, and reasoning.

Key Points

Errors in writing like reverse images, mirror imaging, etc represent learning disabilities. Dyslexia is the most common learning disability which results in reverse or mirror images of the alphabet.

Dyslexia is a learning disability that makes learners:

• unable to read and interpret letters and words.
• confuse with the same shapes and sounds of the alphabet.
• bewilder in identifying and relating speech sounds with letters and words.

Types of Learning Disability: It is categorized either by the type of information processing that is affected or by the specific difficulties caused by a processing deficit.

Confusion Points

• Learning disability constitutes a condition that affects learning and intelligence across all areas of life.
• A learning difficulty constitutes a condition that creates an obstacle to a specific form of learning but does not affect the overall IQ of an individual.

Hence, we can conclude that child is showing signs of a learning disability.

Emotional development, the emergence of the experience, expression, understanding, and regulation of emotions from birth, and the growth and change in these capacities throughout childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

Important Points

A democratic classroom is a kind of learning environment where children’s voices are heard, and child-centered pedagogy is practiced. The teaching-learning process is executed by both teachers and students. They plan teaching-learning activities in a collaborative manner. They together decide rules and procedures for teaching-learning activities in the classroom.

• In a democratic classroom, it is not just the content for children’s learning but the medium through which their learning takes place also matters.
• If all the students in the class are given the opportunity to express themselves then the child's emotional development took place positively. It is only possible through the democratic classroom environment.

Key Points

A democratic classroom contributes to the character because it:

• Provides an ongoing forum where students thoughts, emotions  are valued and where any need of the group can be addressed
• Creates a support structure that calls forth students' best moral selves by strengthening community and holding them accountable to practice respect and responsibility
• Mobilizes the peer culture on the side of virtue, because students are working with the teacher in a continuing partnership to create the moral culture of the classroom.
• The chief means of creating a democratic classroom environment is the class meeting, a face-to-face circle meeting emphasizing interactive discussion and problem-solving.

Hence, we can conclude that a democratic class environment is best suited for the emotional development of children.

The environment in which learning takes place may be described as a composite of natural conditions, circumstances and influences, and sociocultural contexts in which an individual is situated. Therefore, you can say that the learning environment is the sum total of the surroundings in which individuals interact to enrich experiences and thus leading to learning.

Key Points

To create a good classroom environment: 

 Acceptance of the child with whatever he/she has should be done by the teacher.

• For creating a good environment in the classroom, it is essential that you accept the learners and become responsive to the individual needs of learners. An effective teacher has to be sensitive to the individual differences in terms of their preferred learning styles by varying the rate, amount, nature, or content of the instruction.
• Teachers who modify their instruction to accommodate individual differences send the message that they want to reach all of their learners whenever they need them. This also ensures the active participation of learners in learning activities.
• Teachers should use a variety of instructional techniques to include different socio-cultural characteristics of learners like language, socioeconomic conditions, a cultural background that influence their learning.

Positive tone of the teacher is a must for creating a good classroom environment.

• Teachers can foster a joyful climate in the class by ensuring that they encourage a student’s questions or remarks with a positive tone and positive approach. It takes only one or two instances of “That’s a stupid comment. Haven’t you prepared for class?’ to discourage participation.
• Instead, a teacher should say ‘you can try more’. This motivates a student to come up with a better answer.

Child's efforts should be approved and acknowledged.

• Learner’s involvement in developing a sense of classroom ownership must be developed. They can also be involved in setting up the classroom environment by asking what they want to put on the walls, how they want to arrange their tables and chairs, etc.
• These interactions result in promoting positive student interaction and a sense of ownership over their environment,
• which has a positive effect on their learning. Hence, their efforts should be approved and acknowledged.

Additional Information

• Compliance with the teacher-based classroom will direct students to follow every command of the teacher as the teacher says. Students can not use their ideas, creativity, or imagination to create new solutions. Hence it is not followed in a good classroom environment.

Hence we can conclude that compliance with the teacher is not a trait of a classroom with a good learning environment.

Gender refers to the socially constructed differences between men and women. It refers to the masculine and feminine qualities, behavior, roles, and responsibilities that society upholds. Gender can be changed / re-oriented.

• Gender stereotyping can limit the development of the natural talents and abilities of girls and boys, women and men, as well as their educational and professional experiences and life opportunities in general.
• Stereotypes about women both result from and are the cause of, deeply engrained attitudes, values, norms, and prejudices against women.
• To avoid the situation of Gender Stereotype, a family should start involving boys into household chores that were mainly concerned with girls traditionally which gave rise to gender biasing and stereotyping.
• Therefore, **"**to bridge the gap of Gender Stereotypes, girls should be asked to help in works outside the home too as well as boys to help inside the home".

Hence, on the basis of the above points, we can infer that the correct statement here is "boys should help in household chores".

Teaching is a process related to the effective transmission of knowledge and skills in an individual. It limits or enhances the ways the learners learn and assimilate concepts and ideas.

• Teachers are the implementers of education who foster the potential of young seedlings to grow and bloom.
• They carry a huge responsibility to shape and mold students' future and to contribute to their success.

Key Points

An effective teacher can:

• motivate students to learn and to work according to their interests to achieve their true potential.
• nurture learner's natural curiosity to enable them to acquire knowledge by discovering the facts themselves.
• take care of every individual by catering to their individual need and be in touch with every child.
• encourage learners to engage in dialogue to make students able to pose questions and make decisions in search of understanding.
• involve learners in real-world situations to emphasize the active involvement of students to boost their understanding.
• give primacy to children's understanding, requirements, experiences, needs, etc.
• focus on how well the students have understood a particular topic, and motivate them to learn.

Hence, we can conclude that to be an effective teacher it is important to be in touch with each and every child.

Assessment is done to determine the outcomes (what students have learned), process (the way they learned), and their approach to the learning before, during, or after the program or course.

• During instruction, the assessment can be used to determine what students are learning so that if there is a need, the teacher can adjust their teacher.
• It is a process-oriented approach that is used to identify the areas for improvement in the learning process.

Key Points

Formative assessment

• The purpose is to diagnose the strength and weaknesses of the students.
• The results are used for further improvement of instruction and student's better progress.
• It refers to continuous evaluation by means of unit tests, assignments, etc.
• It is done during the course of instruction as it is focused on improving the achievements of learners.
• It refers to the assessment of the instructional program which is still going on and can still be modified according to the learning requirements of learners.
• Quizzes, assignments, projects, group discussions, oral questions, open-ended questions, portfolios, rating scales, and anecdotal records, etc are the appropriate tools for formative assessment.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that ranking the students is not a suitable formative assessment.

Additional Information

• Summative assessment: It refers to the type of assessment that helps to measure, certify, and report the level of student's learning at the end of the term or course.

Learning disability refers to a neurological disorder that causes cognitive impairment. Dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, etc are the most common learning disability.

Key Points

Dysgraphia refers to a learning disability which:

• affects learners' ability to write coherently.
• hinders in organizing letters, numbers, or words on papers.
• leads to problems with poor spelling, impaired handwriting, etc.

Remedies useful for treating students with Dysgraphia:

• giving extra time for writing assessment, will reduce the copying activity and will emphasize the importance of writing original answers.
• dividing tasks into small steps will enable the learners to assimilate the idea easily and will help them in putting their thoughts on paper.
• providing low-stress opportunities will allow the learners to learn and write at their own pace and to foster their own strategy of learning and writing.

Hence, we can conclude that deficiency in the ability to write associated with impaired handwriting is a symptom of dysgraphia.

Additional Information

Other Disabilities in Brief:

Jean Piaget made a systematic study of cognitive development among children of different age groups and he categorized it into different developmental stages. 

Key Points

• Piaget identifies four factors namely biological maturation, active exploration (activity), social experiences, and equilibration that influence one’s cognitive development.

Biological maturation/maturation

• Biological maturation is the process of unfolding of the biological changes that are genetically programmed and is therefore the most important factor to influence thinking. Parents and teachers have little impact on this aspect of cognitive development, except to be sure that children get the nourishment and care they need to be healthy.

Activity

• It is accepted that there can be no knowledge development without relating objects. within the environment, an individual acquires knowledge not by passively copying objects in the environment but by acting upon them. For example, when the child learns from the perceptual properties of objects, by noting their weight, the color of the harness, it is physical experience or first-hand information.

Social experiences:

• Piaget believed that cognitive development and social experiences eventually bring an end to egocentric speech. During their repeated disagreements with peers, the child understands that others' viewpoints may vary from their viewpoints. As a result, their egocentric speech declines and social speech develops.

Equilibration:

• According to Piaget, the actual changes in thinking take place through the process of equilibration—the act of searching for a balance. Briefly, the process of equilibration works like this: If we apply a particular schema to an event or situation and the schema works, then equilibrium exists. If the schema does not produce a satisfying result or are inadequate for an understanding of the child’s world then disequilibrium exists, and we become uncomfortable.

Thus, biological maturation, activity, social experiences, and equilibration all work together to influence cognitive development. Hence, according to Piaget, language will not influence one’s cognitive development.

Hint

• Piaget considered that cognitive development is independent of language and thought determines language.
• According to Piaget, thought emerges first and language becomes the intermediary providing the means by which later concepts and conceptual thinking are furthered.
• He emphasizes that "Thought not only determines language but also precedes it"

Intelligences organizes mental actions according to different-different circumstances. According to Sternberg, when a person changes himself becomes able to adjust and adapt with the environment. It is also called contextual or adaptation intelligence.

A person, who is street-smart, or high on practical intelligence, is more able to cope with concrete situations.

Example: Johnny is considering buying a second-hand motorbike. A salesman, being salesman, would obviously try to con the buyer, but Johnny is already prepared with price comparisons and has made up his mind to say no to unnecessary extras.

The term ‘development’ refers to qualitative changes in an individual such as a change in personality or other mental and emotional aspects. However, very often growth and development are used interchangeably.

• The process of development continues even after the individual has attained physical maturity (growth). The individual is continuously changing as he/she interacts with the environment.
• Emotion is a mental state associated with fear, anger, love, etc while emotional development refers to the capability of an individual to recognize, control and manage one's own emotions and the emotions of others as well.

Important Points

Anybody can become angry, that is easy; but to be angry with the right person, and to the right degree, and at the right time, and for the right purpose, and in the right way, that is not within everybody’s power, that is not easy.” —Aristotle. Evaluate the statement in the context of the concept of emotional development.

Key Points

Characteristics of Emotional Development:

• Emotions are the product of perception.
• Emotions start immediately after birth.
• Emotions have the quality of displacement.
• Emotions are subjective and purely individual.
• Emotion is accompanied by physiological changes.
• An intense form of emotions is seen during the early childhood period.

Hence, we can conclude that 'Anyone can become angry - that is easy, but to be angry with the right person, to the right degree, at the right time, for the right purpose, and in the right way - that is not easy.” This is related to emotional development.

Assessment is always considered an integral part of the teaching-learning process.  The assessment reflects how well classroom instruction has been organized by teachers and how far learners have progressed in their learning. It is an inbuilt process in teaching-learning, teachers can understand the needs of the learners better and accordingly change or adjust the quality of their instruction during the process of teaching the unit itself.

Key Points

Purpose of Assessment in learning: The purpose of an assessment for learning is to provide feedback to both the teacher and student regarding the student’s progress towards achieving the learning objective(s).

• Assessment is to help to identify gaps in student's learning and what remedial measures should be appropriate to reduce the learning gaps of the students that are needed to be taken for continuing or improving their learning.
• It can provide opportunities for teachers to encourage and motivate learners to succeed, both academically and socially.
• It gathers data during the learning process when the class progresses through a unit of study to determine a student’s knowledge and skills, including learning gaps.
• Provide feedback about the work the students have completed using the atlas and provide ideas for adjusting, rethinking, and articulating their learning.
• It informs students about what they have done well, where they have had difficulty, and what they need to do differently to improve their work.
• It expects students to make errors and directs them to examine these errors to improve their learning.

Hence, we can conclude that in learning, assessment is essential for motivation.

According to Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrium are the ways through which children integrate new experiences into already existing cognition structures (schema). 

Key Points

According to Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory, "Fitting new information into existing schemes​" is known as 'Assimilation' as assimilation refers to the:

• process of taking in information into our previously existing schemas.
• way an individual takes and interprets new information in pre-existing mental structures without modifying them.
• addition of a new concept or experience into an existing schema. For example, the baby's sucking of thumb is an initial schema.

Hence, it could be concluded that fitting new information into existing schemes is known as 'Assimilation'.

Important Points

Other key Concepts of Piaget's Theory:

• Schema: A representation in the mind of a set of ideas or actions which go together.
• Accommodation: Involves altering existing ideas or schemas as a result of new experiences.
• Equilibration: A mechanism that assists children in achieving a balance between assimilation and accommodation.
• Organization: It refers to the ability to study the connection among cognitive structures which makes thinking more efficient.

Development refers to an increase in structure for better and enhanced functioning of organs. It is a wide and continuous process, thus there are some principles that need to be followed for a better understanding of the concept.

Key Points

The above-mentioned statement refers to the principle of 'Individual Differences'. Individual difference refers to the difference which distinguishes an individual from another on the basis of psychological characteristics.

• Individual differences in personality temperament can be observed from the day the child is born. Besides the differences in physical characteristics, there are differences in ‘their emotional reactivity, cognition, motivation levels, etc.
• The most easily observed differences are physical and developmental. You observe variations in individuals of the same age in height, weight, and body build. Some grow faster while some are slow in growth.
• Heredity and Environment both are the reason for individual differences. Genes, chromosomes, and cytoplasm determine heredity. The environment is determined by family, school neighborhood, and place of work.

Hence, it could be concluded that we all differ in terms of our intelligence, motivation, interest, etc. This principle refers to individual differences.

Inclusive Education refers to different and diverse students learning in the same classroom and also all the learners with or without disabilities being able to learn together in ordinary preschool provisions schools.

• An inclusive classroom is not limited to children with a disability but also gifted children, disadvantaged children, children from remote populations, cultural minorities are also being taught along with the normal students.
• It provides a provision to include disabled children along with normal children in a regular classroom environment.
• This type of education provides better quality for all the children and is instrumental in changing the discriminal activities.
• Segregation and isolation are good neither for learners with disabilities not for general learners without disabilities.

Note: Integrated education refers to a set-up where children with mental retardation study along with non-disabled children in regular schools.  

Hence, it becomes clear that students of disadvantaged groups should be taught along with the normal students, It implies inclusive education.

Thinking is the mental process of manipulating information to draw a conclusion or to generate ideas. It is a higher cognitive function that allows beings to produce thought. 

• It is a mental activity in the cognitive aspect which refers to the process by which one acquires knowledge through experience, thought, and sensory input.
• Different kinds of thinking styles include divergent, convergent, creative, logical, concrete thinking, etc.

Important Points

Divergent thinking refers to a way of solving a problem by exploring many possible solutions. It emphasizes the idea that there is a limitless approach to any given problem.

Key Points

Patterns of divergent thinking identify children, who are creative because it is a creative process that involves plucking out varieties of potential results and the best solution. Brainstorming, imagination, out of the box thinking, open-ended questions are the keywords of divergent thinking. 

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that ‘Out-of-the-box thinking is related to divergent thinking.

Additional Information

• Convergent thinking: It refers to an ability which relates to followup logical steps to arrive at one correct solution. It doesn't require creativity, hence, is equivalent to intelligence.

The purpose of an assessment for learning is to provide feedback to both the teacher and student regarding the student’s progress towards achieving the learning objective(s).

Key Points

Assessment is a process of collecting, receiving, and using data for improvement in the learning process.

• The main purpose of assessment is to help to identify gaps in student's learning and what remedial measures should be appropriate to reduce the learning gaps of the students that are needed to be taken for continuing or improving their learning.
• It gathers data during the learning process when the class progresses through a unit of study to determine a student’s knowledge and skills, including learning gaps.
• Provide feedback about the work the students have completed using the atlas and provide ideas for adjusting, rethinking, and articulating their learning.
• It informs students about what they have done well, where they have had difficulty, and what they need to do differently to improve their work.
• It expects students to make errors and directs them to examine these errors to improve their learning.
• It also measures the achievement in learning and decides if the student should be promoted to the next class.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that the assessment of students can be used by teachers in teaching to develop insight into changing the teaching approach according to the learners’ needs.

Learning is the change in behaviour resulting from behaviour. The teacher is the one who can facilitate classroom teaching. 

Key Points

A teacher should maintain the interest of students in class teaching by giving ample opportunity to students for discussion or deliberations as the discussion is a teaching methodology which facilitates meaningful learning by emphasizing upon:

• sharing ideas and experiences with peers and teachers.
• learning through meaningful interaction in group settings.
• looking at any issues from different angles and points of view.
• developing a democratic way of thinking and the spirit of tolerance.
• formulating questions on content can be very useful in the classroom.
• increasing the maximum participation of students in the learning process.
• the teacher has to maintain a conducive environment in the classroom and provide them with experiences through her experiences. He/she must give a presentation on the topic.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that repetition based on mere recall of content does not facilitate meaningful learning for the children.

Punishment is not reinforcement. Punishment is inflicted either by presenting a painful stimulus or by removing a pleasant stimulus which invariably causes painful feelings, both physical and emotional, in students. Punishment is not very effective for eliminating undesirable behaviour Giving physical punishments, scolding or threatening in the class, and detaining after class hours are some examples of punishments given in schools. 

Key Points

Physical punishment (corporal) punishment seems to:

• increase child aggression
• increase antisocial behaviour
• lower intellectual achievements
• hatred for school, subject and teacher
• enhance the poor quality of parent/teacher-student relation
• cause mental health problem
• damaging their self-concept
• since punishment tends to dehumanise children and make them feel screed, ashamed and worthless during the learning and teaching process.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that giving punishment, verbal or non-verbal, to the children results in damaging their self-concept.

Additional Information

The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, which represents the consequential legislation envisaged under Article 21-A in the constitution of India, came into force in the country on 1 April 2010. The RTE Act, 2009 prohibits-

• physical punishment and mental harassment;
• screening procedures for admission of children;
• capitation fees;
• private tuition by teachers; and
• running of schools without recognition

Gender is a social construct that refers to the socially and culturally constructed system that attributes meaning to what it means to be a male or a female in a particular society. The teacher has to encourage the equality of all genders among the children to make them free from any type of gender stereotypes. 

​

Key Points

Gender-neutral or Gender-free language:

• It is that type of language which is used to promote gender equality among children to present the ideal language to be used while addressing any gender.
• It helps the teacher to make the children understand the importance of integrity and unity i.e., they are a unit as a class and whatever task is assigned to a class, each of them will be accountable.
• For example, In role-playing, a student at the end said, ‘This news report is presented by the reporter, Anshu and cameraman, Priya”’ The teacher said that instead of cameraman you should say cameraperson.
• The word "chairman" is representing gender clearly i.e., a person who is a man. So, he is being called chairman. It is an example of gender-biased language.
• While the word "chairperson" is just indicating that a person or we can say an individual is the head of a committee. So, it becomes gender-neutral language which is why the teacher insisted on using a chairperson.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that the language of the teacher indicates that the teacher is using gender-free language.

Evaluation is a systematic way to assess learner’s abilities, analyze performance, provide appropriate feedback to each learner and help them to progress. High-quality evaluation is required in teaching for successful learning. Evaluation needs to be integrated with the process of teaching and learning.

Important Points

Continuous and Comprehension Evaluation (CCE): 

• The scheme of CCE has inbuilt flexibility for schools to plan their own academic schedules as per specified guidelines on CCE.
• It is a system that was introduced by the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) in India to assess all aspects of student’s development on a continuous basis throughout the year.
• The main aim of CCE is to evaluate every aspect of the child during their presence at the school. This is believed to help reduce the pressure on the child during/before examinations.
• The objective of CCE is to make evaluation an integral part of learning through diagnostic and remedial teaching.
• It never assesses students according to their economic status rather it emphasizes the continuity of assessment.

Key Points

CCE Emphasizes upon: 

• Enhancing the thought process and de-emphasizing memorization.
• Developing a student's cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains.
• Assessing both scholastic and co-scholastic aspects of a child's growth.
• Making evaluations an integral part of diagnostic and remedial teaching.
• Observing and recording the methods of learning to make improvements.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that continuous and comprehensive evaluation is essential for understanding how learning can be observed, recorded and improved upon.

Lawrence Kohlberg, an American psychologist, has propounded the 'Theory of Moral Development. He has made a systematic study of moral development in his theory that is categorized into 3 levels and 6 stages.

Key Points

Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality It consists of the first two levels of moral development. In this stage, morality is absent in the true sense. Here morality is judged based on the standards of adults and the consequence of an action.

• Stage I (Obedience and Punishment Orientation) — An action is immoral if it is punished by the authority. Children in primary schools follow this stage. At this, children have the fear if they are not following the obedience principle get punished by the teachers or parents.
• Stage II (Individualism and Exchange) — This stage is self-interest driven and children understood for the first time that different individuals may have different viewpoints. An action is considered morally correct if it is in the best interest of the individual.

Level 2: Conventional Morality: This level consists of stages three and four. During this level, children start internalizing the value of society to judge morality.

• Stage III (Good Interpersonal Relationship) — Intention of the actor is more important in terms of judging the moral values. If the intention is to gain the consensus of others or approval of the society then the actor will be judged morally right. This stage is also followed by the children at the primary level. At this stage, the children have the ideology of a good boy – good girl attitude.
• Stage IV (Maintaining the Social Order) — Judgment of morality is based on one’s duty, law, and social order. actively maintaining the current social system ensures positive human relationships and societal order.

Level 3: Post Conventional Morality: The last level consist of stage five and six of moral development. According to Kohlberg, very few people are able to reach this level. Here, the individual perspective is given more importance over social rule and order. Individuals judge morality based on basic human rights and justice.

• Stage V (Social Contract and Individual Rights) – In this stage, the individual or child understands that different people and communities may hold different views and laws. Laws of the society are not rigid edicts and should be changed with the change in the time and need of the society.
• Stage VI (Universal Principles) – Individual judge morality of the actor based on some universal principles that transcend beyond the society’s rules and regulations.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that in Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory, level I signifies the absence of morality in the true sense.

CBSE under NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training) implemented a model of progressive education for national policies and progressive educational ideas and pedagogical practices. 

Key Points

John Dewey who gave the concept of 'progressive education', felt that education is a social process, and one of the prime functions of the school is to help in the socialization of the child. He believed that-

• A child has to get training in the intellectual, social, and cultural aspects of existence. It has to learn the norms and values of the group by active participation to become an accepted and effective member of the group.
• Since human life is not only the result of biological and physiological functions, the child has also to get training in the intellectual, social, and cultural aspects of existence.
• A child needs to be socialized, acculturated, and provided with knowledge and skills of survival together.
• Home, neighborhood, community, religion, media, etc. have a great influence on the socialization of the child.
• Freedom, creative self-expression, and active participation are the main components of this theory.
• The main qualities of this education program are learning by doing, hands-on projects, and learning through experience.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that active participation in group work and learning social skills is correct for the progressive model of socialization of children.

One of the goals of education is to develop independent learning in students. However, at times, students might need a little push from the teacher in order to achieve that independence. Scaffolding is a technique that helps during such a scenario.

Scaffolding is a technique that is linked to the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which refers to a range of tasks that a child can achieve only with assistance from a more skilled adult or peer.

The teacher noticed that Pushpa cannot solve a problem on her own. However, she does so in the presence of adult or peer guidance. This guidance is called scaffolding.

Key Points

• Scaffolding is temporary support given by MKO (more knowledgeable other). It is stopped when the learner becomes able to perform independently.
• This concept was developed by the Russian psychologist, Lev Vygotsky in his sociocultural theory of learning.
• Scaffolding refers to a technique that provides the right kind of support in the right amount at the right time to increase a child’s competence.
• In other words, it is a means by which a child's 'zone width' (or potential for new learning) can be assessed. i.e. scaffolding helps with providing support to learners in their initial phase of learning, which is in the right amount and gradually decreases as the learner progresses.
• As children are given assistance or shown how to perform certain tasks, they use this information as a guide on how to perform these tasks and eventually learn to perform them independently.
• It helps a learner to move from a Zone of Actual Development to a Zone of Proximal Development and finally reach to Zone of Desired Development, with the help of a more experienced person like peers, elders in the family, or teachers.
• For example, a teacher gives a lesson on vocabulary before making the child read a difficult passage and provides necessary cues and prompts when the child faces difficulty.

Hence, we can conclude that the above example is the example of scaffolding.

Additional Information

• Pre-operation is the cognitive stage given by Piaget in his theory of cognitive development.
• Lateralization is the limitation of bodily function.

The Early childhood period (2-6 years) is of greater importance to you as a pre-primary teacher. In contrast to dependent babyhood, early childhood is a period when behaviour problems dominate as their urge to attain independence and inability of handling the problems successfully creates anxiety among the parents, At this stage, the young children become stubborn and disobedient and start negotiating. 

Key Points

They exhibit temper tantrums and children of this age play alone with their peers using toys. This stage has certain synonyms such as preschool. This is the time when children learn the foundation of social behaviour as a preparation for a highly organized social life. Parents and Siblings provide information about the roles and behaviours which are acceptable in a group.

Characteristics of Early Childhood:

• Some parents feel that the behavioural problems of the childhood period are more troublesome then physical care of infants.
• Some behavioural problems occur in this period such as obstinacy, stubbornness, disobedience, negativistic, and antagonistic.
• It is a toy age because most of the time children are engaged with their toys. These toys are also helpful to educate the children. Toys are an important element of their play activities.
• The child at this stage is curious about just everything in this world and also about their bodies and the bodies of others. The expression of curiosity takes sensorimotor form initially and later it is in the form of asking questions.
• The preparation for adult roles which begins in early childhood is partly a result of direct teaching by the parents and partly a result of observation and imitation of adults by children hence named as imitative age.
• The early childhood stage is also known as the pre-gang age which is characterized by an increasing number of contacts. Children who prefer to increase their social contacts rather than playing with objects are more popular.
• This is a period when a child is considered physically and mentally independent. This is also a school-going age.
• Children become more self-sufficient, independent, develop self-esteem.
• This is the age of foundations of social behaviour. They are more organized and they will be required to adjust to when they enter first grade.
• Develop physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development.

Thus from above-mentioned parents and siblings provides information about the roles and behaviours which are acceptable in a group, during the early childhood period.

A stage in development covers a specific time period during the life span. Generally, when a child shifts from one stage to the next, there is thought to be a change in how the child approaches tasks and how the child understands and responds to events and things in his or her world. A stage of development is an ageing period when certain needs, behaviours, experiences, and capabilities are common and different from other age periods.

Key Points 

Stages of development:- Developmental influences cover a range of behaviours and transformations in a child's faculties and personalities. Social norms, institutions, customs, and laws also influence these stages.

• Infancy (birth to 18 months)
• Early childhood(2 to 3 years)
• Preschool(3 to 5 years)
• School-age or Pre Adolescence or Late childhood(6 to 11 years)
• Adolescence(12 to 18 years)
• Pre or Young Adulthood(19 to 40 years)
• Middle Adulthood(40 to 65 years)

Important Points 

Late childhood is the time period from the age of 'six to eleven years. The signs of puberty usually begin to appear in this stage. It is also known as troublesome age, gang age, play age, etc.

Characteristics of Late Childhood:

• Increased logical reasoning.
• High Interest in science fiction.
• Use of analogies in explanation.
• Development of problem-solving skills.
• Powers of perception and observation become keen.
• Ability to exercise own power of memory and imagination.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that 6 to11 years age groups fall under later childhood.

The growth and development of an individual are greatly affected by heredity and environment as well as the interaction between heredity and environment. However, there are certain issues and controversies related to this phenomenon.

Key Points

This conversation between Raghav and Sonali is about the nature vs. nurture dispute, in which both nature and nurture play important roles in defining many of our physical and mental characteristics, from weight and height to intellect and temperament.

Nature vs. Nurture

• The nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest issues in psychology. The debate centres on the relative contributions of genetic inheritance and environmental factors to human development.
• The term ‘nature’ stands for what comes to children through genetic influences and heredity, i.e. it denotes the influence of factors inherent in the child himself from the time he is conceived.
• On the other hand, the term ‘nurture’ stands for the influence of the environment on child development, i.e. all the contextual factors that influence who we are, including our perceptions of early childhood, our social relationships and the society around us. It denotes the extrinsic forces, influences and conditions that affect the growth and development of an individual.
• In other words, the controversy on nature versus nurture concerns whether human behaviour is influenced by the environment or by the genes of an individual.
• Heredity and environment both play a significant role in the development of children. Any individual trait is the 'result' of both genetics and the environment. Heredity determines the probable biological limits, whereas the environment determines the level up to which the development is possible.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that this discussion between Aarav and Sonali is about Nature and Nurtures debate.

Motivation is something that prompts, compels and energises an individual to act or behave in a particular manner at a particular time for attaining some goal or purpose. Four major approaches to understand motivation are:

• Behavioural approach
• Humanist approach
• Cognitivism approach
• Social-cultural perspective

Key Points

Social-cultural perspective: 

• The social perspective believes that the need for affiliation, appreciation and recognition in the social group motivates a learner. When a learner spends time with peers, makes close relations with peers, parents and relatives, wants to get recognition of their work in a socio-cultural environment, s/he gets motivated. It emphasizes participation, identities and interpersonal relationships within the community for various practices.
• Making students members of a clean community to motivate them for the same, reflects a social-cultural perspective.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that making students members of a cleanliness community motivate them for the same, reflects socio-cultural conceptions of motivation.

Important Points

• The behavioural approach considers the role of external rewards and punishment in motivation in the classroom. According to this approach, the role of positive and negative stimuli as incentives is very important in encouraging or discouraging a particular behaviour. The role of reinforcement is also considered important in teaching and learning. This approach promotes the use of grades, stars, rewards, certification, appreciation, etc., for enhancing the motivation of learners.
• The humanist approach laid emphasis upon learners’ capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose their options for the future and positive outlook. This approach advocates that intrinsic sources like the sense of competence, self-esteem, autonomy, and self-actualization are the factors that encourage a person to act.
• Cognitivism are of the view that motivation occurs due to learners’ thoughts. They do not have faith in the role of extrinsic motivation for learning. They believe that learners’ internal motivation to learn, their attribution (ability of an individual to explain, justify and excuse) and their belief to control their environment contributes to motivation. Learners are viewed as active and curious individuals who are searching for information to solve their problems by themselves.

Concept:

Place value: The place value of a digit in a number is the digit multiplied by thousand or hundred or whatever place it is situated.

For example, in 2537

Place value of 7 = 1 × 7 = 7

Place value of 3 = 3 × 10 =  30

Place value of 5 = 5 × 100 = 500

Place value of 2 = 2 × 1000 = 2000

Calculation:

Given numbers are

6251, 6521, 5621

In 6251, place value of 5 = 10 × 5 = 50 

In 6521, place value of 5 = 100 × 5 = 500

In 5621, place value of 5 = 1000 × 5 = 5000

Therefore, sum of place value of 5 = 50 + 500 + 5000

∴ The sum of the place value of 5 in given numbers is 5550

Concept:

Even & Odd: A number in which 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 present at once place called even number. Number in which 0, 2, 4, 6, 8  not present at once place called an odd number.

For example:

8, 42, 100, 588 etc are even number and,

3, 45, 199, 55 etc are odd numbers.

Properties:

• The sum or difference of two even/odd is always even.
• The difference between one odd and one even number is always odd.
• The Sum of three odd number is an odd number.
• The sum of two odd numbers and one even is always even.

Explanation:

From the above discussion, we can conclude that the sum of two odd numbers and one even number is an even number.

∴ option 2 will be correct.

Given:

The volume of cube = 1 L,

The base of the cube is in a square shape with each side 8 cm.

Formula Used:

Volume = Base area × depth = length × breadth × depth

Unit: 1 L = 10^-3 m³ = 1000 cm³

Calculation:

Volume of cube = 1 L = 1000 cm³

Let, depth of cube is d.

We know that volume of a cube is given by

V =  Base area × depth

⇒ 1000 = 8 × 8 × d

⇒ d = 1000/64

⇒ d = 15.625 ≈ 16

∴ The depth of the carton of juice is 16 cm.

Teaching-learning of mathematics takes account of well-defined objectives. Developing mathematical knowledge, understanding various mathematical terms, widening appreciation towards Mathematics, and expanding skill of applying acquired knowledge in everyday activities are some among them. Some Curricular Expectation of Teaching Mathematics at the Primary Level are as follows:

• To ensure a good start for the students in learning mathematics.
• To give clarity on the fundamental concepts and processes of the subject.
• To develop a connection between the logical functioning of daily life and that of mathematical thinking.
• To create love, faith and interest for learning mathematics.
• To develop in them a taste and confidence in mathematics.
• To develop language and symbolic notations with standard algorithms of performing number operations.
• Represent part of whole as a fraction and order simple fractions.
• To develop an appreciation for accuracy.
• To acquaint them with the relation of mathematics with their present as well as future life.
• To develop in them the habits like regularity, practice, patience, self-reliance and hard work.
• To link mathematics with other subjects.

Hence, we conclude that analysing and inferring from the representation of grouped data is not curriculum expectation a the primary level.

Mathematics is the study of geometrical figures, their co-relation, and their dependency on each other. It deals with quantity, measurement, and spatial relationships.

Key Points

Goals of Mathematics education:

• Mathematics teaching should focus on child’s enjoyment of learning as NCF-2005 states that mathematics should be taught in a way that children learn to enjoy mathematics rather than fear it.
• According to National Curriculum Framework-2005, the main goal of Mathematics education in school is the mathematization of the child’s thought process.
• Mathematical operations should be taught in the context of practical activities related to the environment so that learners can understand the contribution of mathematics in daily life.
• ​In school, mathematics is the domain that formally addresses problem-solving as a skill. Posing and solving problems reflects the levels and quality of learning besides developing the ability of creativity in the children.
• Teaching mathematics should focus mainly on developing the basic abilities of a child to do mathematics and to bring mathematization of thoughts.

Hence, it is concluded that the main goal of Mathematics education is to develop children’s abilities for mathematization.

While addressing number and number operations, the due place must be given to non-number areas of mathematics. These include shapes, spatial understanding, patterns, measurement, and data handling.

Spatial understanding ability- It is an ability to understand the differences, reason, and similarity of an object. For enhancing the spatial understanding ability of students, the following can be used at the primary level.

• Tangram- Children can learn about the spatial relationship by using tangram. It is a kind of puzzle consisting of seven different shapes (triangle, rectangle etc), by joining which student can create his imaginary shapes.
• Dot game- It is a game consist of so many dots on paper by joining which students get the desired shape.
• Patterns- This is also a structure that consists of many dots which on joining them a child can learn about different shapes or contains different shapes or patterns to explore.

Hence, we conclude that at the primary level use of tangram, dot games, patterns, etc. helps the students to enhance spatial understanding ability.

Bloom’s Taxonomy: It is a hierarchical ordering of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains and each domain has some objectives that can help teachers teach and students learn. As per him, there are three Domains of Learning: Cognitive: (knowledge), Affective (emotional aspects), and Psychomotor (ability to use body parts to accomplish tasks) The levels falling under the cognitive domain are as follows:

• Remember: ‘Remembering' is the lowest level objective of cognitive domain. It refers to the ability to recall information of facts, concepts, theories, laws, patterns, structures, generalizations, etc. Examples: recalling the definition of a rectangle, formula for finding the area of a rectangle.
• Understand: It is the next higher level of the cognitive domain. Understanding helps learners to correlate, connect and develop meaning from new material. Example: describing the method of calculating the area of a rectangle.
• Apply: The learner can apply different facts, concepts, theories, laws or principles in a new situation. Application subsumes both knowledge and understanding.  Example: applying knowledge of calculating the area of a rectangle to find the area of own house of the learner.
• Analyze: Analysis is the breaking down of a complex situation into different parts/elements. At such a stage, the learner will be able to locate the elements, differentiate, recognize the relationship, and identify patterns of a situation. Example: identify the causes of splitting the figure into different parts for calculating its total area.
• Evaluate: Aims and Objectives of Evaluation represents the learner’s ability to formulate hypothesis, critique, and judge a material, situation or method against the standard, which may be internal or external to it. Example: justifying the need for constructing ‘rooms’ in rectangular/square shapes.
• Create: As the word implies creating stands for collecting information, designing and putting elements together to construct a new pattern or develop theory out of it or to build up an understanding of the concept in detail. Example: From the unit of ‘Shapes,’ the teacher asked the students to “make/draw” any picture by using shapes”.

Hence, we conclude that the above activity given by the teacher is for creation.

Remedial instruction is the process of providing help to students who are experiencing difficulties so they can understand and master the concept with which they are struggling.

• Providing him with a worksheet with partially solved problems to complete the missing gaps. By providing the partially solved worksheets will enable the learner to see his gaps himself and identify his problematic areas.
• Each pupil is different in terms of learning ability, academic standards, classroom learning, and academic performance, and each has his own in learning.
• By adapting school curricula and teaching strategies, teachers can provide learning activities and practical experiences to students according to their abilities and needs.

Key Points 

Students mistakes in expressive writing include-

• illegible handwriting,
• Incomplete sentences, and
• Errors in syntax, grammar, and spelling.

Through the primary level, children are taught how to form words, build sentences, and construct paragraphs. By class 4, it is usually clear which students are still having difficulty. The number of referrals of students with expressive writing difficulties typically spikes in class 4. 

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that the best remedial strategy to remove errors in his writing is to provide him with a worksheet with partially solved problems to complete the missing gaps.

Calculation:

Given series is 

-1 + 2 - 3 + 4 - 5 + 6 - 7 + .... + 1000 

We can see that, there are 1000 terms with odd and even digit are minus and plus sign respectively. Now the series as below,

(-1 + 2) + (- 3 + 4) + (- 5 + 6) + (- 7 + 8) .... + (-999 + 1000)

This shows, sum of pair of number is 1. Hence total terms remain 500. Therefore

= 1 + 1 + 1 + ............500 terms

Hence, sum = 500

We know that for an arithmetic progression (AP), whose first terms are 'a' last term l, then the sum of AP  is given by

$S = \frac{n}{2}(a\ +\ l)$

Now, on rearranging the given series,

-1 - 3 - 5 .... - 999 + 2 + 4 + 6 + ......1000

=  -(1 + 3 + 5 + ....999) + (2 + 4 + 6 + .......1000) 

We can see that there are two AP (common difference 1) and each contains 500 terms. Therefore sum

S = S₁ + S₂

$⇒ S = -\frac{500}{2}(1\ + \ 999) + \frac{500}{2}(2\ + \ 1000)$

⇒ S = -250(1000) + 250(1002))

⇒ S = 250(1002 - 1000)

⇒ S = 500

Given: 

Perimeter of Square = 44 cm

Concept:

Perimeter of Rectangle = 2 × (l + b)

Area of Rectangle = l × b

Where,

l = Length of Rectangle, b = Breadth of Rectangle.

And,

Perimeter of Square = 4 × a

Area of Square = a × a

Where, a = Side of Square.

Calculation:

Perimeter of Square = 4 × a = 44 cm

⇒ a = 11 cm

Then,

l =  (a + 5) cm = 11 + 5 = 16 cm.

And,

Perimeter of a rectangle = Perimeter of this square

⇒ 2 × (l + b) = 44

⇒ 16 + b = 22

⇒ b = 6 cm

Then,

Area of Rectangle = l × b = 16 × 6 cm² = 96 cm²

And, Area of Square = a × a = 11 × 11 = 121 cm²

Then,

∴ Sum of the areas of Rectangle and Square = 96 + 121 = 217 cm²

National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005 provides a guideline with which teachers and schools can choose and plan experiences that they think children should have. It seeks to reform the curriculum and to bring learning experiences in and outside the classroom. According to the NCF 2005, “Developing children’s abilities for mathematization is the main goal of mathematics education.”

There are two kinds of aims in mathematics for school education such as broader and narrower aims.

Narrower aim-

• to develop numeracy related skills
• to develop ‘useful’ capabilities
• particularly those relating to numeracy- numbers, number operations, measurements, decimals and percentages

Broader aim-

• Problem- solving
• Use of heuristics
• Estimation and approximation
• Optimisation
• Use of patterns
• Visualization
• Representation
• Reasoning and proof
• Making connections
• Mathematical communication

Hence, we conclude that to develop numeracy related skills is one of the narrow aims of NCF.

Calculation:

Given that, Ravi has 3 dozen chocolates. 

= 3 × 12 = 36

According to the question, 

Amount of chocolates, he gave to the neighbour = 1/3^rd of 36

$⇒ \frac{1}{3}\times 36 = 12$

Similarly, he gave 1/6^th of  chocolates to the Rehana

⇒ Number of chocolates that Rehana have = $\frac{1}{6}\times 36\ = 6$

Similarly, he gave 1/4^th to his sister.

⇒ Number of chocolates  = $\frac{1}{4}\times 36\ = 9$

Hence, the total number of chocolates left

= 36 - (12 + 6 + 9) = 9

∴ 9 chocolates left with Ravi.

Jean Piaget, a swiss psychologist, who belonged to the cognitive school of psychology, is famous for his work on child development. He made a systematic study of cognitive development in his theory that is categorized into four stages.

Key Points

The stages are explained below:

Note:

• Emergent phase: this is from birth to 5 years, in which a child can learn about letters and sounds. This is also called “Phase of Literacy Development”.
• Quantifying phase: It refers to counting the objects and deal with ‘how many’.  The learner counts the object concretely, pictorially and symbolically.
• Partition phase: In this stage, a child divides a problem into small parts and then solve it. This makes understanding the thing easy. As, 152 can be partitioned as, 100 + 5 + 2.

Hence, we conclude that at the operational phase a child can perform all number operations and can explain the concept of fractions.

Learning style is ' the sum of an individual's preferences for physical, social, emotional and environmental elements in the course of learning. Each learner develops his/her style or approach to learning which is rooted to his/her interests, habits, conditions/environment at home and school, and the clarity of goal.

Key Points

The following are the key points related to the learning styles:

• It is not very likely that any two students learn the same thing in the same way and at the same pace.
• It is in this context that individualized instruction as a mode of learning is receiving prominence in teaching.
• Students learn in several ways. Teachers have to evolve and identify different styles of learning adopted by the learners.
• The teacher tries to explain by different styles. For example, the teacher presents multiplication as repeated addition (  and are the same). He also conducts a small activity of finding products using crisscrossing or matchsticks.
• In simple words, a student's learning style is the 'way' in which he/she learns. The learning style is 'an individual's characteristic way of responding to certain variables in the instructional environment'.

Hence, we conclude that in the above-mentioned statement, the teacher is catering to learners with different learning styles.

A good teacher needs to relate every content with real-life for making learning more effective and easy because students learn easily with daily life examples. Some properties of a good mathematics teacher are-

• He must have a conceptual knowledge, understanding and ability to related content of mathematics in real life.
• He should be a good motivator
• He should have the ability to make engaging classroom environment.
• He has a clear and loud voice with proper intonation
• He is facilitator and supporter.
• He can make learning interesting, joyful and creative.

Hence, we conclude that Akanksha should have conceptual knowledge, understanding and ability to related content of mathematics with real life.

Mathematics is interesting by using games, quizzes, riddles, tricks, etc. as learning activities. Every child deserves to be successful and confident in school life. Mathematical puzzles, riddles, and tricks develop many life skills in learners required to lead a successful and happy life. Children love games and puzzles, so learning through games makes the learning of Mathematics joyful and interesting.

Important Points

Benefits of recreational activities to develop following skills

• Encourage mathematical reasoning and logical thinking;
• Develop strategic thinking;
• Guide in concept development;
• Develop a positive attitude towards Mathematics;
• Help to develop the construction of ideas;
• Develop a variety of connections with the content that can form positive memories of learning;
• Improve fundamental operations of Mathematics;
• Help teachers to cater to the diverse needs of children;
• Help in the development of problem-solving, critical thinking skills, decision-making skills, etc.

Hence, we have concluded that It is important to conduct mathematical recreational activities and challenging geometrical puzzles in the class as they are helpful to enhance the spatial and analytical ability of every learner.

In the ancient education system, the solution of Mathematics problems was given very fast in India. But now it is being experienced that learners finding difficulty in solving mathematical problems. Through the introduction of Vedic Mathematics, learners have developed an interest. It gave importance to calculation skills and speed in mathematics.

Key Points

Importance of teaching-learning Vedic Mathematics

• Developing interest in teaching-learning mathematics.
• Increase in the confidence level for competitive exams.
• Developing speed & accuracy for calculations among learners.
• To save time by solving problems in the shortest possible time.
• Developing learner's brain to a level so that he/she could solve their life problems.
• Developing reasoning power using Vedic mathematics sutras.
• Developing self-confidence by solving problems using Vedic Mathematics.
• Increasing memory power of learners.

Hence, we can conclude that Vedic Mathematics is becoming popular nowadays especially amongst primary school children, and is used to enhance calculation skills and speed in mathematics.

Formative Assessment: Given by Black & William in 2009, it focuses on the assessment of mathematics learning at primary stage. When children answer the questions incorrectly (learning gaps), they should not be put to shame. It is necessary for them that they master the required competencies before proceeding to the next competency. The assessment includes

• Identification of learning gaps and deficiencies in teaching.
• Avoid physical punishment and the school should be “Punishment free zone”.
• Understanding of how children learn mathematics.
• Development of the mathematical concept and their application in daily life.
• Development of the social personal qualities of the children.

Hence, we conclude that at the primary stage, the formative assessment includes identification of learning gaps and deficiencies in teaching.

According to NCF 2005, the main goal of mathematics education at the primary level is the development of children's ability in mathematization. Basically, it means that children should learn to think about any situation using the language of mathematics. They can use the tools and techniques of mathematics in real life. 

• In Mathematics there is a certain way of thinking, people connect the mathematical concepts with real-life which help them think more logically and practically.
• The National Curriculum Framework 2005 is among the four National Curriculum Frameworks approved by the National Council of Educational Research and Training NCERT in India.
• At the Primary level, children learn from concrete objects and visualization processes.
• It must be ambitious, coherent (logical and consistent) and should focus on principles of mathematics.

Hence, we conclude that a 'certain way of thinking and reasoning' means adopting the exploratory approach, use of manipulatives, connecting concepts to real life, involving students in discussions.

The development of children's abilities to perform mathematical operations and to make them skilled to use mathematical knowledge in real life is the main goal of mathematics education.

• The teaching methods to teach mathematics should be according to the content, needs of students, and availability of resources.
• The teacher needs to teach mathematics by relating it to the real life of learners so that they could become easily familiar with it and could enjoy learning.

Key Points

• In class V, the teacher asks a student Shailja to tell about the area of a figure and also to describe the solution in her own words.
• Shailja solved the problems on the topic "perimeter" correctly but she was unable to explain it in her words.
• For example, find the perimeter of a square with a side of 16 cm. The perimeter of a square is 4xside  i.e. the square of its side. So, the area of the square is (4 X 16) cm2 = 32 cm2.
• Shailja solved this problem correctly but she was not able to explain in her words why she multiplied 16 with four sides of the square to get the area and what is area and so on.
• It means that she understood the concept of area appropriately but because of a lack of language comprehension, she was unable to elaborate on the solution in her words.
• This means that Shailja is having lower language proficiency i.e., less capable of listening, speaking, reading, and writing in a certain language.
• On the other hand, she possesses higher-order mathematical proficiency i.e., the ability to perform mathematical operations and build mathematical concepts.

Hence, it could be concluded that Deeksha is having lower language proficiency and higher-order mathematical proficiency.

Mathematics is a branch of science which deals with counting, calculating, and studying numbers, shapes, and structures. At the end of a topic, the section, ‘Practice Time’ is given in different topics in Mathematics textbook. Advantages of this are:

• It provides extended learning opportunities to the student.
• It aims to teach the student beyond the exercises given for practice.
• It develops the ability of abstract thinking.
• Enhance engagement of the learner.
• Make students learn self-study and practice the taught topics.
• Helps in self-assessment, to understand where a child lags.
• It encourages making a hypothesis and verifying them.

Hence, we conclude that the section, ‘Practice Time’ in Mathematics book provides extended learning opportunities

Concept:

Average Marks = \(\frac{Sumofthetotalmark}{Totalnumberof~student}\)

Given:

Class V A 14, 6, 15, 12, 11, 11, 7, 9, 17,13, 3, 10, 18

Class V B 13, 9, 0, 7, 14, 6, 0, 9, 16, 9, 13, 16, 5, 18, 11

Calculation:

Class V (A),

Number of Student = 13, Obtained Marks = 14, 6, 15, 12, 11, 11, 7, 9, 17,13, 3, 10, 18.

Average Marks = \(\frac{Sumofthetotalmark}{Totalnumberof~student}\)

= \(\frac{14~+6+15+12+11+11+7+9+17+13+3+10+~18}{13}\)

= $\frac{146}{13}$

= 11.231

And,

Class V(B),

Number of Student = 15, Obtained Marks = 13, 9, 0, 7, 14, 6, 0, 9, 16, 9, 13, 16, 5, 18, 11.

= \(\frac{13~+9+0+7+14+6+0+9+16+9+13+16+5+18+~11}{15}\)

= $\frac{146}{15}$ 

= 9.733

So,

Class V A performed better because the average score of V A is more.

Calculation:

To find the number of $\frac{1}{10}$ in $\frac{6}{5}$ , we have to divide $\frac{6}{5}$ by $\frac{1}{10}$.

Then,

⇒ $\frac{\frac{6}{5}}{\frac{1}{10}}$ = $\frac{6}{5}$ × 10

= 12

Given:

On dividing 110111 by 11.

Then,

Dividend = 110111, Divisor = 11

Calculation:

On dividing 110111 by 11.

Then,

$\frac{110111}{11}$ = 10010**$\frac{1}{11}$**

quotient = 10010, Remember = 1 

Then,

The sum of the quotient and the remainder = 10010 + 1 = 10011

Calculation:

Let x is subtracted from the product 102 × 201 to get 19999.

⇒ (102 × 201) - x = 19999

⇒ 20502 - x = 19999

⇒ x = 20502 - 19999

⇒ x = 503.

Concept:

1 kg = 1000 g

1 litre = 1000 ml

Area of square = side²

1 m² = 10⁴ cm²

Calculation:

2 kg 30 g = (2 × 1000 + 30) g = 2030 g

8 litres 80 millilitres = (8 × 1000 + 80) ml = 8080 ml

Area of a square of side 10 cm = 10² cm² = 100 cm²

Area of the rectangle of length 100 cm and breadth 0.01 m = length × breadth

= 1 × 0.01 = 0.01 m² = 100 cm²

So**, the** Area of a square of side 10 cm = Area of the rectangle of length 100 cm and breadth 0.01 m

3 hours 14 minutes = (3 × 60 + 14) minutes

= (180 + 14) minutes

= 194 minutes

∴ The incorrect answer is option 2

Concept:

The right angle stands for 90° 

Calculation:

Two and two-third of a right-angle = $2\tfrac{2}{3}$ of 90° 

= $\frac{8}{3}$ × 90° 

= 240°

Calculation:

Multiples of 7 between 21 and 49 = 28, 35, 42.

Sum of multiples of 7 between 21 and 49 = 28 + 35 + 42 = 105

All factors of 25 = 1, 5, 25

All factors of 30 = 1, 5, 6, 30

Biggest common factor of 25 and 30 = 5

$\frac{Sum\ of \ multiples\ of \ 7\ between\ 21\ and\ 49}{Biggest \ common \ factor\ of \ 25 \ and \ 30}= \frac{105}{5}=21$

Concept:

Positive factors defined as all the positive multiples of a number including 1 or the number itself.

Calculation:

All positive factors of 96 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24, 32, 48, 96

The sum = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 12 + 16 + 24 + 32 + 48 + 96 = 252

Concept:

1 hour = 60 minutes

1 minute = 60 seconds

1 day = 24 hours

Given:

A train leaves a station at 6 : 14 am

Time taken to reach its destination is 13 hours 48 minutes

Calculation:

Time taken by train to leave station = 6 hours 14 minutes

The final time is taken to reach the destination = 13 hours 48 minutes + 6 hours 14 minutes

= 19 hours 62 minutes

= 20 hours 02 minutes

Now subtracting 12 hours to get time in 12 hours format

The final time = 8 hours 02 minutes

= 8 : 02 p.m.

NCF(National Curriculum Framework) 2005 is one of the four NCF published in India by NCERT. It seeks to provide a framework for the betterment of educational purposes and experiences.

Key Points Providing a contextual learning environment is the most appropriate reason for the above-mentioned recommendations of NCF. 

• In early childhood, children look at their environment in a holistic manner.
• Therefore, in classes I and II the concepts of environmental science are integrated into language and mathematics
• Also, the teaching of language and mathematics are woven around the child's immediate environment to ensure contextual learning.

Hence, to provide a contextual learning environment, NCF 2005 has not recommended any prescribed curriculum and textbooks for EVS for classes I and II.

John Dewey, an American philosopher has proposed the concept of 'Progressive Education' that emphasizes learning takes place through a hands-on approach so the students must interact with their environment to adapt and learn.

The project method is based on the philosophy of Pragmatism.

• The project method is based on the principle of Learning by doing.
• The project method makes learning realistic and experimental.
• It aims to make students think independently and is a target-driven activity based on the challenge, fostering success and efficient cooperation.

Key Points

Community participation is important as it demonstrates the importance of incorporating cultural elements in the teaching of mathematics, all of which motivates students to learn about their culture and that of others while also learning mathematics.

• Students should be contributions of members of their own and other cultures can help them gain confidence, self-esteem and a sense of belonging as well as respect for the mathematical thinking of other cultures”.
• Culturally relevant pedagogy validates students’ cultural backgrounds, and ethnic history and provides ways for educators to support cultural connections between the school and the community.
• Giving class 4^th students a project about different types of food eaten by individuals from various states in our country is the finest approach to promote cultural variety in cuisine in our country. The project will improve people's perspectives and thoughts about the cuisine they eat as well as dishes that are popular in other states.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that the best way to teach about cultural diversity in food in our country to class IV students is to give a project to students about different kinds of food taken by the people of various states in our country.

EVS skills utilize the teaching-learning process effectively in a way that the social, emotional and attitudinal values of the children are interwoven with the acquisition of knowledge, and skills.

• EVS is a subject which is concerned with the development of learner's awareness about environmental issues.
• For teaching-learning of EVS at primary level, the teacher must be equipped with an understanding of the general approach to EVS learning as it activates learner's previous knowledge to connect with the new one and facilitates meaningful learning.

Indicative of General Approach to be Followed for EVS in Primary Classes:

• Whole to part
• Local to global
• Simple to complex
• Easy to difficult
• Known to unknown
• Concrete to abstract

NOTE: The abstract to the concrete approach of education shouldn't be followed at primary level as children at this stage are too young to understand the abstract and complex concepts directly.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that abstract to concrete approach should not be followed for EVS in primary classes

Observation refers to the act of examining and scrutinizing something, specifically to learn. It is the active acquisition of information. In living beings, observation employs the senses.

Key Points

Inferences are the sentences in which one reaches a conclusion which is drawn from evidence and reasoning.

• In the above-mentioned statement (A) and (B), it could be interpreted that Devmeet is doing observation in these activities.
• In the above-mentioned statement (C) and (D), it could be interpreted that Devmeet is doing inferences because he is arriving at the conclusion based on the observations he made in the statement (A) and (B).

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that statement (C) and (D) are inferences

Key Points

• Education Commission recommended that at the primary level, the focus of education should be on the social, physical, and biological environment of the child. A child in these years should be introduced to 'plants and animals in the surrounding, the air he breaths, water he drinks ... ... ".
• Hence it was recommended that teaching-learning at the primary stage should be environment-oriented, child-centered, and activity-based.
• The Education Commission also recommended that the teaching of Science at the primary level should be concentrated on the development of a proper understanding of facts. concepts, principles, and processes related to the physical and biological environment.

• Education for the environment encourages children to explore their environment,.so as to form an idea about their relationship with the environment and environmental issues. This is linked to the development of attitudes, values, and responsible behavior necessary for sustainable and caring use of the environment.
• Education in or through the environment involves the use of the environment as a resource of learning. Here the teacher is also trying to inculcate the skill of observation in students, Hence to encourage meaningful learning and the skill of observation teacher should ask students to observe the difference in their heights, leaves smell, and place of growing.
• By observing this they will get to know the variety of flora and fauna we have in the biological world and the adaptation of plants according to climate.
• This helps in the development of knowledge and understanding along with skills of investigation, observation, and communication.

Additional Information

• By the class Vth, students know that plants are living beings which is useful for us in many ways.
• Memorizing names is never supported.

Hence, we can conclude that the teacher should encourage students to observe the difference in their heights, leaves, smell, and place of growing.

Assessment is a process of collecting relevant information on student learning. It is one of the crucial components of the teaching-learning process. Assessment does more than just measuring learning. Assessment indicator refers to the indicator of progression that identity the fundamental capabilities and skills of students that will lead to the desired outcome.

These indicators of EVS learning at primary level are process-based and helps the teacher to interpret learning objectives.

Indicators for Assessment in EVS at Primary Level Include:-

• Discussion: Listen, talks expression opinions
• Analysis: Defines situation, makes hypothesis
• Experimentation: Performs simple experiments
• Questioning: Asks questions, raises critical questions
• Explanation: Makes logical connection, thinks critically
• Expression: Expresses through gesture/writing/drawing
• Cooperation: Takes initiative and works together in a group
• Observation and Reporting: Narrates and draws, collects and record information
• Classification: Compares objects and classifies them based on physical features
• Concern for justice and equality: Sensitivity towards disadvantaged people and the environment

Note: Remembering should not be an appropriate indicator for assessment in EVS at primary level as it promotes rote learning and discourages the importance of hands-on experiences.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that remembering should not be an appropriate indicator for assessment in EVS at primary level

Educational visits are powerful, positive teaching tools that help enhance the social, personal and emotional development of all learners.

• Educational visit is the appropriate tool to engage children effectively in EVS learning due to the active participation of students in the learning process.
• It is about to take the students at a certain place where they can earn knowledge by engaging with real situations.

The activity mentioned in option number (4) would be the best to be included while planning a meaningful educational visit as it will help in:-

• Setting an explicit educational goal for the visit
• Planning and preparing the fruitful educational trip schedule
• Keeping all the necessary things like medicines, emergency kit, etc
• Giving students a lot of opportunities for observation and exploration
• Guiding students about basic plans, objectives and do's and don'ts related to the visit

Note: Remaining activities are not appropriate to be included in the context as they will not help in making educational visit productive and meaningful

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005 provides a guideline with which teachers and schools can choose and plan experiences that they think children should have. As per the NCF-2005, stories and poems are the effective tools of the teaching-learning process that broadens learner's reading choices.

The purposes of using stories and poems in EVS is to:

• promote imaginative and creative ability in the learners
• provide a contextual learning environment to learners as they make them able to construct meaning based on their own experiences
• make learners aware of ethics, norms and values of society
• develop interest and providing fun and enjoyment to learners
• increase learner's vocabulary, listening and critical thinking skills
• develop learner's fullest potential, both educationally and morally

Hence, we conclude that stories and poems can be effectively used in the teaching of EVS at primary level to provide a contextual learning environment

Environmental Studies or EVS is​ the study of the environment in the context of earth and living things. It is more concerned with the scientific attitude to explore, investigate, and develop an understanding of our natural, human, social and cultural dimensions of local and wider environments.

• At the primary level, children must be taught through an integrated approach rather than teaching in parts to develop their understanding as a whole i.e., their ability to relate the topic with each other and to understand every part of it.

Key Points

Teaching Class IV "Scarcity of water" 

• While teaching the topic "Scarcity of water", the teacher should tell the children its causes and effects along with the things which can be done at their level to prevent or spread awareness about it.
• It is very important for a teacher to use daily life concrete examples to make the children understand the adversity of it and to make them concerned about their environment and its resources.
• To assess any individual on any given topic, one needs to assess the solutions that the individual can suggest to tackle with the problem.
• For example, a primary teacher effectively assesses the students of class IV on the topic of “Scarcity of water” by finding out how they have started saving water in their day-to-day life.
• When the students will tell their ways of saving water in their day-to-day life it will serve as conclusive criteria to assess the students on the topic of the scarcity of water.

Hint

• Conducting a written test on a topic, organizing poster-making activities and asking children to write slogans on the conservation of water will not help the teacher to assess the children's understanding of the topic in practicality.

Therefore, the teacher can assess children of class IV on the topic of "Scarcity of water" by finding out how they have started saving water in their day-to-day life.

A map is a visual representation of an area, drawn on a flat surface. It helps to illustrate specific and detailed features of a particular area regarding distance, direction, etc.

Key Points

Mapping refers to the act of comprehending the geographical information represented on the map. Mapping at the primary level promotes the following skills in learners:

• An idea about relative position and orientation.
• Ability to comprehend and analyse places and spaces.
• Potential to process the symbolised information shown on the map.
• Capacity to visualize spatial relationships and geographical information.

Hence, we conclude that mapping at the primary level promotes ideas about relative positions and orientations

The Correct answer is: Mustard

Concept:

• People eat different types of fruits and vegetables.
• Different parts or all parts of various plants can be eaten as food.
• In different places, different parts of a plant are eaten.

Key Points

• Coconut:
• The only edible part of the coconut tree is its fruit.
• Coconuts can be eaten either raw or cooked.
• They are rich in vitamins, minerals, and powerful antioxidants.
• Cabbage:
• The edible part of the cabbage plant is its bud.
• The bud of the cabbage plant is the actual cabbage that we buy from the market.
• Cabbage can be eaten raw in salads or cooked into various dishes.
• Mustard:
• The edible part of the mustard plant is its leaves and seeds.
• The leaves are cooked and eaten as a vegetable.
• The mustard seeds are used as species.
• The seeds are also pressed to make mustard oil.
• Spinach:
• ​The edible part of spinach is its leaves.
• It can be eaten raw in salads or can be cooked as greens.

Thus, mustard is a plant whose leaves are used as vegetables, and whose seeds are used to produce oil.

The correct answer is option 3, i.e. Chikungunya, Dengue, Malaria. 

Concept:

• Illness/Diseases: It is a state of experience by the body when one or more of the control systems of the body are not functioning normally.  
• Communicable disease: The diseases which are infectious or transmissible from a body to body through biological agents in humans and animals. Ex- Influenza, Ebola, Covid-19, etc.
• Non-communicable disease: The disease that is not transmissible directly from one person to another through biological agents, Ex- Astana, Diabetes, etc.

Explanation:

• Dengue is a mosquito-borne viral infection causing a severe flu-like illness and, sometimes causing a potentially lethal complication called severe dengue.
• Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to people through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.
• Chikungunya is a viral disease (genus Alphavirus) that is transmitted to humans by infected mosquitoes – including Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus.
• HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is a virus that attacks cells that help the body fight infection, making a person more vulnerable to other infections and diseases.
• It is spread by contact with certain bodily fluids of a person with HIV, most commonly during unprotected sex (sex without a condom or HIV medicine to prevent or treat HIV), or through sharing injection drug equipment.
• AIDS is the late stage of HIV infection that occurs when the body’s immune system is badly damaged because of the virus.
• Typhoid fever is a systemic infection caused by Salmonella Typhi, usually through ingestion of contaminated food or water.
• Cholera is an acute diarrhoeal infection caused by the ingestion of food or water contaminated with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.

Additional Information

Stagnant water:

• When the flow of the water stops and that water is there only for some period of time is called stagnant water.
• Stagnant water is the main source for many types of diseases too.
• The rainwater collected in the open tyres and also in the tank and if not looking for a long time may become a house for many types of diseases.
• Malaria may be caused by stagnant water.
• Water pollution can often lead to increased breeding of mosquitoes that carry parasites.
• The growth or breeding of the mosquitoes can be stopped by spraying the kerosene on the water.
• This happens because when we spray the kerosene then the oxygen supply to the larva (small mosquitoes) stops and they die in the water.
• Spreading oil over water cuts the oxygen supply, hence mosquitoes cannot breed in them.
• Polio is caused by a virus known as poliovirus and it can cause paralysis.
• Pneumonia is a lung disease that happens because of bacterial or viral infections.
• Chicken Pox is caused by the varicella-zoster virus. The disease is also known as Varicella.

Some common communicable diseases are:

Concept:

• Maps are drawn to reduced scales.
• Scale =  actual distance on the ground/distance shown on the map.

Given:

• Scale 1 cm = 110 meters
• Distance between any two cities on the map = 9.7 cm.

Explanation:

• 1 cm on the map = 110 meters on the ground.
• The actual distance between cities = 9.7 x 110 meters = 1067 m = 1.067 km

Thus, the actual distance between the two cities is approximately 1.067 km.

Concept:

• Various types of materials are available to humans.
• Different materials have different properties.
• On the basis of their properties materials are used for different purposes.

Explanation:

About Bronze:

• Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, it is not an element.
• Aluminium, iron and copper are elements.
• It is reddish-brown in colour.
• It is made by melting copper and tin in a furnace.
• It is not a  good conductor of electricity.
• Tribal people have been using bronze to make many things for thousands of years.
• Bronze is heavier than aluminium.

​Thus,

A. It is an element like aluminium, iron and copper: Incorrect

B. It is made by melting copper and tin in a furnace: Correct

C. Tribal people have been using bronze for thousands of years: Correct

D. The objects made of bronze are lighter but much stronger than those made of aluminium: Incorrect

Assessment is done to determine the outcomes (what students have learned), process (the way they learned), and their approach to the learning before, during, or after the program or course.

• It is a process-oriented approach that is used to identify the areas for improvement in the learning process.
• Assessment tools or techniques are materials or processes that enable you to collect data for your chosen method of assessment.
• Such tools provide information that is used to determine whether a planned learning outcome has been achieved or not.

Key Points

The tools or techniques of assessment in EVS at the primary level:

Hence, all of the above are correct as they all help in collecting data and information about the learning outcomes of a learner.

Mathematics is the study of patterns, numbers, geometrical objects, data, and information. It deals with data analysis, integration of various fields of knowledge, involves proofs, deductive and inductive reasoning, and generalizations.

• The teaching of mathematics should be done in the way, in which a student learns the best i.e., following the child-centred approaches by engaging students actively in the learning process.

​

Key Points

A map is a flat-surfaced visual depiction of a geographic area. It aids in illustrating distinct and detailed features of a given location in terms of distance, direction, and so on. Teaching maps to the primary graders helps in developing the understanding related to cartography, i.e., to have knowledge about maps such as reading and making maps, and also to locate the places, things, and objects on maps. The individual who is good in spatial understanding will be able to remember places, images, faces, fine details, and also able to visualize things from all the different possible perspectives. 

The following are some of the most important aspects of it:

• It provides an impression of relative position and direction.
• It has the ability to perceive and analyse locations and spaces.
• It has the capability of processing the map's symbolic information.
• the ability to see spatial relationships and geographical data in 3D.
• It should be taught to elementary school students by allowing them to create a map of their surroundings so that they can correlate it with previous experiences.

​Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that facilitating learners to construct maps of their immediate surroundings by using their own symbols and focusing on the relative position and direction of things seems the most appropriate strategy for teaching maps to primary graders.

EVS is a subject which is concerned with nurturing children's curiosity about the natural environment.

Key Points

Important aspects of EVS teaching at primary level:

• connecting learners to the natural and socio-cultural environment
• exploring their surroundings and getting connected.
• developing awareness about environmental and social issues.
• solving environmental issues inclusively by exposing the natural world.
• nurturing the curiosity and creativity particularly with the natural environment.
• locating and comprehending relationships between the natural, social and cultural environment.

Hence, we conclude that the most important aspect of EVS teaching at primary level is to connect learners to the natural and socio-cultural environment

Inquiry-based approach: It emphasizes to connect the child with their own experiences by posing questions and making decisions in the search of new understanding.

Key Points Hands-on learning: It emphasizes the child's effective involvement in the learning process rather simply listening to the teacher's lecture. It promotes learning by doing and active learning.

The above-mentioned techniques should be promoted since:

• It develops the learner's ability to discover and explore.
• It emphasizes the use of learner's five sense organs in learning.
• It requires the learner's involvement mentally, physically and intellectually.
• It includes inferring, observing, predicting, classifying, questioning, measuring, analyzing, and interpreting.

Hence, we conclude that inferring, observing and predicting are the process skills which are the core of inquiry-based, hands-on learning, while determination is not one of them.

Concept:

• Every region follows different agricultural practice.
• Depending on the type of crop and scale of farming various agricultural practices are adopted.

Explanation:

About Jhoom farming:

• Jhoom farming is a type of shifting agriculture.
• It is the most common type of agricultural practice in northeast India.
• It is also called Slash and burn agriculture.
• It is a shifting cultivation practice.
• It is also known as fire-fallow cultivation.
• After cutting one crop, the land is left as it is for some years.
• Nothing is grown there.
• Forest land is cleaned and ashes are added to the soil.
• Cultivated spots/ areas are usually small.
• Short periods of crop occupation alternate with long fallow periods.
• In one farm different types of crops like maize, vegetables, chillies, rice can be grown.
• The farmer cultivates on a plot of land temporarily.
• When finding the land infertile to grow due to soil exhaustion, they move on to another plot.

​Thus,

A. After cutting one crop, the land is left as it is for some years: Correct

B. The bamboo or weeds which grow on that land are cut and burnt: Correct

C. The land is deeply ploughed before sowing the seeds: Incorrect

D. In one farm three or four different types of crops are grown: Correct

E. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are also used as per need: Incorrect

Explanation:

About tickets:

• Travelling tickets are used by people to go from one place to another.
• A travel ticket is obtained after booking a reservation.
• It gives various information about our travel, i.e. date, seat number, time of arrival etc.
• The cost of different travelling tickets is different.
• The cost of travelling ticket depends on the type of transport used, i.e. busses, trains, planes etc.
• The cost of a travelling ticket also depends on the distance on travel, i.e. regional, national or international.
• When using public transport we always have to buy tickets.

Thus,

A. The cost of travel by different means is different: Correct

B. The cost of travel depends upon the fuel used by the vehicle: Incorrect

C. We need tickets to travel by public transport from one place to another: Correct

D. Understanding the reservation process: Incorrect

Explanation:

The birds move their neck very often because, in most of the birds, the eyes are fixed and cannot move.

• Most of the birds have their eyes on either side of the head.
• Birds' eyes can focus on two different things at a time.
• When they look straight ahead, both their eyes focus on the same object.
• In most birds, eyes are fixed and cannot move.
• So birds have to turn their heads to see around.

Image: Various bird neck movement.

Additional Information

• Owl has eyes in front of its head.
• Kites, eagles and vultures can see things from a distance of eight metres what we can see from a distance of two metres.

Concept:

• All foods spoil if not stored properly.
• Different kinds of food items spoil due to different reasons.
• Some foods spoil soon, some stay good for long.

Explanation:

How to store mangoes:

• To eat mangoes round the year different items like pickle, aam papad, chutney, chikky, etc. are made.
• Using excess sugar like in aam papad, or excess salt like in pickle.
• Adding excess salt and sugar draws out moisture from the mangoes.
• In the absence of moisture, microorganisms cannot grow on it and spoil it.

Prepare juice and store in an airtight container: 

• It will stay good for some days but will spoil after that.
• Mangoes cannot be preserved till winter.

Put in a plastic bag:

• It will spoil after 1-2 days.
• Mangoes cannot be preserved till winter.

Store in a refrigerator:

• It will spoil after a week.
• Mangoes cannot be preserved till winter.

​Thus, making 'aam papad' and pickle is a good way of preserving mangoes.

The Correct Answer is: Squirrel

Concept:

• Different animals have different teeth.
• The type of teeth depends on the type of food an animal eats.
• Some are short, some are sharp.

 Key Points

Squirrel:

• Squirrel’s front teeth keep growing throughout their life.
• They have to keep gnawing on things to keep their teeth from becoming too long.

Lizard:

• Lizard's teeth are conical or blade-like.
• They use it for grabbing and holding prey.

Rat:

• Rat's incisors keep growing throughout their life which continues to grow and curve.
• They have to keep gnawing on things to keep their teeth from becoming too long.

Termite:

• The soldier termites have unique serrated teeth.
• Termites teeth are so sharp that they can eat through wood.

Thus, a Squirrel's front teeth keep on growing throughout its life.

Cows:

• Cows have short front teeth for snipping grass.
• The teeth on the sides are large and flat for chewing the grass.

Cats:

• Cats have sharp teeth for tearing and cutting meat.

Snakes:

• Snakes have sharp curved teeth, but they do not chew their prey.
• Snakes always swallow their food whole.

 Mistake Points

• The rodents have special features. their teeth grow life long.
• The rat's and squirrel's teeth too grow  lifelong
• The answer provided here is according to official answer key of CTET

Concept:

• India is an agriculturally important country.
• Two-thirds of its population is engaged in agricultural activities.
• Agriculture is a primary activity, which produces most of the food that we consume.

Explanation:

Using excessive fertilizers and pesticides:

• In commercial farming, excessive fertilizers and pesticides are used.
• This is done to obtain higher productivity.
• Excessive and imprudent use of fertilizers has led to the depletion of essential micronutrients in the soil.
• Excessive use of fertilisers and pesticides are held responsible for degrading the soils.
• Continuous use of these can turn the fields barren.

Thus, using excess fertilizers and pesticides will make the soil barren.

Key Points

Explanation:

• Kerala is actually named after the coconut tree.
• "Kera" meaning coconut tree and "Alam" meaning land so means "Land of Coconut Trees".
• Kerala is situated on the southwestern coast of India.
• Kerala's sandy soils are the best for coconut trees which results in higher productivity.
• In Kerala, interior places with fertile soils and plain regions also give good growth to coconut trees.
• Kerala has two neighbouring states Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

​

Hence, The neighbouring States of Kerala are - Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Concept:

• Different regions have different food.
• Depending on what grows easily at which place, different things are eaten at places.

Explanation:

• Goa:
• Goa is situated on the west coast of India.
• Goa has a high yield of coconut oil and sea fish.
• Sea fish cooked in coconut oil is popular in Goa.
• Jammu and Kashmir:
• Jammu and Kashmir is a state located in North India.
• Jammu and Kashmir's climate is cold.
• Mustard oil has a healing property and keeps the body warm.
• Fish cooked in mustard oil is popular in Jammu and Kashmir.
• Bihar:
• Bihar is situated in the eastern part of India.
• It lies on the banks of the river Ganga.
• The staple food of Bihar generally consists of roti, dal, chawal, sabzi, and achar.
• 'Litti chokha' is the most favourite dish of Bihar.
• Mizoram:
• It is located in the northeastern part of India.
• It is generally cool in summer and not very cold in winter.
• Mizoram food is well known for its usage of different types of meat.
• 'Bai' of Mizoram is famous as an easy vegetable stew of seasonal greens and vegetables.
• The Mizo people also like to add bamboo shoot to their food.

Thus, in Goa people like to eat sea fish cooked in coconut oil.

• Hong Kong:
• It is inspired primarily by Cantonese cuisine.
• Most of the dishes in Cantonese cuisine is based on Snake.
• Cooked snake and Snake soup are popular in Hong Kong.
• Kerela:
• They like to eat especially two things, tapioca and coconut.
• Both of these foods grow in their courtyard.
• Boiled tapioca with any curry made using coconut is popular in Kerala.

Explanation:

• Desert Oak is a tree that is found in Australia.
• It is found in the dry and arid regions of Australia
• It grows almost 10 ft tall
• It has very few leaves
• Its roots go very deep in search of water
• This water is stored in the tree trunk. Local people use a thin pipe to drink this water.

Scientific Name: Allocasuarina decaisneana 

A. Desert Oak is a tree that grows almost as tall as our classrooms, i.e., about 4 meters. - Correct

B. The roots of this tree go down nearly 30 times their height till they reach the water. - Correct.

C. Water is stored in the trunk of this tree. - Correct

D. This tree is found in Abu Dhabi. - Incorrect (In Australia)

Important Points

• Plants that grow in the desert have to withstand long dry spells of summer and extreme weather condition
• Hence their leaves stem and roots get modified to prevent loss of excess water and to store water
• Some common adaptation seen in desert plants are:
• 'they have a long root that goes deep in search of water
• they have reduced or very few leaves
• The stem is modified to store water
• Additionally, leaves may turn into spines to protect from predators

• The suspensions that hand from branches are nothing but modifies leaves in order to reduce water loss

Concept:  

• Speed = Distance/Time
• Average Speed = (Total distance covered / Total time taken)

Given: