Medieval India Guide & Practice

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1. Fundamentals & Definitions

• Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526): The era of Turkish and Afghan rule in North India, marked by constant internal conflicts among nobles and regional powers, culminating in the Lodi dynasty's defeat.
• Timurids: Rulers tracing their descent from Timur (the Central Asian conqueror). The Mughals are referred to as Timurids because Babur was a paternal descendant of Timur and a maternal descendant of Genghis Khan (Mongol).
• Rumi (Ottoman) Method of Warfare: A tactical system of battle line arrangement. It involves placing heavy artillery (cannons) and gunners in the center, protected by barricades, trenches, and carts, while utilizing flanking maneuvers to envelope the enemy.
• Tulughma: A specific military flanking maneuver used by Babur, where cavalry divisions encircle the enemy army from the flanks while artillery attacks from the center.
• Ghazi: An honorific title meaning "victorious Islamic warrior," assumed by Babur after defeating the Rajput confederacy at the Battle of Khanwa in 1527.
• Dinpanah: A capital city in Delhi founded by Humayun, which served as a symbol of his imperial legacy.
• Sher Mandal: The library building in Delhi from whose stairs Humayun fell to his death in 1556.
• Jagirdar: An imperial officer of the Mughal state assigned a jagir (a tract of land yielding revenue) in lieu of a cash salary.
• Watan Jagir: A specialized, hereditary, and non-transferable revenue assignment granted to autonomous chieftains (such as Rajput rulers) in their ancestral home territories.
• Sarkar: An intermediate administrative division during the Sur and Mughal eras, equivalent to a district.
• Pargana: A subdivision of a Sarkar, equivalent to a tehsil or sub-district.
• Subah: A primary province within the Mughal empire, administered by a governor (Subahdar).
• Wakil: The prime minister or chief executive of the Mughal court (e.g., Bairam Khan, Fath Khan).
• Khan-i-Khanan: The title ("King of Kings") awarded to the chief noble or regent of the Mughal Empire.
• Mansabdari System: The administrative framework introduced by Akbar that organized civil and military officers into ranks (mansabs), defining their salary, court status, and military obligations.
• Zat: The personal rank in the Mansabdari system that determined the status of the noble and their corresponding salary.
• Sawar: The military rank in the Mansabdari system indicating the exact number of cavalrymen (horsemen) the noble had to maintain for the state's military campaigns.
• Zabt System / Dahsala: A land revenue framework developed by Raja Todar Mal under Akbar, where the state's demand was calculated in cash based on a ten-year average of crop yields and local prices.
• Sulh-i-Kul: Akbar's state policy of "universal peace," advocating absolute religious tolerance and harmony among all communities.
• Ibadat Khana: The "House of Worship" established by Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575 for theological debates and interfaith discussions among scholars.
• Din-i-Ilahi (1582): The "Divine Faith," a syncretic ethical system introduced by Akbar blending elements from various religions.
• Peshwa: The Prime Minister or chief minister in the Deccan Sultanates (such as Ahmednagar).
• Dakhnis: Local Deccan-born Muslim nobles who historically clashed with foreign-born nobles (Afaqis or Pardesis) in the southern sultanates.
• Khutba: The Islamic sermon delivered during Friday prayers. Reading the monarch's name in the Khutba was a primary declaration of sovereignty.
• Huns: Gold coins utilized as the standard currency and tribute unit in southern India, specifically the Deccan states.
• Chhatrapati: The title of sovereign king assumed by Shivaji during his formal coronation at Raigarh in 1674.
• Hindavi Swarajya: Shivaji’s concept of self-rule and independence from foreign power in the Deccan.
• Guerrilla Tactics: Irregular military strategies (hit-and-run, ambushes, geographic exploitation) used by the Maratha forces to counter the larger Mughal armies.
• Sayyid Brothers: Abdullah Khan and Husain Ali Khan, powerful 18th-century court nobles known as the "Kingmakers" due to their control over the succession of puppet emperors.
• Peacock Throne (Takht-i-Taus): The jewel-encrusted imperial throne constructed by Shah Jahan, looted by Nadir Shah of Persia in 1739.
• Kohinoor: The legendary diamond taken from the Mughal treasury by Nadir Shah.
• Balkh Campaign: A failed military campaign launched by Shah Jahan in the North-West frontier to secure control over Uzbek tribes, resulting in massive financial and human losses.
• Roshanai Sect: A military-religious sect in the North-West frontier founded by Pir Roshanai, whose son Jalala led major uprisings against Akbar.
• Iqta System: The administrative system of land-revenue allocation to military commanders (Iqtadars or Muqtis) in lieu of salary during the Delhi Sultanate period.

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2. Core Concepts & Formulas

A. Dynastic Timelines & Rulers

The transition from the Delhi Sultanate to the Mughal Empire involved five dynasties of the Sultanate, followed by the Sur Dynasty (Second Afghan Empire) and the Mughal Empire.

Delhi Sultanate Dynasties (1206–1526)

Mughal and Sur Dynasty Rulers (1526–1857)

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B. Major Battles of the Mughal Empire and Afghan Rivals

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C. Administrative Structures & Rules

1. The Mansabdari System

Introduced by Akbar to structure the civil and military administration:

• Dual Rank System: $$\text{Mansab} = \text{Zat} + \text{Sawar}$$
  • Zat: Determined the noble's personal salary and position in the Mughal court.
  • Sawar: Indicated the exact number of cavalrymen (horsemen) the noble had to maintain.
• Watan Jagir: Autonomous chieftains (such as Rajputs) kept their ancestral lands as hereditary and non-transferable jagirs, while receiving additional transferable jagirs elsewhere based on their mansab rank.

2. The Zabt / Dahsala System

Developed by Akbar's finance minister, Raja Todar Mal, to calculate land revenue:

• The Formula: $$\text{Average Yield} = \frac{\sum \text{Yields of the past 10 years}}{10}$$ $$\text{Average Price} = \frac{\sum \text{Market Prices of the past 10 years}}{10}$$ $$\text{State Share} = \frac{1}{3} \times (\text{Average Yield} \times \text{Average Price})$$
• The revenue was calculated and demanded in cash rather than in kind.
• Land was systematically measured using the standardized jarib (bamboo poles joined by iron rings).

3. Administrative Hierarchy (Sur and Mughal Empire)

The administrative hierarchy was structured as follows:

$$\text{Imperial Capital (Emperor / Diwan / Wakil)} \rightarrow \text{Subah (Subahdar / Governor)} \rightarrow \text{Sarkar (Faujdar / Amalguzar)} \rightarrow \text{Pargana (Shiqdar / Amil)} \rightarrow \text{Village (Muqaddam / Patwari)}$$

• Subah (Province): Administered by the Subahdar (executive/cavalry governor) and the Diwan (revenue administrator).
• Sarkar (District): Managed by the Faujdar (law and order) and the Amalguzar (revenue collector).
• Pargana (Sub-district): Managed by the Shiqdar (executive) and the Amil (revenue collector).
• Village: Supervised by the Muqaddam (headman) and Patwari (village accountant).

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D. Foreign & Regional Policies

1. Rajput Policy: Comparison of Akbar vs. Aurangzeb

2. Deccan Policy: Chronological Progression

• Akbar: Demanded vassalage. Conquered Ahmednagar (ceded Berar) and captured Asirgarh and Burhanpur. Incorporated southern chieftains into the Mansabdari system.
• Jahangir: Maintained Akbar's gains but faced resistance from Malik Ambar (Ahmednagar's Peshwa), who used guerrilla tactics to reclaim Balaghat.
• Shah Jahan: Pursued a policy of isolation. Annexed Ahmednagar (1636). Signed the Treaties of 1636 with Bijapur (Adil Shah paid 20 lakh indemnity) and Golconda (paid tribute in huns and removed the Shah of Iran's name from the Khutba).
• Aurangzeb:
  • Phase 1 (1658–1668): Attempted to capture border forts (Bidar, Kalyani) and secure Deccan cooperation against the Marathas.
  • Phase 2 (1668–1684): Shifted to containment due to the rise of Shivaji and Golconda alliances.
  • Phase 3 (1684–1687): Pursued outright annexation. Annexed Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687), draining imperial resources.

3. Maratha Milestones under Shivaji and Successors

• 1656: Shivaji captured the strategic principality of Javli.
• 1659: Shivaji killed the Bijapur general Afzal Khan at a diplomatic meeting.
• 1662: The Sultan of Bijapur recognized Shivaji's independence.
• 1665 (Treaty of Purandhar): Negotiated by Raja Jai Singh. Shivaji surrendered 23 out of 35 forts to the Mughals, retaining 12 (valued at 1 lakh huns annually).
• 1666: Shivaji escaped from captivity in Agra.
• 1674: Shivaji formally coronated at Raigarh; assumed the title Chhatrapati and declared Hindavi Swarajya.
• 1680: Death of Shivaji; succeeded by his son Sambhaji.
• 1689: Sambhaji was executed by Aurangzeb; Rajaram succeeded him.
• 1700–1707: Tarabai served as regent for Shivaji III, coordinating Maratha resistance.
• Post-1707: Release of Shahu led to internal conflict; Sahu emerged victorious with the aid of Balaji Vishwanath.

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Typical Exam Weightage

Delhi Sultanate and Mughal-era administrative and architectural facts recur most often.

Figures are typical ranges based on recent-year patterns, not a guarantee for any specific upcoming paper — always cross-check against the latest official syllabus and previous-year papers for Medieval India.