English Comprehension PYQs

Question) From the alternatives given below, choose the correct meaning of the idiom 'a dog's breakfast'.

The correct answer is: Something that is badly organized or very untidy.

Key Points

• The idiom 'a dog's breakfast' is an informal expression used to describe a situation, piece of work, or object that is badly handled, chaotic, or in a state of total confusion. (अव्यवस्था या गड़बड़झाला)
• Example: The project became a complete dog's breakfast after the lead designer quit halfway through.
• 'Something that is badly organized or very untidy' refers to an unorderly state where things are not in their proper places or a task has been performed poorly. (कुछ ऐसा जो बुरी तरह व्यवस्थित हो या बहुत गंदा हो)
• Example: The kitchen was a dog's breakfast after the kids tried to bake a cake by themselves.
• Thus, it is clear that the idiom perfectly matches the description of being messy or disorganized.

Therefore, the correct answer is- Something that is badly organized or very untidy.

Additional Information

Here are the other options explained along with their Hindi meanings and example sentences:

• An establishment that functions in a manner similar to a hotel but is usually a private residence (एक निजी निवास जो होटल के समान कार्य करता है): This refers to a Bed and Breakfast (B&B), which offers lodging and morning meals.
• Example: We spent our vacation at a lovely bed and breakfast in the mountains.
• A mattress filled with straw (पुआल से भरा गद्दा): This describes a palliasse, a very basic or old-fashioned type of bedding.
• Example: The travelers had to sleep on a mattress filled with straw in the barn.
• Across a wide area (विस्तृत क्षेत्र में): This refers to something that is widespread or covers a large geographical distance.
• Example: The wildfire smoke spread across a wide area, affecting several neighboring cities.

The correct answer is: Flee.

Key Points

• The word 'escape' means to break free from confinement, control, or a dangerous situation. (बचना / पलायन करना)
• Example: The prisoner managed to escape from the high-security jail last night.
• 'Flee' refers to the act of running away from a place or situation, especially because of fear or danger; it is the closest synonym to escape in the context of getting away from something. (भाग जाना / चंपत होना)
• Example: Many families were forced to flee their homes during the heavy forest fires.
• Hence, we can infer that the closest synonym of 'escape' is 'flee'.

Therefore, the correct answer is: Flee.

Additional Information

Here are the other options explained along with their Hindi meanings and example sentences:

• Capture (पकड़ना): To take into one's possession or control by force; this is the opposite of escape.
• Example: The soldiers were ordered to capture the enemy leader alive.
• Remain (बने रहना / रुकना): To stay in the same place or to continue to exist when others or other parts are gone.
• Example: Please remain in your seats until the aircraft comes to a complete stop.
• Enter (प्रवेश करना): To come or go into a place or a building.
• Example: You need a special pass to enter the restricted area of the laboratory.

The correct answer is Option(4) i.e. broadcastes.

Key Points

• The term 'broadcastes' is a misspelt word. In standard English, the plural of the noun 'broadcast' is formed by adding only an 's', resulting in 'broadcasts'. (अशुद्ध वर्तनी)
• Example: The draft of the article was flagged for containing several spelling errors, including the word 'broadcastes'.
• 'Broadcasts' refers to the transmission of programs or information by radio or television for public reception. (प्रसारण)
• Example: The radio station is famous for its insightful nightly broadcasts of world news.
• Hence, we can infer that the misspelt word among the given options is 'broadcastes'.

Therefore, the correct answer is: broadcastes.

Additional Information

Here are the other options explained along with their Hindi meanings and example sentences:

• Journalists (पत्रकार): People who collect, write, or distribute news or other current information to the public.
• Example: Investigative journalists often spend months researching a single story to uncover the truth.
• Censorship (सेंसरशिप): The suppression or prohibition of any parts of books, films, or news that are considered obscene, politically unacceptable, or a threat to security.
• Example: Many citizens were outraged by the government's decision to impose strict censorship on social media.
• Narratives (कहानियां/आख्यान): Spoken or written accounts of connected events; stories or perspectives used to describe a situation.
• Example: Different news outlets can create very different narratives about the same political event.

The correct answer is: Quintillion.

Key Points

• The word 'Quintilion' is misspelt as it lacks the second 'l' required in standard spelling. (अशुद्ध वर्तनी)
• Example: The document contained a typographical error where quintillion was written as 'quintilion'.
• 'Quintillion' is the correct spelling of the word, which refers to a very large number represented by 1 followed by 18 zeros in the US system or 30 zeros in the UK system. (शंख / दस शंख)
• Example: There are an estimated quintillion grains of sand on the Earth's beaches.
• Hence, we can infer that the misspelt word is 'Quintillion' (as it was incorrectly spelled as 'Quintilion').

Therefore, the correct answer is: Quintillion.

Additional Information

Here are the other options explained along with their Hindi meanings and example sentences:

• Querulous (चिड़चिड़ा / शिकायती): Complaining in a petulant or whining manner.
• Example: The querulous customer complained about the service continuously.
• Quotation (उद्धरण): A group of words taken from a text or speech and repeated by someone other than the original author or speaker.
• Example: The teacher asked the students to write a short essay based on the quotation.
• Quizzical (जिज्ञासु / प्रश्नात्मक): Indicating mild or amused puzzlement.
• Example: She gave him a quizzical look when he made the unusual announcement.

The correct answer is: Untrustworthy.

Key Points

• The word 'Reliable' refers to someone or something that can be trusted to work well or behave in the way that you expect. (भरोसेमंद)
• Example: It is essential to have a reliable backup system for all your digital files.
• 'Untrustworthy' refers to a person or thing that is not able to be relied on as truthful or honest; it represents the lack of reliability. (अविश्वसनीय)
• Example: He proved to be untrustworthy after he failed to keep his promises multiple times.
• Hence, we can infer that the antonym of 'Reliable' is 'Untrustworthy'.

Therefore, the correct answer is: Untrustworthy.

Additional Information

Here are the other options explained along with their Hindi meanings and example sentences:

• Steady (स्थिर): Something that is firmly fixed, supported, or balanced; not shaking or moving.
• Example: The climber maintained a steady grip on the rocks to avoid falling.
• Dependable (भरोसेमंद): A synonym for reliable; someone who is trustworthy and can be counted on.
• Example: She is a dependable assistant who manages the office efficiently.
• Trustworthy (विश्वसनीय): Another synonym for reliable; someone who is honest and can be trusted with secrets or responsibilities.
• Example: A trustworthy friend is someone you can rely on during difficult times.

The correct answer is The current in the river was too strong for swimming..

Key Points

• The word current is a homonym, meaning it shares the same spelling and pronunciation with other words but holds different definitions based on context.
• In the sentence 'The current in the river was too strong for swimming', the term functions as a noun specifically describing the physical flow or movement of water in a particular direction.
• From a hydrological perspective, a water current is the continuous, directed movement of water generated by forces such as gravity, wind (surface currents), and density differences (thermohaline circulation).
• The velocity of a river current determines its strength; if the kinetic energy of the moving water is too high, it creates a hazard for swimmers and navigation, which is the exact context provided in the correct option.

 Additional Information

• Contextual Usage of 'Current':
• Adjective (Present Time): In the other options (current edition, current affairs, current trends), the word is an adjective meaning belonging to the present time, contemporary, or most recent.
• Electric Current (Physics): This refers to the flow of electric charge (usually electrons) through a conductor. It is measured in Amperes using an ammeter.
• Air Current (Meteorology): This describes the vertical or horizontal movement of air in the atmosphere, which is a primary driver of weather patterns and climatic conditions.
• Ocean Currents: These are large-scale oceanic circulations like the Gulf Stream that transport thermal energy across the globe, significantly impacting global climates.

The correct answer is: Juxtaposition.

Key Points

• The phrase 'the state of being close together, side by side' describes a situation where two or more objects or ideas are positioned in immediate proximity to each other. (पास-पास होने की अवस्था)
• Example: In the city center, the state of being side by side of luxury hotels and small cafes is a common sight.
• 'Juxtaposition' refers to the act or an instance of placing things close together or side by side, especially for the purpose of comparison or contrast. (समीपता / पार्श्व-स्थिति)
• Example: The juxtaposition of the peaceful countryside and the chaotic city was the main theme of the documentary.
• Hence, we can infer that the one-word substitution for the given phrase is 'juxtaposition'.

Therefore, the correct answer is: Juxtaposition.

Additional Information

Here are the other options explained along with their Hindi meanings and example sentences:

• Kerfuffle (हंगामा): A commotion or fuss, especially one caused by conflicting views or a minor disagreement.
• Example: There was a bit of a kerfuffle at the meeting when the new policy was announced.
• Oxymoron (विरोधाभास): A figure of speech in which apparently contradictory terms appear in conjunction.
• Example: The phrase 'clearly confused' is a common oxymoron used to describe someone's state of mind.
• Contraposition (विपर्यय): In logic, it is the relationship between two propositions such that the second is inferred from the first by negating and swapping their terms.
• Example: The professor explained the concept of contraposition by using simple logical statements on the board.

The correct answer is He is known to be hardworking..

Key Points

• The original sentence They know that he is hardworking consists of a main clause (They know) followed by a subordinate noun clause (that he is hardworking).
• For reporting verbs like know, believe, say, or think followed by a that-clause, the passive voice can be formed using the subject of the subordinate clause as the new passive subject.
• In this transformation, the main verb know (which is in the simple present tense) is changed into the passive form is known to maintain tense consistency.
• The verb in the subordinate clause (is) is then converted into a to-infinitive (to be) to complete the construction.
• Following this rule, He becomes the subject, followed by is known and the infinitive phrase to be hardworking.
• The agent by them is typically omitted in such passive constructions because the focus is on the state of the person being described rather than who knows it.

 Additional Information

• Passive Structures for Reporting Verbs:
• It + Passive Verb: Another correct way to form the passive is It is known that he is hardworking. However, this is not provided in the options with the correct tense.
• Tense Shift Errors: Options using was known are incorrect because the original sentence uses the present tense (know). Changing the tense alters the original meaning and chronological context.
• Infinitive Forms: If the subordinate clause were in the past tense (e.g., he was hardworking), the passive would require a perfect infinitive (to have been), resulting in He is known to have been hardworking.

The correct answer is He was considered to be a genius..

Key Points

• The original sentence is in the Active Voice and follows the Simple Past Tense structure: Subject (People) + V2 (considered) + Object (him) + Object Complement (a genius).
• To convert a Simple Past Tense sentence into Passive Voice, the structure used is: Subject (the former object) + was/were + V3 (Past Participle) + Object Complement.
• The object of the active sentence, him, becomes the subject of the passive sentence in its nominative form, which is He.
• Since the new subject He is singular, the auxiliary verb was is applied, followed by the past participle form of the verb, which remains considered.
• In English grammar, verbs of opinion, belief, or perception (such as consider, believe, think, or know) often use the to be infinitive construction when converted to the passive voice to link the subject to the complement.
• The agent by people is omitted in the passive voice because it is an indefinite or generic subject, and the focus remains on the person being described.

 Additional Information

• Common Errors in Passive Conversion:
• Tense Mismatch: Changing the tense from Past to Present (e.g., using is considered) is a frequent mistake that alters the original meaning.
• Incorrect Verb Forms: Using being (continuous form) in a simple tense construction is grammatically incorrect.
• Subject-Complement Confusion: Treating the complement (a genius) as the primary object leads to awkward and incorrect phrasing like Genius was considered.

The correct answer is 'in'.

 

Key Points

• The adjective interested is typically followed by the preposition in when referring to a hobby, subject, or activity that someone enjoys.
• The phrase 'interested in something' is a standard collocation used to indicate that someone wants to give their attention to something or learn more about it.
• In the given sentence, Saikrupa expresses a liking for a specific genre of cinema, which is horror movies.
• Options 1, 2, and 3 do not grammatically pair with the word 'interested' in this context.

Therefore, the correct answer is Option 4.

 

Complete Sentence: 'Saikrupa is very much interested in horror movies.'

 

Additional Information

• Option 1: 'for' is used to indicate purpose, reason, or duration (e.g., 'This gift is for you').
• Option 2: 'at' is used to indicate a specific point, time, or proficiency (e.g., 'good at English').
• Option 3: 'on' is used to denote position on a surface or specific dates (e.g., 'on the table').

The correct answer is to increase efficiency.

Key Points

• The underlined part is replaced by the infinitive of purpose, which is the most standard grammatical construction in Modern English to express the reason or goal of an action. The to-infinitive (to + base verb) directly connects the action of ordering software to its intended result.
• Using to increase efficiency is more concise and idiomatic than the original prepositional phrase. In formal and business writing, the infinitive phrase is preferred over the for + gerund construction when describing the purpose of a specific human action or decision.
• The omission of the definite article the before efficiency is grammatically sound because efficiency is an uncountable abstract noun used here in a general sense. Referring to the general quality of being efficient does not require a specific determiner unless a particular type of efficiency was previously mentioned.

 Additional Information

• Analysis of incorrect grammatical structures:
• for increased the efficiency: This option is syntactically incorrect because a preposition like for cannot be followed by a finite verb in the past tense. Prepositions typically govern nouns, pronouns, or gerunds.
• for to increase efficiency: This is an archaic or dialectal construction known as a double purpose marker. In standard contemporary grammar, using both a preposition and an infinitive marker to indicate purpose is considered redundant and incorrect.
• Infinitive vs. Gerund: While for + gerund (for increasing) can sometimes describe the function of an object (e.g., 'a pen is for writing'), the to-infinitive is specifically used to show the intention of the subject (the chairman) performing the action.

The correct answer is Option 2.

Key Points

• The paragraph describes the sheltered and joyous life of the narrator before becoming a statue. The sequence follows a logical transition from his environment to his activities, his isolation, and finally his death.
• Sentence S1 is fixed as the opening:
• 'When I was alive and had a human heart,' answered the statue, 'I did not know what tears were, for I lived in the Palace of Sans-Souci, where sorrow is not allowed to enter.'
• Sentence D follows as it describes the narrator's daily routine within the palace mentioned in S1:
• 'In the daytime I played with my companions in the garden, and in the evening I led the dance in the Great Hall.'
• Sentence B comes next because it provides a specific physical description of the garden mentioned in the previous sentence:
• 'Round the garden ran a very lofty wall, but I never cared to ask what lay beyond it, everything about me was so beautiful.'
• Sentence A follows as it reflects on the identity and happiness the narrator felt during that period:
• 'My courtiers called me the Happy Prince, and happy indeed I was, if pleasure be happiness.'
• Sentence C is the final sentence of the jumbled set as it concludes the narrative of his human life:
• 'So, I lived, and so I died.'
• Sentence S2 is fixed at the end, contrasting his past life with his current state as a statue observing misery and ugliness.
• The correct sequence is DBAC.

Coherent paragraph after rearrangement:

'When I was alive and had a human heart,' answered the statue, 'I did not know what tears were, for I lived in the Palace of Sans-Souci, where sorrow is not allowed to enter. In the daytime I played with my companions in the garden, and in the evening I led the dance in the Great Hall. Round the garden ran a very lofty wall, but I never cared to ask what lay beyond it, everything about me was so beautiful. My courtiers called me the Happy Prince, and happy indeed I was, if pleasure be happiness. So, I lived, and so I died. And now that I am dead they have set me up here so high that I can see all the ugliness and all the misery of my city, and though my heart is made of lead yet I cannot choose but weep.'

The correct answer is Option 1.

Key Points

• The paragraph describes the mysterious disappearance of a lighthouse keeper and the subsequent need to fill his vacancy.
• Sentence S1 is fixed: It introduces the event where the lighthouse keeper in Aspinwall disappeared without a trace.
• Sentence C follows S1: It provides the immediate context of the disappearance, mentioning it happened during a storm and offering a supposition that the man was swept out by a wave.
• Sentence B follows C: It uses the phrase 'This supposition' to refer directly back to the theory proposed in sentence C, providing supporting evidence that his boat was also missing.
• Sentence D follows B: Since the man is presumed lost, it logically concludes that the position of the lighthouse keeper has now become vacant.
• Sentence A follows D: It addresses the urgency of filling the vacancy mentioned in D, citing the lighthouse's significance for vessels traveling between New York and Panama.
• Sentence S2 is fixed: It concludes the thought by explaining why navigation is dangerous in that area, mentioning that Mosquito Bay abounds in sandbars and banks.
• The correct sequence is CBDA.

Coherent paragraph after rearrangement:

'One time it happened that the lighthouse keeper in Aspinwall, not far from Panama, disappeared without a trace. Since he disappeared during a storm, it was supposed that the ill-fated man went to the very edge of the small, rocky island on which the lighthouse stood and was swept out by a wave. This supposition seemed the more likely, as his boat was not found next day in its rocky niche. The place of lighthouse keeper had become vacant. It was necessary to fill this place at the earliest moment possible, since the lighthouse had no small significance for the local movement as well as for vessels going from New York to Panama. Mosquito Bay abounds in sandbars and banks.'

The correct answer is was not without its challenges.

Key Points

• The phrase 'not without its challenges' is a standard idiomatic expression in English that employs a double negative (the adverb 'not' combined with the preposition 'without') to affirm the presence of something. In this context, it confirms that the journey was indeed difficult.
• Linguistically, this construction is used to provide rhetorical emphasis. Saying a journey was 'not without' obstacles is often more descriptive and formal than simply stating it was 'with' obstacles or 'challenging.'
• The sentence contains a qualifying clause: 'including unpredictable weather and steep terrain.' Because weather and terrain are explicitly listed as hardships, the main clause must logically acknowledge that challenges existed. Option 1 is the only choice that maintains logical consistency and syntactic correctness.
• The original underlined portion 'was not with' is grammatically incorrect in Standard English. The preposition 'with' denotes association, but when negated as 'not with,' it fails to convey the intended meaning of 'possessing' or 'experiencing' difficulties in this specific sentence structure.
• Option 3, 'was without its challenges,' would imply the journey was entirely smooth and lacked any problems, which is a factual contradiction to the details provided later in the sentence regarding the mountain terrain.

 Additional Information

• Litotes:
• This sentence structure is a classic example of litotes, a figure of speech where an affirmative is expressed by the negative of its contrary.
• It is frequently used in English literature and academic writing to create a more nuanced, understated, or sophisticated tone.
• Possessive Adjectives:
• The word 'its' functions as a possessive adjective referring back to the 'journey.' It ensures the reader understands that the challenges were an inherent part of the climb to the top of the mountain.
• In Sentence Correction, checking the antecedent of pronouns and possessives is a vital step in ensuring grammatical accuracy.

The correct answer is No improvement required.

Key Points

• The phrase 'not without merit' is a classic example of litotes, which is a figure of speech that uses understatement by negating the opposite of the intended meaning. In this context, saying a proposal is 'not without merit' is a formal way of stating that it possesses a significant degree of value or worth.
• The use of the double negative ('not' and 'without') serves to temper the praise, suggesting that while the proposal is useful, it is not perfect. This aligns perfectly with the latter part of the sentence which mentions that 'some aspects could use further refinement'.
• Grammatically, the subject-verb-complement structure is sound. The past tense verb 'was' correctly matches the singular subject 'proposal', and the prepositional phrase functions as an adjective describing the noun.
• The sentence flow remains logical and cohesive because the subordinating conjunction 'as' introduces the evidence explaining why the proposal had merit, specifically by addressing several key issues.

 Additional Information

• Litotes and Pragmatics:
• Litotes is a rhetorical strategy used to emphasize a point by stating a negative to further an affirmative claim. This is often used in academic or professional writing to maintain an objective tone.
• Other common examples include 'not uncommon' (meaning common) or 'not unhappy' (meaning satisfied).
• Vocabulary Breakdown:
• Merit: Refers to the quality of being particularly good or worthy, especially so as to deserve praise or consideration in a competitive environment.
• Refinement: The process of removing impurities or making fine adjustments to improve the clarity and effectiveness of a plan or argument.
• Conjunction 'As': In this sentence, 'as' acts as a causal link (meaning 'because'), connecting the evaluation of the proposal to the factual evidence of it addressing key issues.

The correct answer is Option 1.

 

Key Points

• The Amazon Rainforest is famously referred to as the lungs of the Earth due to its essential role in maintaining the planet's atmosphere.
• The passage explicitly states that the forest helps keep the oxygen and carbon levels in harmony.
• It performs this function by absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing life-sustaining oxygen, a process similar to the respiratory function of lungs in living organisms.
• This biological exchange is what allows the forest to act as a massive carbon sink, mitigating the effects of climate change.

Therefore, the correct answer is Option 1.

 

Additional Information

• Option 2: While the Amazon produces a significant amount of oxygen, much of it is consumed by the forest's own organisms; its primary nickname refers specifically to the gas exchange process mentioned in the text.
• Option 3: The rainforest covers parts of Brazil, Peru, Colombia, and other nations, but its size is not the reason it is compared to human lungs.
• Option 4: Although it is a large, forested area, the name lungs of the Earth is a metaphorical description of its biological function rather than its physical dimensions.

The correct answer is Option 2.

 

Key Points

• According to the passage, deforestation is a critical threat that is causing the Amazon Rainforest to shrink rapidly.
• The text explicitly lists the primary drivers of this destruction as large-scale logging, farming, and illegal mining.
• These activities result in the clearing of millions of acres every year, which leads to habitat loss and increased greenhouse gas emissions.
• Among the given choices, Large-scale logging is directly identified in the second paragraph as a major cause.

Therefore, the correct answer is Large-scale logging.

 

Excerpt from the Passage: 'Deforestation poses a serious threat to the Amazon. Large-scale logging, farming, and illegal mining rapidly shrink the forest.'

 

Additional Information

• Overpopulation: While human expansion is a global issue, the passage does not specifically cite overpopulation as the direct cause for Amazonian deforestation.
• Excessive rainfall: The Amazon is a rainforest and relies on high precipitation; rainfall is a natural feature of the biome, not a cause of forest loss.
• Natural wildfires: Although wildfires can occur, the passage focuses on human-led activities like logging and mining as the primary reasons for the forest's decline.

The correct answer is Option 3.

 

Key Points

• The second paragraph of the passage explicitly discusses the negative impacts of deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest.
• It states that the clearing of millions of acres each year results in destroying habitats and endangering indigenous communities.
• This matches Option 3, which identifies the destruction of habitats and the impact on local communities as a major consequence.
• The passage also mentions raising greenhouse gas emissions as another critical consequence of this environmental issue.

Therefore, the correct answer is Destruction of habitats and indigenous communities.

 

Quote from the Passage: 'Millions of acres are cleared each year, destroying habitats, raising greenhouse gas emissions, and endangering indigenous communities.'

 

Additional Information

• Option 1: This is incorrect because deforestation involves removing trees, which leads to a decrease in oxygen production rather than an increase.
• Option 2: This is incorrect because the passage notes that deforestation actually raises greenhouse gas emissions rather than decreasing them.
• Option 4: This is incorrect because the expansion of protected areas is mentioned as a solution or strategy to combat the problem, not as a consequence of the destruction itself.

The correct answer is Option 3.

 

Key Points

• According to the passage, several strategies are being implemented by Governments, NGOs, and indigenous peoples to solve the problem of deforestation.
• One primary strategy is the creation of protected areas which prevents the forest from being cleared for other uses.
• Another critical method is promoting sustainable land use, which ensures that human activities do not permanently damage the ecosystem.
• These efforts are also supported by strengthening logging regulations and receiving international funding and support.

Therefore, the correct answer is Option 3.

 

Additional Information

• Option 1 (Supporting more urban development): This is incorrect as urban expansion typically involves clearing land, which increases deforestation rather than preventing it.
• Option 2 (Increasing logging activities): This is incorrect because the passage identifies large-scale logging as a serious threat that rapidly shrinks the forest.
• Option 4 (Decreasing public awareness campaigns): This is incorrect as the passage highlights that awareness campaigns are crucial for teaching people worldwide about why protecting the Amazon and making sustainable choices matter.

The correct answer is Option 2.

 

Key Points

• The third paragraph of the passage details the collective efforts taken to solve the problem of deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest.
• It explicitly mentions that Governments, NGOs, and indigenous peoples (indigenous communities) are working together to create protected areas.
• The text also highlights the role of local and international groups (international organizations) in providing global support and funding.
• While mining is mentioned in the second paragraph, it is categorized as a threat (illegal mining) that causes the forest to shrink, rather than a group contributing to protection efforts.
• Therefore, Mining corporations is the group NOT mentioned as part of the conservation efforts.

Therefore, the correct answer is Mining corporations.

 

Additional Information

• Indigenous communities: These groups are directly involved in sustainable land use and protecting their ancestral habitats as mentioned in the text.
• International organizations: These are implied through the mention of international groups providing global support and funding for the Amazon.
• Governments: They are credited with strengthening logging regulations and establishing protected zones.
• Deforestation Causes: The passage identifies large-scale logging, farming, and illegal mining as the primary drivers of forest loss.