CTET Paper 2 Social Studies July 2013 (English-Hindi-Sanskrit) (Previous Year Paper)

Key Points

• The theory of multiple intelligences was first proposed by Howard Gardner in his 1983 book “Frames of Mind”, where he broadens the definition of intelligence and outlines several distinct types of intellectual competencies.
• Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that people are not born with all of the intelligence they will ever have. This theory challenged the traditional notion that there is one single type of intelligence, sometimes known as “g” for general intelligence, that only focuses on cognitive abilities.
• The theory of multiple intelligences proposes the differentiation of human intelligence into specific “modalities of intelligence”, rather than defining intelligence as a single, general ability.
• To broaden this notion of intelligence, Gardner introduced eight different types of intelligence consisting of: Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalist.

Criticism of this theory:

• The fundamental criticism of this theory is the belief by scholars that each of the seven multiple intelligences is in fact a cognitive style rather than a stand-alone construct.
• Hunt (2001) criticized Gardner’s theory on the ground that the “theory of multiple intelligences cannot even be evaluated by the canons of science until it is made specific enough to generate measurement models”.
• M. W. Eysenck (1990) remarked that “there are grounds for doubting that he has identified different intelligences rather than different abilities”.
• As Sternberg and Frensch (1990) pointed out, it seems strange to describe someone who is tone-deaf or physically uncoordinated as unintelligent.
• Other criticisms include the notion that the theory of multiple intelligences is not empirical, is incompatible with “g”, heritability, and environmental influences, and broadens the construct of intelligence so widely as to render it meaningless.

Hence, Multiple intelligence is only the 'talents' present in intelligence as a whole is a critique of theory of multiple intelligences.

Language development is a slow process through which a child learns to communicate through a language in the early childhood period. Child vocabulary starts to grow gradually.

Important Points

Chomsky theory is based on the fact that:-

• all languages contain similar structures and rules.
• children are born with an innate ability to learn the language.

Vygotsky** believed that language and thought initially have different roots but they converge during the **development process around the age of three.

Piaget believed that thought processes come before language. A child learns to think first then from that though they speak.

Skinner believed that children learn language through operant conditioning. The child receives rewards for using language in functional manner when the child realizes the communicative value of words and phrases. So language is not a stimulus in the environment.

Hence, 'language is a stimulus in the environment- B.F Skinner' is the least correct match.

Gender roles are based on certain standards set by society. When it comes to gender, there are usually two categories that the world relates to, male and female.

Key Points 

Gender stereotype:

• These are the beliefs that people have pertaining to the social roles that each gender fulfils in a culture.
• It is a belief about how males and females are supposed to act. Women are supposed to be submissive and men, on the contrary, are supposed to be more dominative.

Gender role attitudes: It ranges from traditional to egalitarian (non-traditional) wherein the traditional gender-role attitudes refers to the distinction in power between the roles of a husband and wife whereas a non-traditional gender is where the husband and wife contribute equally, both financially and in child-rearing.

Gender role strain: Gender role strain is means different for men and women. Masculine gender role strain means the men’s acceptance of violence against women. In the case of women, it means thinking, feeling and behaving in restrictive ways that are socially believed as masculine.

Gender role diagnosticity: It is the probability that a person is male or female based on gender-related identifying characteristics.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that features assigned due to social roles and not due to the biological endowment are called gender role stereotypes.

Ways to maximize learning

• Objectives then activities: As a teacher, it can be tempting to think of an activity and then base some learning around it. However, this could mean that you end up wasting time tasking your students with something that has no end goal. Instead, always start with a learning objective and then base an activity around this.
• Decrease the distractions: Distractions, in whatever form they come in can be harmful to lessons. Sometimes the teacher needs some additions to your standard approach to teaching, but all the flashy extras may end up distracting your students rather than helping them.
• Structure your lessons well: One way that one can make the most of the lesson time is to structure it as best one can. A great way to get a lesson underway is to start with an activity that is linked to the previous lesson learning. Not only does this get the students focused on working, but also encourages them to think about their previous learning
• Manage negative behaviour: One of the main causes of wasted behaviour for many schools is negative behaviour from students. There are a number of ways that one can manage this negative behaviour and it really will depend on the age of the students, as well as the students misbehaving too. Sometimes all a teacher need is to let them know that you have noticed their behaviour perhaps with non-verbal communication.

Conclusion: There are various ways to maximize the learning of the students. One of the important things is to remove the distraction from the classroom, whether it is from the teacher end or the students end. For this, a teacher should always be prepared with new teaching styles, content information, etc. But the best way to maximize learning is the awareness about the cognitive or grasping ability of the child as well as teachers' own cognitive level. Individual differences and cultural differences are common in each classroom. So these are not the hindrance in learning. Hence, option (1) is correct.

Assessment as learning focuses on students' active involvement in their own learning process. It encourages learners to reflect, self-assess, and use feedback to improve their understanding. The teacher's role is to guide students in becoming self-regulated learners.

Key Points

• Telling students to take internal feedback - This supports assessment as learning by promoting self-awareness and self-monitoring.
• Generating a safe environment for students to take chances - Creating a supportive atmosphere encourages learners to take academic risks, ask questions, and reflect, which are essential components of assessment as learning.
• Tell students to reflect on the topic taught - Reflection helps students evaluate their understanding and plan for improvement, which directly supports assessment as learning.

Hint

• Testing students as frequently as possible - This approach aligns more with assessment of learning, which emphasizes measuring performance. It does not encourage self-reflection or student-driven learning.

Hence, the practice that does not promote assessment as learning is testing students as frequently as possible.

Assessment is a process of collecting, receiving, and using data for the purpose of improvement in the learning process.

• Assessment is a systematic way of collecting information to make a judgment about student learning.
• It is integral to the teaching-learning process which helps in facilitating student learning and improving instruction.

Important Points

There are mainly two types of assessment:-

Hence, it could be concluded that when a cook tastes a food during cooking it may be akin to assessment for learning.

Differentiated instruction:

• Differentiated instruction is a teaching approach that tailors instruction to students' different learning needs.
• Differentiated instruction, also known as differentiated learning or, in education, simply, differentiation, is a framework or philosophy for effective teaching that involves providing all students within their diverse classroom community of learners a range of different avenues for understanding new information (often in the same classroom) in terms of acquiring content; processing, constructing, or making sense of ideas; and developing teaching materials and assessment measures so that all students within a classroom can learn effectively, regardless of differences in their ability.
• Students vary in culture, SES, language, gender, motivation, ability/disability, learning styles, personal interests, and more, and teachers must be aware of these varieties as they plan in accordance with the curricula. By considering varied learning needs, teachers can develop personalized instruction so that all children in the classroom can learn effectively.
• Instead of teaching the whole group in one way (like a lecture), a teacher uses a bunch of different methods. This can include teaching students in small groups or in one-on-one sessions.

Conclusion: Just as everyone has a unique fingerprint, every student has an individual learning style. Chances are, not all the students grasp a subject in the same way or share the same level of ability. Differentiated instruction is a teaching approach that tailor’s instruction to all students’ learning needs. All the students have the same learning goal. But the instruction varies based on students’ interests, preferences, strengths, and struggles. Thus differentiated instruction is not about making different groups of students or activity for undisciplined students or focus on the group that never change. It is all about different types of instruction for all students in the classroom keeping in mind their interest, readiness, attitude, etc. Hence, option (2) is correct.

Cultural and linguistic diversity is the most challenging job faced by any teacher in a globalized world. A diverse classroom is the one in which students come from a variety of cultures, status, race, abilities, etc.

Linguistic problems are faced by students who have grown up immersed in their mother-tongue and may find it difficult to learn a new language. So, the process of acquiring a new language is profoundly influenced by their mother-tongue.

Key Points

A good teacher is the one who can:

• Evaluate the influence of a student’s mother-tongue and give them the appropriate attention to be able to learn an entirely new language. This requires special training and skills on part of the teacher.
• Puts in efforts to research and reflect on how to address the problem and to identify the dominant language in a student.
• Make students to pair with other students speaking the same language as them in order to evaluate their learning levels.
• Have detailed discussions with parents regarding the languages spoken at home so that students can be helped with making connections between the language they speak and the language that they are trying to acquire.

Hence, it could be concluded that in the above-mentioned situation a teacher should evaluate students on her/his mother language to establish disability.

Learning disability is a disorder that affects people’s ability to either interpret what they see and hear or to link information from different parts of the brain. Since these limitations can show up in many forms, it is difficult to pinpoint the exact cause. Several factors affecting learning may include:

• Tobacco, alcohol and other drug use: Mother’s use of cigarettes, alcohol, other drugs during pregnancy (prenatal) can affect foetal development and have damaging impacts on the unborn child. Consumption of alcohol or drugs during the prenatal stage may lead to problems in learning, memory, or problem-solving.
• Mental retardation: During the various stages of pregnancy, the foetal brain develops from a collection of cells into a complex organ made of neurons. If any disruptions in the brain occur early, the infant may be born with widespread disabilities or even lead to mental retardation.
• Meningitis during infancy: The inflammation of tissues that line the brain and spinal cord is called meningitis. Even after recovery from this dangerous infection, it can lead to permanent disabilities in the functioning of the human brain.

A few other causes of learning difficulties include genetic abnormalities that run in the family, presence of toxins in the child’s environment, eg. Breathing lead, complications during pregnancy or delivery, etc.

Key PointsInclusive school

• Inclusion in education refers to a model wherein students with special needs spend most or all of their time with non-special needs students.
• Inclusive school means that all students attend and are welcomed by their neighborhood schools in age-appropriate, regular classes and are supported to learn, contribute and participate in all aspects of the life of the school.
• Inclusive education is about ensuring access to quality education for all students by effectively meeting their diverse needs in a way that is responsive, accepting, respectful and supportive. Students participate in the education program in a common learning environment with support to diminish and remove barriers and obstacles that may lead to exclusion.
• An inclusive belief that all children can learn and reach their full potential given opportunity, effective teaching, and appropriate resources. Programs will be offered to best meet the individual needs of each child and student within the school community.
• Instead of pulling children out of the classroom to offer them specialized instruction, in an inclusive classroom special education teachers come into the classroom. This allows for general education teachers and specialists to work together in the same learning environment, benefiting all students, who are offered additional resources and support.

Conclusion: Education is everyone's right. Awareness and support by the school community are essential to successful inclusion. Diversity must be valued in order for inclusion to be successful. It is based on the understanding that all children and families are valued equally and deserve access to the same opportunities. In inclusion, it is believed that all students can learn irrespective of their disability and for that, a learning environment is created with the help of a team of teachers where such strategies are formulated that can cater to the need of every child. Inclusion does not believe in segregation or exclusion. Hence, option (3) is correct.

Exceptional children are those who deviate from the normal population and need special education services to meet their needs. It includes children who are gifted, backward, creative, learning disabled, etc.

• A gifted child is one who displays consistently remarkable performance in various physical or cognitive aspects and exhibits superiority in general intelligence levels.

Key Points

Characteristics of Gifted Child:

• Easy retention of facts.
• High intellectual curiosity.
• Unusual alertness, even in infancy.
• High speed in processing information.
• Early development of a sense of time.
• Advanced logical and creative thinking: creative thinking is labeled in psychology as divergent thinking.
• Excellent memory and novelty in expression.
• Curiosity, creativity, and independence in thought.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that Gifted students are divergent thinkers

Additional Information

Hint

Extroversion: Extroversion is a personality type of an individual who is energized by the company of others in comparison to an introvert who prefers to be by themselves most of the time. It is not necessary that an individual exhibiting convergent thinking is an extroverted person.

Sigma value in Normal Distribution Curve

• The empirical rule also referred to as the three-sigma rule or 68-95-99.7 rule, is a statistical rule which states that for a normal distribution, almost all observed data will fall within three standard deviations (denoted by σ) of the mean or average.
• One standard deviation, or one sigma, plotted above or below the average value on that normal distribution curve, would define a region that includes 68 percent of all the data points. Two sigmas above or below would include about 95 percent of the data, and three sigmas would include 99.7 percent.
• In particular, the empirical rule predicts that 68% of observations falls within the first standard deviation (µ ± σ), 95% within the first two standard deviations (µ ± 2σ), and 99.7% within the first three standard deviations (µ ± 3σ).
• The empirical rule is also used as a rough way to test a distribution's "normality". If too many data points fall outside the three standard deviation boundaries, this suggests that the distribution is not normal and maybe skewed or follow some other distribution.
• The empirical rule is also known as the three-sigma rule, as "three-sigma" refers to a statistical distribution of data within three standard deviations from the mean on a normal distribution (bell curve), as indicated by the figure below.

Conclusion: The empirical rule is beneficial because it serves as a means of forecasting data. This is especially true when it comes to large datasets and those where variables are unknown. Since in the given data the child is highly intelligent, highly motivated, and highly creative. So the child will fall after 3 sigmas. Hence, option  (3) is correct.

Children centered activity

• The ideas behind child-centered education date back to the 19th century. Back then, kindergarten was believed to be “a garden for children” where kids could learn at their own pace. Children-centered education emphasizes the importance of group work. This is done by encouraging students to collaborate on activities that broaden their minds. This approach considers the act of play as a type of work or lesson. When children play, they consistently learn. They discover how to plan, ask questions, and experiment.
• Child-centered education in today’s world is based on the thinking that students must be encouraged to learn at their own pace. Their study exercises should be tailored in accordance with their specific needs and with an inclination towards their interests.
• The very core of learning centered around children is to help the child achieve holistic development. It includes the development of physical capabilities along with intellectual abilities, cognitive or mental abilities, emotional abilities, and social skills. Child-centered teachers engage in an “active learning” process to help the child develop the knowledge and skills needed in all areas.
• According to many studies, play-acts as a medium of learning for children from a very young age.  It stimulates early brain development. It allows children to create and imagine, which is an important aspect of child-centered education.  Play promotes healthy development and critical thinking skills and reinforces memory.

Conclusion: Playing also provides opportunities for children to learn social interaction. When children play together they learn to cooperate, follow rules, develop self-control, and generally get along with other people. All the classroom activity and classwork that does not please the child, they forget it easily and even don't try to recall it. But the things that interest them and are useful for them, they recall that. It means children learn faster when they are involved in activities that seem to be useful in real life. Hence, option (4) is correct.

CBSE Curriculum

The curriculum refers to the lessons and educational content to be taught to a learner in a school. In empirical terms, it may be regarded as the sum total of a planned set of educational experiences provided to a learner by a school. It encompasses general objectives of learning, competencies to be attained, courses of study, subject-wise learning outcomes and content, pedagogical practices, and assessment guidelines. The curriculum provided by CBSE is based on National Curriculum Framework-2005 and seeks to provide opportunities for students to achieve excellence in learning.

Integrating all areas of learning:

• According to CBSE, children should get opportunities to think laterally, critically, identify opportunities, challenge their potential and be open to new ideas.
• Children should be engaged in practices that promote physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development and wellbeing, connect different areas of knowledge, application, and values with their own lives and the world around them.
• The holistic nature of human learning and knowledge should be brought forth while transacting the curriculum to make them good citizens who can contribute to making the world a happy place.

Importance of group activity

• Group projects can help students develop a host of skills that are increasingly important in the professional world.
• Positive group experiences, moreover, have been shown to contribute to student learning, retention, and overall success.
• Properly structured, group projects can reinforce skills that are relevant to both group and individual work, including the ability to, break complex tasks into parts and steps, plan and manage time, develop stronger communication skills.
• Group projects can also help students develop skills specific to collaborative efforts, allowing students to, tackle more complex problems than they could on their own, delegate roles and responsibilities, share diverse perspectives, pool knowledge, and skills.

Conclusion: According to the new curriculum of CBSE, importance is given to the holistic development of the child. Apart from cognitive development, emotional, ethical, and spiritual development should also be taken into consideration. For this CBSE has prescribed group activity over individual activity, to overcome the burden of individual competition that is prevalent in learning strategy. CBSE, as a system values children above monetary funds, teacher's work pressure, and the schedule of the schools. So, we can conclude that group activity has been prescribed by CBSE to reduce the emotion of individual competition and hence to boost the mental health of the students. Hence, option (1) is correct.

Behavior Modeling theory

• In social learning theory, behavior modeling is the precise demonstration of the desired behavior. According to the theory, we learn not only by doing but by watching what others do.
• Albert Bandura created psychology Modeling which is a social approach that exaggerates how important it is to be aware of attitudes and the result of emotional responses. Modeling focuses on learning by observing others. It is used to uncover evolved behavior.
• This psychology is an emphasis on the learning that takes place in social situations and how people obtain behaviors from others through imitation. The people that are being observed are called the "models." Children are surrounded by these models which is where they learn much of their behavior.
• Children pay attention to this and subconsciously imitate the behavior. Whether or not this is relevant to them and their gender, they will continue to imitate it because it was learned.
• Modeling works by observing designated people and learning how to act by watching their physical and emotional behavior. The observer will pay attention to the features of the model. They must be attentive to the model's characteristics.

Points to remember

• E.L.Thorndike: Thorndike founded the theory of connectionism. This learning theory represents the original Stimuli-Response framework of behavioral psychology, which states that learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses.
• J.B.Watson: Behaviorism, according to Watson, was the science of observable behavior. Within behaviorism, Watson specialized in child development, arguing that a child's environment is the factor that shapes behaviors over their genetic makeup or natural temperament.
• Jean Piaget: Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive processes and abilities

Conclusion: Modeling or social learning is the process of understanding models and using social media so that the learning can be enhanced further. The goal of modeling is to learn through observing these people and understand that a mental state has everything to do with the end result of a circumstance. It aims to teach students that just because something has been learned it doesn't mean that it will actually change the given behavior. This concept of social learning was proposed by Albert Bandura. Hence, option (3) is correct.

Keywords:

• Simulation: A simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time. Simulations require the use of models, the model represents the key characteristics or behaviors of the selected system or process, whereas the simulation represents the evolution of the model over time. Simulation can be used to show the eventual real effects of alternative conditions and courses of action. Simulation is also used when the real system cannot be engaged, because it may not be accessible, or it may be dangerous or unacceptable to engage, or it is being designed but not yet built, or it may simply not exist.
• Social learning: Social learning is defined as learning through the observation of other people's behaviors. It is a process of social change in which people learn from each other in ways that can benefit wider social-ecological systems.
• Generalization: Generalization, in psychology, is the tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli. For example, a dog conditioned to salivate to a tone of a particular pitch and loudness will also salivate with considerable regularity in response to tones of higher and lower pitch.

Conclusion: Simulation, social learning, and generalization are similar concepts, in which imitation is done in different situations. In the simulation, imitation of real-world activity is done by the use of some models, in social learning imitation of behavior is done by observing others, and in generalization, the response is given in the same way to different but similar stimuli. Here, the child is learning by observing the models in the fashion show, which is a kind of social learning. Hence, option (3) is correct.

Working with students who make too much error

• Every individual is unique with different IQ levels. Some students have the capability of grabbing fast and memorize for a long. Others have less picking capacity.
• Teachers and professors are supposed to take care of each and everybody as per their specific needs. Weak students, slow learners, or error-making children require extra attention. Punishing a weak student won’t provide the necessary solution.
• The more we think about a particular student’s flaws and strengths, the more we will be able to guide him/her in the right way. Understand the core problem.
• Scolding and harsh punishment may discourage such children. He may get scared of sharing his problems. Therefore, find the vulnerable students’ strength and utter encouraging words for him/her. Confidence is the keyword. It will make him/her feel his worth and importance.
• Make a proper timetable for the error-making students. Students are not matured. They make mistakes by not following the goal to study well and earn good grades. Teachers can help them in dividing the given time into various slots for completing each topic, revise and give exams. Doing the appropriate thing at the proper time can achieve the goal.
• Pleasant and polite behavior with individual care can boost confidence and willpower, and the not-so-good students can come up with excellent grades in the future.

Conclusion: The most important thing for a teacher while dealing with students who make too much error is, to be patient. If such children will be given proper guidance, care, and practice, then their error counting can be easily reduced. If such students will not be taken proper care of and left on their own or made to stand outside the classroom or even complaint to the principal will not reduce their error mistake but it will increase with time. Hence, option (1) is correct.

Anxiety: Anxiety is a feeling of fear, dread, and uneasiness. It might cause to sweat, feel restless and tense, and have a rapid heartbeat. It can be a normal reaction to stress.

Managing anxiety during exam

Many students freeze during exams and get depressed. Here are a few strategies to reduce examination pressure:

• Maintain a healthy life: Continue to get adequate sleep, exercise, and healthy food during exam time. Avoid substances that increase anxiety:  caffeine, sugar, nicotine, and cannabis.
• Get accurate information: Know what to expect when you arrive at the exam – format of questions, what material the exam will cover, and how much it is worth, etc.
• Study effectively: Spread your studying over the whole term rather than “cramming.”  Feeling that you don’t have enough time to cover everything increases anxiety. Reduce anxiety by being well prepared.
• Prepare to write the exam: Think about what commonly distracts you during exams (e.g.: frequent clock-watching, noise from other students, etc.) and develop strategies in advance for dealing with these distractions.
• Adjust your attitude: Maintain an attitude of doing the best you can under the circumstances, rather than requiring perfection from yourself.

Conclusion: Anxiety can be normal in stressful situations such as public speaking or taking a test. Anxiety is only an indicator of underlying disease when feelings become excessive, all-consuming, and interfere with daily living. It can easily be reduced by proper strategy. Too much thinking about the problem causes more stress. Hence, option (2) is the correct explanation to the question.

Benjamin Bloom's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models that refers to the classification of educational learning objectives. In the taxonomy, Bloom identified three domains of learning which include cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.

These three domains have been divided in a way that proceeds from the simplest process to the complex.

• Cognitive domains: In this domain, a child deals with knowledge and hence, learns to create, evaluate, analyze, etc.
• Psychomotor domains: It is concerned with acquiring skills that require the integration of mental and physical movements.
• Affective domains: It includes how we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, etc.

The work of preparing questions is related to the 'cognitive domain' which involves mental skills that are categorized into six levels of learning that serve in the development of intellectual skills and acquisition power. 

The cognitive domains as per Bloom's taxonomy:

• Remember: Retrieving the relevant knowledge from long-term memory.
• Understand: Construct meaning from instructional messages, including oral, written, and graphic communication.
• Application: Carry out or use a procedure in a given situation.
• Analysis: Break material into its constituent parts and determine how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose.
• Evaluation: Make judgments based on criteria or standards.
• Create: Put elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure.

Hence, we can conclude that Bloom's taxonomy is a hierarchical organization of cognitive objectives.

The goal setting is very vital to enhance the performance of any individual and organization. Goal setting is the process of identifying something that you want to accomplish and establishing measurable goals and timeframes. The goals were divided into three types or groups (Elliot and McGregor (2001):

• Mastery goals
• Performance-approach goals
• Performance-avoidance goals

A, B, and C are three students studying English. 'A' finds it interesting and thinks it will be helpful for her in the future. 'B' studies English as she wants to secure the first rank in the class. 'C' studies it as she is primarily concerned to secure passing grades. A is focused on mastery goals, B focusing the performance goal, and C  focusing on the performance-avoidance goals.

Key Points

Let's understand these three goals in brief

• Mastery goal: A mastery goal is a goal someone sets to accomplish or master something such as “I will score higher in this event next time.”
• Performance-approach goals: A performance-approach goal is a goal where someone tries to do better than his or her peers. This type of goal could be a goal to look better by losing 5 pounds or getting a better performance review.
• Performance-avoidance goals: A performance-avoidance goal is a goal where someone tries to avoid doing worse than their peers such as a goal to avoid negative feedback.

Hence, we can conclude that in the above situation, the goals of A, B, and C respectively are Mastery, Performance, Performance Avoidance.

Maslow’s Hierarchical Theory of Motivation:

• This theory was developed by Abraham H Maslow, an American Psychologist who suggested that individual needs exist in a hierarchy consisting of physiological needs, security needs, belongingness needs, esteem needs, and self-actualisation needs.
• The bottom-level needs such as the physiological and security needs must be met before top-level needs such as belongingness, esteem, and self-actualisation can be motivational.

Key Points

• According to Abraham Maslow, self-actualization “refers to man’s desire for self-fulfilment, namely, to the tendency for him to become actualised in what he is potential. This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming”.
• The excellent life, according to Maslow, is one that leads to self-actualization, which is the pinnacle need. When you maximise your potential and do the best you're capable of, you've achieved self-actualization. Captain Vikram Batra, for example, who died fighting in the Kargil War while defending his country, exemplifies self-actualization.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that Captain Vikram Batra might have achieved self-actualisation.

Additional Information

Extinction of response:

 In psychology, extinction refers to the gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing. In other words, the conditioned behavior eventually stops. 

Cause of extinction:

In classical conditioning, when a conditioned stimulus is presented alone without an unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will eventually cease.

In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when a response is no longer reinforced following a discriminative stimulus.

• Continuous reinforcement: Continuous reinforcement is a method of reinforcing behavior in an effort to increase or decrease a particular behavior's frequency. It is part of a method of learning known as operant conditioning. In continuous schedules, reinforcement is provided every single time after the desired behavior. We have come to expect our behavior to be reinforced every time it is performed and quickly grow discouraged if it is not.
• Partial reinforcement: Unlike continuous schedules, partial schedules only reinforce the desired behavior occasionally rather than all the time. This leads to slower learning since it is initially more difficult to make the association between behavior and reinforcement. However, partial schedules also produce behavior that is more resistant to extinction.

Conclusion: Reinforcement and punishment are principles of operant conditioning that increase or decrease the likelihood of a behavior. Reinforcement and punishment are principles that are used in operant conditioning. Punishment is any consequence or outcome that decreases the likelihood of a behavioral response. Extinction, in operant conditioning, refers to when a reinforced behavior is extinguished entirely. This occurs at some point after reinforcement stops; the speed at which this happens depends on the reinforcement schedule. Partial reinforcement produces behavior more resistant to extinction. Hence, option (1) is correct.

Mastery Orientation:

• Mastery orientation is defined as having the goal of learning and mastering the task according to self-set standards. The learner is focused on developing new skills, improving, and acquiring additional knowledge.
• Mastery-orientated students find satisfaction with the work and are not influenced by external performance indicators such as grades. Students who have mastery goals tend to engage in activities that will increase their knowledge. They pay more attention, are more likely to process information at a higher level, and are not afraid to ask for help.
• Mastery orientation is described as a focus on learning and improvement. Mastery orientation focuses on learning, not grades; improvement, not appearances; competency, not competition. This person wants to understand and grow, not just prove how smart he or she is.
• Students who are more mastery motivated see learning as incremental. They believe abilities can be improved with practice and that they have control over their learning, These students exhibit academic behaviors that positively impact their learning successes. These behaviors include persevering through difficult tasks and using feedback to improve their performance.
• In mastery orientation, classroom emphasis is not on the outcome, but on the process and the progress. Students are recognized for improved performance and feedback is geared toward improvement. Reward systems are less extrinsic and more intrinsic.
• A systematic classroom program for influencing students to adopt a mastery goal mindset is TARGET. TARGET is concerned with task, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation, and time

Conclusion: Students’ motivational goal orientation is important to their successes as students as well as in the workplace. Students who adopt mastery goals with the growth mindset are more likely to develop a love for learning and that intrinsic motivation to learn is important to students’ academic growth – including their successful acquisition of skills. Teachers’ own beliefs, the feedback they choose to use, the time they give to students to complete tasks, the choices of tasks they give students, and the credence they give to students’ thoughts about learning experiences all play a role in shaping a students’ mindset toward learning. So, for mastery orientation, focussing on a student's individual effort is more important than comparing him with others, assigning a task, or unexpected test conduction. Hence, option (1) is correct.

The term “development” is generally used to refer to the dynamic process by which an individual grows and changes throughout its lifespan. It is often thought of as the process of qualitative change taking place from conception to death.

Key Points

Social Development: Social development refers to the overall transformation of individuals and society, which may enable every person to achieve moral, social physical, and material well-being. Egalitarian development is a desired goal, but it remains only an ‘ideal’. 

• It refers to the ability of the child to establish relationships with persons in his/her environment.
• As an infant, strong ties are established between the child and his/her caretaker, generally mother, father or family members. It may be mentioned that the quality of the relationship between parents and the child determines his/her behaviour later in life as an adult.
• As the child grows older, relationships with peers and visitors in the family, are established. By the age of two, group behaviour among children begins.
• By interaction with the members of his/her group, the child develops an image about himself/ herself (self-concept).

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that 'Social Development - Environment' is correctly matched.

Additional Information

• Physical development refers to the changes in size, structure and proportion of the body that take place from the time of conception. Bodily growth occurs through approximately the first 20 years of life in humans. Growth is more rapid and more likely to show spurts during infancy, early childhood and adolescence than during middle childhood. The environment is not a prominent factor that affects physical development.
• Cognitive development refers to the growth and change in the mental capacity that begins in infancy and reaches maturity in adolescence. According to Piaget, Cognitive development is related to maturation via stages sensory-motor, pre-operational, concrete operational and formal operation. Ascending order for Cognitive development is sensory-motor >> pre-operational >> concrete operational >> formal operation.

Emotionally and socially fit students:

• Display self-control: Emotionally and socially fit students are able to manage their anger as well as joy. In adverse situations, they remain calm and controlled and in a happy situation, they will share their happiness with others.
• Express feeling in words: Whatever they feel for others or whatever is the situation, such kids try to express themselves openly.
• Take pride in accomplishment: In every accomplishment, whether it is success or failure, they accept this with pride without feeling jealous or competitive with others.
• Ask for help when needed: In need without any doubt, they will ask for help from their peers, teachers, and parents. Instead of hiding any adverse situation, such kids like to share with others and believe in getting their help.
• Shows affection to familiar people: They love the people around them. Those people may be their parents, family members, peers, teachers, etc.
• Aware of others' feeling: They always respect the feelings of others. They will neither shy away from expressing themselves nor do they disrespect others' feelings.

Conclusion: A socially and emotionally healthy child will always respect others, have self-control, takes pride in his/her accomplishment, and love all those people whom they know. Hence, option (4) is not the characteristic of a socially and emotionally healthy child.

Environmental factors contribute significantly to the effective teaching and learning experience of an individual. A teacher should be able to manage the learning environment in such a way so that each child can learn effectively.

Important Points

There has been a steady increase in students' average performance on IQ tests in the last few decades, it shows the environment brings variations in the development.

Key Points

A learning environment could be managed in three ways:

• Self-directed learning: It occurs when an individual takes responsibility for his/her learning. The primary responsibility of the planning, executing, and evaluating a learning experience is on the individual's shoulder.
• Collaborative learning: Students working together in a group is known as a collaborative or cooperative learning practice. For some students, learning can be made more effective by engaging them in group activities rather than learning individually.
• Learning-style preference: It includes cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that influence the way a learner interacts with the learning environment. A teacher has to ensure a considerable variety in the teaching methodologies to ensure optimum levels of learning in each student.

Hence, we conclude that the above statement supports the role of the environment in the development of a child.

Socialization is known as the process of inducting the individual into the social world. It is the process through which a person, from birth through death, is taught the norms, customs, values, and roles of the society in which they live It is the means by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary to perform as functioning members of their society.

Key Points The role of socialization:

• Socialization prepares people for social life by teaching them a group’s shared norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors.
• The role of socialization is to acquaint individuals with the norms of a given social group or society.  It prepares individuals to participate in a group by illustrating the expectations of that group.

Goals of socialization:

• First, socialization teaches impulse control and helps individuals develop a conscience.
• Second, socialization teaches individuals how to prepare for and perform certain social roles—occupational roles, gender roles, and the roles of institutions such as marriage and parenthood.
• Third, socialization cultivates shared sources of meaning and value. Through socialization, people learn to identify what is important and valued within a particular culture.

Conclusion: The term “socialization” refers to a general process, but socialization always takes place in specific contexts. Socialization is culturally specific: people in different cultures are socialized differently, hold different beliefs and values, and behave in different ways. The goals of socialization are to teach us to control biological impulses as children, to develop a conscience that fits with the norms of society, to teach and develop meaning in social life (what is important and valued), and to prepare us for various social roles and how we will perform them. So, from this, we conclude that socialization helps to shape the personality of the individual also. Hence, option (2) is correct.

Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, belongs to the cognitive school of psychology, is famous for his work on child development. He strongly believed that children are little scientist and they actively construct their understanding of the world.

This task is based on the principle of Conservation. This principle says that even if there is a change in the appearance of the object, its characteristics remain the same.

• As per the situation given in the question, the students are having the difficulty in dealing with decentring because they are unable to decentre or consider more than one aspect at the same time. They are only focussing on the height of the water level and only focus on one dimension/aspect at one time
• The concepts like decentring and reversibility the child developed in the third stage of Piaget cognitive development i.e. Concrete Operational stage, where a child age 7-12 shows increased use of logic.

Key Points

The theory is categorized into four stages as explained below:

Hence, we conclude that the above situation showing the students have difficulty in dealing with​ the decentring process.

Lawrence Kohlberg, an American psychologist, has propounded the 'Theory of Moral Development'. He has made a systematic study of moral development in his theory that is categorized into 3 levels and 6 stages.

Key Points

Post-conventional level

• At this stage right actions tend to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society.
• Apart from what is constitutional and democratically agreed upon the right is a matter of personal values.
• Values act as a guiding force that defines the right action based on one’s own conscience.
• Right is defined by the decision of the conscience in accordance with self-chosen ethical principles appealing logical comprehensiveness, universality and consistency.
• Universal and abstract moral values including equality, respect, etc. guide one's behaviour.
• Personality development is highly governed by ethical-moral thinking and internal moral principles.
• Karnail Singh does not pay income tax despite legal procedures and expenses. He thinks that he cannot support a corrupt government that spends millions of rupees in building unnecessary dams. He is probably in a post-conventional stage of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development because it shows a guiding force that defines the right action based on one’s own conscience.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that Kamal Singh is probably in post-conventional stage of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.

Important Points

Refer to the table to be familiar with all the levels of Kohlberg's theory:

Key Points

Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence is a cognitive-contextual theory that defines intelligence as "the ability to adapt to, shape, and select environments." It proposes that there are three types of intelligence: analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence.

• Analytical intelligence is the ability to analyze information, solve problems, and make decisions.
• Creative intelligence is the ability to generate new ideas, solve problems in novel ways, and adapt to change.
• Practical intelligence is the ability to use knowledge and skills in everyday situations.

The triarchic theory of intelligence also includes three meta-components: metacognition, executive control, and knowledge acquisition. Metacognition is the ability to think about one's own thinking. Executive control is the ability to plan, organize, and execute tasks. Knowledge acquisition is the ability to learn new information and skills.

The triarchic theory of intelligence is a comprehensive theory that incorporates both the mental processes involved in intelligence and the varied forms that intelligence can take. It is one of the most widely cited theories of intelligence in the field of psychology.

Therefore, the only theory that incorporates the mental processes involved in intelligence and the varied forms that intelligence can take is Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence. So the answer is (2).

• As the Mauryan empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor.
• This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area.
• Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course, the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers.
• There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres.
• Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute.
• For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute.

Maurya Empire-

• The Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya. He reigned from 321-297 BCE.
• Bindusara was the second emperor of the Mauryan Empire.
• He was the son of Chandragupta Maurya. He reigned from 297-273 BCE
• Ashoka, the most famous ruler was the son of Bindusara. He succeeded his father, Bindusara.
• He reigned from 273-232 BCE.
• Brihadratha was the last ruler of the Maurya dynasty.
• He reigned from 187-180 BCE. He was killed by Pushyamitra Shunga who then established the Shunga dynasty.

• The amphora used in trade is a terracotta vessel characterized by its two carrying handles (from whence the name) and narrow neck. The pointed foot allowed them to be stored upright, either by being stacked together or positioned in sand or soft ground. The replacement of amphorae, which were airtight, by wooden barrels in the second century AD meant that vintage wines would not reappear until the seventeenth century, with the development of the glass bottle and cork.
• Amphora pots were generally used as storing and transporting vessels for olives, cereal, oil, and wine. The height of these pots varied from large geometric vases of 5 feet to smaller ones around 8 inches, also called amphoriskoi.
• The wine Amphora had a standard measurement for 39 liters or 41 quarts of liquid, these were specially painted to be used as decanters and were given as prizes. The size of the vessels was standardized to enable it to be carried by one or two people with the utmost ease.
• There are two basic types of amphora; the neck amphora, which has a shoulder that joins the neck sharply, and belly amphora that has a suave curve joining the neck to the foot. These shapes were gradually developed to increase the functionality of the pots. With time, these pots became taller and slimmer to facilitate ease of packing and transporting.
• With such distinctive pot styles came a plethora of techniques that the Greeks incorporated to achieve stability and strength in the structure. These unique vase shapes consisted of a couple of horizontal sections that were made separately on the pottery wheel and later attached using the score and slip method. The entire body of the vessel was compiled together along with the handle to achieve a sturdy structure.
• Many Amphorae that were used for transportation were stamped before firing. These seals had the place of origin (pottery workshop), batch number, the monogram of the manufacturer, and regional symbols embossed on it. In the case of wine, the age of good wine was marked on the containers, and drink-by-date for cheap wines were mentioned.

• Pepper from Malabar has always been very important in world history. South India was famous from India to Europe for gold, precious gems, and spices, especially pepper. Pepper was so valuable that it was called 'black gold' in the Roman Empire.
• Over 2000 years ago, in the time of Julius Caesar, the Roman Empire was one of the most powerful empires in the world.
• The Romans loved the spice and bought it from here, in Southern India. They paid for it in gold, which is why the spice was also called Black Gold.
• Many Romans complained that most of their money was being spent on this Indian spice.

New Social and Political Groups

• The study of the thousand years between 700 and 1750 is a huge challenge to historians largely because of the scale and variety of developments that occurred over the period.
• At different moments in this period, new technologies made their appearances – like the Persian wheel in irrigation, the spinning wheel in weaving, and firearms in combat.
• New foods and beverages arrived in the subcontinent – potatoes, corn, chillies, tea and coffee. All these innovations – new technologies and crops – came along with people, who brought other ideas with them as well.
• As a result, this was a period of economic, political, social and cultural changes. This was also a period of great mobility.
• Groups of people travelled long distances in search of opportunity. The subcontinent held immense wealth and the possibilities for people to carve a fortune.
• One group of people who became important in this period were the Rajputs, a name derived from “Rajaputra”, the son of a ruler.
• Between the eighth and fourteenth centuries, the term was applied more generally to a group of warriors who claimed Kshatriya caste status.
• The term included not just rulers and chieftains but also soldiers and commanders who served in the armies of different monarchs all over the subcontinent.
• Throughout this period there was a gradual clearing of forests and the extension of agriculture, a change faster and more complete in some areas than in others. Changes in their habitat forced many forest-dwellers to migrate. Others started tilling the land and became peasants.
• These new peasant groups gradually began to be influenced by regional markets, chieftains, priests, monasteries and temples. They became part of large, complex societies, and were required to pay taxes and offer goods and services to local lords.
• As a result, significant economic and social differences emerged amongst peasants. Some possessed more productive land, others also kept cattle, and some combined artisanal work with agricultural activity during the lean season.
• As society became more differentiated, people were grouped into jatis or sub-castes and ranked on the basis of their backgrounds and their occupations.
• Ranks were not fixed permanently, and varied according to the power, influence and resources controlled by members of the jati. The status of the same jati could vary from area to area.

A Sanskrit Prashasti praising the Delhi Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-1287) explained that he was the ruler of a vast empire that stretched from Bengal (Gauda) in the east to Ghazni (Gajjana) in Afghanistan in the west and included all of south India (Dravida).

Prashastis is a special kind of inscription, meaning “in praise of”. They were composed by learned Brahmans in praise of the rulers, which may not be literally true; but, they tell us how rulers of that time wanted to illustrate themselves. They were exaggerated by Brahmins to get rewards..

• By the seventh century, there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent. Existing kings often acknowledged them as their subordinates or samantas.
• They were expected to bring gifts for their kings or overlords, be present at their courts and provide them with military support. As samantas gained power and wealth, they declared themselves to be maha-samanta, maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a “circle” or region) and so on.
• Sometimes they asserted their independence from their overlords.
• One such instance was that of the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. Initially they were subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka.
• In the mid-eighth century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden womb). When this ritual was performed with the help of Brahmanas, it was thought to lead to the “rebirth” of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.

• Trade and commerce flourished under the Cholas. Trade was carried on with West Asia and China and South-east Asia. Trade with China reached unprecedented volume during these centuries. Foreign trade provided an additional incentive to an already developing local market.
• There existed a brisk internal trade in several articles carried on by the organized mercantile corporations in various parts of the country. The metal industries and the jewelry art had reached a high degree of excellence. The manufacture of sea salt was carried on under government supervision and control.
• Trade was carried on by merchants organized in guilds. The guilds described sometimes by the terms nanadesis were a powerful autonomous corporation of merchants which visited different countries in the course of their trade.
• They had their own mercenary army for the protection of their merchandise. There were also local organizations of merchants called "nagaram" in big centers of trade like Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram.

Key Points

Commercial Town Nagaram

• Nagaram were commercial towns inhabited by Merchants such as Chettis (general merchants), Sankarappadiyars (oil merchant) and artisans like Saliyars (weaver), and Tattars (goldsmiths).
• During the Chola period most of Nagaram were identified by the suffix ‘puram’ (a fortified town), which was usually attached to the king’s name as Kulottunga-cholapuram, Rajendra-sivapuram and Mummudi-cholapuram.
• Nagaram is a commercial town involved in a more market-oriented exchange of goods and services in the Chola domain. It also involved in collection of taxes on commercial transactions and established the rules and regulations for its community of exchange, dominating trade within the nadu unit of the Chola polity.
• The Nagaram was a body of merchants which actively participated in the trade and commerce of medieval south India. It was essentially an administrative unit of the merchant community specializing in the field of commerce and industry especially in big and small towns.
• The members of the Nagaram were generally known by several names such as Nagarattar, Nagara-karanattar and Nagara Madhyasta. They had a large measure of control over trade settlements, within the locality of the area to which they belong.
• It was an important commercial centre as well as a religious centre, attracted and nourished several religious beliefs, both Brahmanical and heretical.

• Nath Literature a branch of medieval bangla literature, based on the Nath cult or yoga-sadhana.
• The main god of the Naths is shiva, who is also called Adinath. The five Nath siddhas (or enlightened), Minanath, Goraksanath, Hadipa, Kanupa and Chauranginath, are described as having been born from different parts of the body of Adinath.
• Nath literature was of two types, didactic and narrative.

Khudai Khidmatgar:

• Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan was the founder of the Khudai Khidmatgar Movement.
• It was a non-violent movement against the British occupation of the Indian subcontinent.
• Abdul Ghaffar Khan and other leaders of the Khudai Khidmatgar were arrested on April 23, 1930, by British police and this led to the Qissa Khwani Bazaar massacre.
• Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a Pashtun freedom fighter in the North-West Frontier Province, was a follower of Mahatma Gandhi and was called the “Frontier Gandhi”.
• In 1929, Ghaffar Khan founded the Red Shirt movement (Khudai Khitmatgar) among the Pashtuns.

• ​The Indian National Congress on 19 December 1929, passed 'Purna Swaraj' at its Lahore session.
• Jawaharlal Nehru was the president of the Indian National Congress during the Lahore session.
• Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the national flag of India on 31 December 1929 on the banks of the Ravi river as a part of 'Purna Swaraj'.
• A public declaration on 'Purna Swaraj' was made by Congress on 26 January 1930.
• Congress asked the people of India to observe the 26th of January as Independence Day since 1930 (later it changes and made 15th August as the official Independence Day.)
• The declaration of 'Purna Swaraj' was passed due to the breakdown of negotiations between Indian Freedom Fighters and the British government over the question of dominion status for India.
• To commemorate the 1930 declaration India decided to celebrate January 26 as Republic day.
• Lord Irwin was the viceroy of India during the declaration of 'Purna Swaraj'.

Constellation:

• A constellation is a group of stars that appears to form a pattern or picture like Orion the Great Hunter, Leo the Lion, or Taurus the Bull.
• Constellations are easily recognizable patterns that help people orient themselves using the night sky.
• There are 88 “official” constellations.
• The largest constellations in the sky are Hydra, Virgo, Ursa Major, Cetus, and Hercules.

Important information about Ursa Major :

• Ursa Major or Big Bear is a constellation in the Northern sky.
• It is visible throughout the year from the Northern sky and appears circumpolar above the mid-northern latitude.
• From southern temperate latitudes, the southern part of the constellations can be viewed.
• One of the most easily recognizable constellations is the Saptarishi (Saptaseven, rishi-sages).
• ​Each star is representing one of the Saptrishis or seven sages.
• It is a group of seven stars that forms a part of Ursa Major Constellation.
• It was one of the original 48 constellations mentioned in Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD.
• It is 3rd largest of the 88 modern constellations.

Hence, option 2 is the correct answer.

1. The stars have their own heat and light.
2. A galaxy is a huge system of billions of stars, and clouds of dust and gases. There are millions of such galaxies that make the Universe.
3. Our solar system is a part of the Milky Way Galaxy.

Our earth has only one satellite, that is, the moon. Like planets, satellites also moves around the planet. The moon also moves around the earth in its orbit within a particular time.

Only one side of the moon is visible from the earth the reason is as follows:

• Earth orbits the Sun once every 365 days (a year) and spins on its axis once every 24 hours (a day).
• The Moon orbits Earth once every 27.3 days and spins on its axis once every 27.3 days.
• This means that although the Moon is rotating, it always keeps one face toward us.
• Known as “synchronous rotation,” this is why we only ever see the Moon’s nearside from Earth.
• The moon moves around the earth in about 27 days.
• It takes exactly the same time to complete one spin.
• As a result, only one side of the moon is visible to us on the earth.

Hence, option 3 is the correct answer.

Rotational Movements of the Earth:

• The earth has two types of motions, namely rotation, and revolution.
• Rotation is the movement of the earth on its axis.
• The movement of the earth around the sun in a fixed path or orbit is called Revolution.
• Earth rotates on its axis from west to east
• The Moon and the Sun (and all other celestial objects) appear to move from east to west across the sky.
• 'For this reason, Earth spins toward the east.
• Because of the Earth's magnetic field, it rotates from west to east.
• The axis of the earth which is an imaginary line makes an angle of 66½° with its orbital plane.
• The earth takes about 24 hours to complete one rotation around its axis.
• The period of rotation is known as the earthday.
• This is the daily motion of the earth.

Hence, option 1 is the correct answer.

The latitudes and longitudes are commonly referred to as geographical coordinates as they provide a systematic network of lines upon which the position of various surface features of the earth, can be represented.

Characteristics of longitude:

• The meridians of longitude refer to the angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds, of a point east or west of the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian.
• Lines of longitude are often referred to as meridians.
• Unlike the parallels of latitude which are circles, the meridians of longitude are semi-circles that converge at the poles.
• If opposite meridians are taken together, they complete a circle, but, they are valued separately as two meridians.
• The meridians intersect the equator at right angles.
• Unlike the parallels of latitude, they are all equal in length.
• For the convenience of numbering, the meridian of longitude passing through the Greenwich observatory (near London) has been adopted as the Prime Meridian by an international agreement and has been given the value of 0°.
• The longitude of a place is its angular distance east or west of the Prime Meridian.
• It is also measured in degrees.
• The longitudes vary from 0° to 180° eastward and westward of the Prime Meridian
• The part of the earth east of the Prime Meridian is called the eastern hemisphere and in its west referred to as the western hemisphere.

Hence, option 3 is the correct answer.

The earth has two types of motions, namely rotation, and revolution. Rotation is the movement of the earth on its axis.

The concept of Earth Day:

• The axis of the earth which is an imaginary line makes an angle of 66½° with its orbital plane.
• The plane formed by the orbit is known as the orbital plane.
• The earth receives light from the sun.
• Due to the spherical shape of the earth, only half of it gets light from the sun at a time.
• The portion facing the sun experiences day while the other half away from the sun experiences night.
• The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.
• This circle does not coincide with the axis.
• The earth takes about 24 hours to complete one rotation around its axis.
• The period of rotation is known as ‘Earth Day'.
• This is the daily motion of the earth.

Hence, option 3 is the correct answer.

1. Earth Day: 22 April; Theme 2020: Climate Action
2. Earth Day: 22 April; Theme 2020: Restore Our Earth

As the Earth revolves around the sun throughout the year, different parts receive varying amounts of heat. The part (pole) which is more tilted towards the sun experiences longer days and a hotter climate during that period. As different parts of Earth are tilted towards the sun throughout the year while revolution, solstices, and equinoxes are experienced.

Key Points

Equinox:

• An equinox is the instant of time when the plane of Earth's equator passes through the geometric center of the Sun's disk.
• On the equinox, direct rays of the sun fall on the equator.
• Equinox refers to a day with an equal duration of day and night.
• We have two equinoxes in a year which are:
• Spring equinox on March 20
• Autumnal equinox on September 22.
• It is the moment at which the center of the visible Sun is directly above the equator.
• In the Northern Hemisphere, the March equinox is called the vernal or spring equinox while the September equinox is called the autumnal or fall equinox.
• In the Southern Hemisphere, the reverse is true.
• The equinoxes are the only times when the edge between night and day is perpendicular to the equator.
• As a result, the northern and southern hemispheres are equally illuminated.
• This is also the time when the Sun rises for an observer at one of Earth's rotational poles and sets at the other; for a brief period, both North and South Poles are in daylight.

Hence, option 2 is the correct answer.

Additional Information

Solstice:

• Time of the year when the sun is farthest from the equatorial plane resulting in long nights and days.
• The solstice occurs during the summer and the winter.
• Happens twice a year.
• Occurs on June 21(Summer Solstice) and on Dec 22 (Winter Solstice).

Harbors and ports in the Atlantic Ocean:

There are many harbors and ports in the Atlantic Ocean because,

• Indented Coastlines are those that aren't smooth and have cuts or indents along their length thereby leading to the formation of inland waterways and creeks.
• The coastline of the Atlantic ocean has such an indented pattern thus making it suitable for natural harbors.
• These indents are also deep.
• The coastline of the Atlantic ocean has such an indented pattern thus making it suitable for natural harbors.
• The Atlantic coast seaports facilitate freight flow and international trade for both the long-established and populous Northeast, and the growing areas along the Southeast Atlantic coast.

Hence, option 3 is the correct answer.

The Andes is the world's longest mountain range.

Key Points

The Andes:

• Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains are the longest continental mountain range in the world

• It is a continuous highland along the western edge of South America.

• The range is 7,000 km (4,350 mi) long, 200 to 700 km (124 to 435 mi) wide (widest between 18°S - 20°S latitude).

• It has an average height of about 4,000 m (13,123 ft).

• The Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina.

• The Andes are a Mesozoic–Tertiary orogenic belt of mountains along the Pacific Ring of Fire

• It is a zone of volcanic activity that encompasses the Pacific rim of the Americas as well as the Asia-Pacific region.

• The Andes are the result of tectonic plate processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American Plate.

• It is the result of a convergent plate boundary between the Nazca Plate and the South American Plate.

Hence, option 3 is the correct answer.

Tropical rainforests are rainforests that occur in areas of tropical rainforest climate in which there is no dry season – all months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm – and may also be referred to as lowland equatorial evergreen rainforest.

Tropical Evergreen Forests in India:

• These forests are restricted to heavy rainfall areas of the Western Ghats and the island groups of Lakshadweep, Andaman, and Nicobar, upper parts of Assam, and Tamil Nadu coast.
• They are at their best in areas having more than 200 cm of rainfall with a short dry season.
• The trees reach great heights up to 60 meters or even above.
• Since the region is warm and wet throughout the year, it has luxuriant vegetation of all kinds — trees, shrubs, and creepers giving it a multilayered structure.
• There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves.
• As such, these forests appear green all year-round.

Hence, option 3 is the correct answer.

The correct answer is Retreating monsoons.

Monsoon: 

• Monsoon, a major wind system that seasonally reverses its direction, such as one that blows for approximately six months from the northeast and six months from the southwest.
• The primary cause of monsoons lies in different warming trends over land and sea, though other factors may be involved.
• There are two monsoons (or rainy seasons) in India.
• The summer monsoon season in India, otherwise known as the southwest monsoon, lasts from June to September and affects the whole of India.
• Then the northeast or winter monsoon brings seasonal rainfall to Southeast India from October to December.

Retreating monsoons:

• During the months of October-November, the southwest monsoon winds become weaker and start to retreat from the skies of North India.
• This phase of the monsoon is known as the retreating monsoon.
• Retreating monsoon season commences with the beginning of the withdrawal of the southwest monsoon lasts till early January.
• It is a 3-month long process where it starts from the peninsula in October and from the extreme south-eastern tip by December.
• The southwest monsoons withdraw from the Coromandel coast in mid-December.
• In Punjab, the southwest monsoons withdraw from there in the second week of September
• Winds moving back from the mainland to the Bay of Bengal during this time.
• Thus, during the retreating monsoon period, the moisture-laden winds blow from land to sea.

Hence, option 2 is the correct answer.

Southwest monsoon season: 

• The period June to September is referred to as the 'Southwest Monsoon' period.
• The Southwest Monsoon period is the principal rainy season for the Indian subcontinent.
• This is the summer monsoon period where the southwest monsoon holds away over the country.
• The whole country receives nearly 75% of its rainfall during this period.

The tropical evergreen forest of Brazil is called the 'lungs' of the earth

Key Points

Amazon Rainforest:

• Amazon rain forest is the world's largest rainforest.
• The basin is roughly the size of the forty-eight contiguous United States.
• It covers some 40 percent of the South American continent and includes parts of eight South American countries: Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Suriname, as well as French Guiana, a department of France.
• Amazon is made up of a mosaic of ecosystems and vegetation types including rainforests, seasonal forests, deciduous forests, flooded forests, and savannas.
• The basin is drained by the Amazon River, the world's largest river in terms of discharge, and the second-longest river in the world after the Nile.
• The river is made up of over 1,100 tributaries, 17 of which are longer than 1000 miles, and two of which (the Negro and the Madeira) are larger, in terms of volume than the Congo river.
• Amazon rainforest is popularly called the 'lungs of the planet earth' because its vegetation continuously recycles carbon dioxide into oxygen.

Additional Information

1. Tropical deciduous forest of Central America:  Tropical deciduous are the monsoon forests found in the large part of India, northern Australia, and Central America
2. Temperate evergreen forests of China: The temperate evergreen forests are located in the mid latitudinal coastal region along the eastern margin of the continents, e.g., In south east USA, South China, and in southeast Brazil.
3. Temperate deciduous forest of Chile: Towards higher latitudes, there are more temperate deciduous forests. These are found in the northeastern part of the USA, China, New Zealand, Chile, and also found in the coastal regions of Western Europe.

The Amazon Basin, in northern South America, is the largest in the world.

Key Points

Amazon river basin:

• The Amazon Basin, in northern South America, is the largest in the world.
• The Amazon River and all of its tributaries drain an area of more than 7 million square kilometers (about 3 million square miles).
• The main river and all its tributaries that drain an area form a river basin or the catchment area.
• The Amazon River basin stretches from the Brazilian Highlands in the south to the Guiana Highlands in the north.
• It covers almost half of South America, including a total of eight countries: Colombia, Bolivia, Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Venezuela, and Suriname.

Hence, option 4 is the correct answer.

The concept of Maloca:

• A maloca is an ancestral long house used by indigenous people of the Amazon
• Notably found in Colombia and Brazil.
• Each community has a maloca with its own unique characteristics.
• Several families with patrilineal relations live together in a maloca
• These are mainly distributed around the longhouse in different compartments.
• In general, the chief of the local descent group lives in the compartment nearest to the back wall of the longhouse.
• As well, each family has its own furnace.
• During festivals and informal ceremonies, which involve dances for males, the longhouse space is rearranged
• The centre of the longhouse is the most important area where the dance takes place.
• Each maloca has two entrances, for men and for women.
• Married men and women sleep together, and unmarried men sleep separately, as do unmarried women.
• A maloca is traditionally surrounded by two gardens:
• The inner called the kitchen gardens (growing plants such as bananas, papaya, mango and pineapple) and
• The manioc gardens growing manioc (yuca).

Hence, option 2 is the correct answer.

A resource is defined as a service or other asset used to produce goods and services that meet human needs and wants. Resources are generally classified into natural, human-made, and human.

Resource conservation:

• Using resources carefully and giving them time to get renewed is called resource conservation.
• Balancing the need to use resources and also conserve them for the future is called sustainable development.
• There are many ways of conserving resources.
• Each person can contribute by reducing consumption, recycling, and reusing thing.
• Ultimately it makes a difference because all our lives are linked.
• Conservation means saving resources.
• To save natural resources, follow the three "R"s: reduce, reuse, and recycle.

Hence, option 1 is the correct answer.

Sustainable development: Carefully utilising resources so that besides meeting the requirements of the present, also takes care of future generations.

Resource management:

• Resource management is acquiring, allocating, and managing the resources, such as individuals and their skills, finances, technology, materials, machinery, and natural resources required for a project.
• Resource management ensures that internal and external resources are used effectively on time and on budget.

Development management:

• Development management is the strategic planning, administration, and controlling of a project during its development life cycle, from project planning through to construction completion and project exit.
• It is performed to minimize project and financial risk while maximizing profit for the developer.

Shelterbelts:

• In the coastal and dry regions, rows of trees are planted to check the wind movement to protect soil cover
• Shelterbelts are rows of trees, usually along fence lines.
• They are planted mainly to protect animals or crops from cold winds, but also to give shade in hot weather.
• In regions such as Canterbury where there is a lot of cultivated land, shelterbelts also reduce wind erosion.
• Shelter belts are a series of trees or shrubs that are grown in a form of the horizontal line adjacent to the field.
• A series of trees planted to grow in the edges of a field in order to protect the fields from high-speed winds.

Hence, option 4 is the correct answer.

Other methods of soil conservation:

1. Mulching: The bare ground between plants is covered with a layer of organic matter like straw. It helps to retain soil moisture.
2. Contour barriers: Stones, grass, soil are used to build barriers along contours. Trenches are made in front of the barriers to collect water.
3. Rock dam: Rocks are piled up to slow down the flow of water. This prevents gullies and further soil loss.
4. Terrace farming: These are made on steep slopes so that flat surfaces are available to grow crops. They can reduce surface run-off and soil erosion
5. Intercropping: Different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at different times to protect the soil from rain wash.
6. Contour ploughing: Ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill slope to form a natural barrier for water to flow down the slope

• Cave paintings dating back to approximately 30,000 years. Rock shelters that were home to humans, millennia ago. And a rich flora and fauna surrounding these, indeed, make Bhimbetka a gift to us from our earliest ancestors. The Bhimbetka Rock Shelter has the oldest-known rock art in India, as well as is one of the largest prehistoric complexes to be seen.
• An archaeological treasure, Bhimbetka has around 243 rock shelters and have earned the honour of UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• These hill ranges are full of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic remains, and they are also full of forests, wild plants, fruits, streams and creeks, thus a perfect place for Stone Age people to live.
• These are having about eight hundred rock shelters, five hundred of which bear paintings. The caves of Bhimbetka were discovered in 1957–58 by eminent archaeologist V.S. Wakankar and later on many more were discovered.
• The themes of paintings found here are of great variety, ranging from mundane events of daily life in those times to sacred and royal images. These include hunting, dancing, music, horse and elephant riders, animal fighting, honey collection, decoration of bodies, and other household scenes.
• The rock art of Bhimbetka has been classified into various groups on the bases of style, technique and superimposition. The drawings and paintings can be categorised into seven historical periods.
• Period I, Upper Palaeolithic; Period II, Mesolithic; and Period III, Chalcolithic. After Period III there are four successive periods.
• NOTE- We have marked option 1 as the Correct answer. Because paintings from the Palaeolithic period are also found here. Hence, it is the most suited answer.

​

Upper Palaeolithic Period Paintings

• The paintings of the Upper Palaeolithic phase are linear representations, in green and dark red, of huge animal figures, such as bisons, elephants, tigers, rhinos and boars besides stick-like human figures.
• A few are wash paintings but mostly they are filled with geometric patterns. The green paintings are of dancers and the red ones of hunters.

• In the early Vedic period, there were two major groups of deities: the devas and the asuras.
• The devas were celestial beings or gods, worshipped and praised for their excellence.
• The asuras were another class of celestial beings defined by their opposition to the devas.
• Over time, the power and importance of the devas surpassed that of the asuras, and the asuras began to be understood as demons.
• The devas were not viewed as all-powerful, and humans’ relationship with them was transactional. Through sacrifices and offerings, humans secured the aid of the gods in maintaining peace, order, and health.
• The Rigveda enumerates 33 devas, some representing forces of nature and other representing moral values.
• The oldest Veda is the Rigveda, composed about 3500 years ago. The Rigveda includes more than a thousand hymns, called sukta or “well-said”.
• These hymns are in praise of various gods and goddesses. Three gods are especially important: Agni, the god of fire; Indra, a warrior god; and Soma, a plant from which a special drink was prepared.

​

INDRA

• Indra was one of the most important gods in the religion of the Vedic era. He is the king of the gods, as well as the god of storms and war.
• Indra is particularly celebrated in the Rig Veda, in which there are more than 250 hymns devoted specifically to him, more than any other deity.
• He rules over other deities as the benevolent king of the gods, bringing peace and prosperity. As the king of rain and thunder, he brings rain to end droughts, yet he is also a great warrior who conquers the asuras.
• He is often depicted riding a white elephant, Airavata.

AGNI

• Agni’s importance in Vedic religion is second only to Indra’s, though Agni’s function in worship surpassed Indra’s. Agni is the god of fire, and was thus was of central importance in yagnas (fire ceremonies), especially sacrificial ceremonies.
• He is understood to be a messenger between humans and the gods, bringing the prayers and offerings of ceremonial rites to the gods and the boons and blessings of the gods back to humanity.
• In this way, he functions as an intermediary force, transforming the offerings of the human terrestrial world to the subtle celestial realm of the gods.
• Agni is the protector, especially of the home. He is omnipresent, and thus knows the thoughts of all people and is a witness to all important events.
• He is said to be able to discern between truth and lies, and this led to practices where people would be made to confess things in the presence of fire as a test of truth, “trial by fire.”

SOMA

• Soma refers to a god, a plant, and a ritual drink, and the distinction between the three is not always made clear in Rigveda.
• Soma was considered a bringer of health and wealth. Soma the sacred drink is said to be a yellow-golden colour, and thus soma is also often identified with light.
• The gods drank soma to sustain their immortality, and the drink would likewise bestow the powers of the gods upon any mortal who drank it.

• Sanskrit is one of the oldest known languages over thousands of years.
• It is also called "Dev Vani" (the language of gods) as it is said that Brahma introduced this language to the Sages of celestial bodies.
• It is believed that the Sanskrit language came from the Indo-European language family of the Indian subcontinent.
• It was only in the 18th century, a similarity between Sanskrit, Latin and Greek was found which made the think tanks of the world to study and discover the relationship of all Indo-European languages.
• Vedic Sanskrit was the earliest form of Sanskrit language approximately around (1500-200 B.C.), when "knowledge" was handed down through the generations orally. In this period there was the composition of hymns, poems, Puranas of which some form sacred scripts of Hindus.
• The oldest known text in Sanskrit, the Rigveda, a collection of over a thousand Hindu hymns, the Sama-Veda is the Veda of chants, the Yajur-Veda the Veda of prayers; finally, the Atharva-Veda contains the lore of the Atharva.
• Approximately between 500 B.C. - 1000 A.D, there came up Classical Sanskrit, based on the old Vedic speech, the period after which Panini composed his grammar of Sanskrit.
• Ramayana and Mahabharata were the two great epics of this period.

Inamgaon

• It is a site on the river Ghod, a tributary of the Bhima. It was occupied between 3600 and 2700 years ago.
• Here, adults were generally buried in the ground, laid out straight, with the head towards the north. Sometimes burials were within the houses.
• Vessels that probably contained food and water were placed with the dead.
• One man was found buried in a large, four-legged clay jar in the courtyard of a five-roomed house (one of the largest houses at the site), in the centre of the settlement.
• This house also had a granary. The body was placed in a cross-legged position.

​

Occupations at Inamgaon

• Archaeologists have found seeds of wheat, barley, rice, pulses, millets, peas and sesame.
• Bones of a number of animals, many bearing cut marks that show they may have been used as food, have also been found.
• These include cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, dog, horse, ass, pig, sambhar, spotted deer, blackbuck, antelope, hare, and mongoose, besides birds, crocodile, turtle, crab and fish. There is evidence that fruits such as ber, amla, jamun, dates and a variety of berries were collected.

• Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful.
• New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life.
• The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers.
• He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One.
• He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara.
• The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things).
• The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything.
• He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals.
• He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next.
• The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message

At a very basic level, branding means stamping a product with a particular name of the sign. Products have an associating brand value with which the consumer associates themselves.

• For example, there are many soaps but every company will have to give the soap a different name, by doing this, they create another brand of soap.
• A brand is created through distinctive features like a name, sign, symbol or design.
• A brand name helps consumers distinguish between products of the same category and increases their recall value.
• It also creates a mental image of the product among consumers.​

Thus, we can say that the Branding of a product differentiates it from other products in the market.

​

Additional Information

• Only branding a product is not enough because there are many brands of the same product available in the market.
• This creates tough competition for the manufacturers.
• They have to convince us that their products are better than the others.
• And at this juncture advertising comes in. It plays a crucial role in trying to convince us to buy a product that is advertised.
• Thus, we cannot say that branding makes it more saleable.
• Branding is the process of creating a strong, positive perception of a company, its products or services in the customer's mind by combining such elements as logo, design, mission statement, and a consistent theme throughout all marketing communications.
• Thus, it will make it attractive for the customer, but it will create more impact if consumers find it different from other products.

The correct answer is option 2.

Mistake Points

• The preamble can be referred to as the preface which highlights the entire Constitution.
• Fundamental Rights has often been referred to as the ‘conscience’ of the Indian Constitution.

Key Points

The section on Fundamental Rights has often been referred to as the ‘conscience’ of the Indian Constitution.

• Fundamental rights are often regarded as the conscience of the Indian constitution as it provides a due guarantee for the protection of rights and regulations of the citizens.
• Colonial rule had created a certain suspicion of the State in the minds of the nationalists and they wanted to ensure that a set of written rights would guard against the misuse of State power in independent India.
• Fundamental Rights, therefore, protect citizens against the arbitrary and absolute exercise of power by the State.
• The Constitution, thus, guarantees the rights of individuals against the State as well as against other individuals.
• Moreover, the various minority communities also expressed the need for the Constitution to include rights that would protect their groups.
• The Constitution, therefore, also guarantees the rights of minorities against the majority.
• As Dr Ambedkar has said about these Fundamental Rights, their object is two-fold.
• The first objective is that every citizen must be in a position to claim those rights.
• And secondly, these rights must be binding upon every authority that has got the power to make laws.

From the above, we can conclude that the part dealing with the Fundamental Rights of the Indian Constitution is often referred to as the 'Conscience' of the Constitution'.

Additional Information

• Directive Principles of State Policy was designed by the members of the Constituent Assembly to ensure greater social and economic reforms and to serve as a guide to the independent Indian State to institute laws and policies that help reduce the poverty of the masses.
• The reservation policy for SCs, STs and OBCs focuses on a certain group of people, thus, it is not the conscience of the constitution.
• The Preamble to Constitution of India is guidelines to guide people of the nation, to present the principles of the Constitution, to indicate the source from which the document derives its authority, and meaning.

Lok Sabha is composed of representatives of the people chosen by direct election on the basis of adult suffrage.

• The maximum strength of the House is 552, which is made up by the election of up to 530 members to represent the States, and up to 20 members to represent the Union Territories.
• Earlier, not more than two members of the Anglo-Indian Community to be nominated by the Hon'ble President, if, in his/her opinion, that community is not adequately represented in the House.
• ​The total elective membership is distributed among the States in such a way that the ratio between the number of seats allotted to each State and the population of the State is, so far as practicable, the same for all States.
• However as of now, the provision to nominate members of anglo indian community has been removed and as such no members are nominated to the lok sabha.

The four key players in the justice system are the police, the Public Prosecutor, the defence lawyer and the judge. 

Important Points

The judge is like an umpire in a game and conducts the trial impartially and in an open court.

• The judge hears all the witnesses and any other evidence presented by the prosecution and the defence.
• The judge decides whether the accused person is guilty or innocent on the basis of the evidence presented and in accordance with the law.
• If the accused is convicted, then the judge pronounces the sentence.
• He may send the person to jail or impose a fine or both, depending on what the law prescribes.

Thus, we can conclude that a judge gives a decision on a case on the basis of evidence.

• Adivasis – the term literally means ‘original inhabitants’ also referred to as Tribals – are communities who lived, and often continue to live, in close association with forests.

• Adivasis are particularly numerous in states like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and in the north-eastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura.

• A state like Odisha is home to more than 60 different tribal groups. Adivasi societies are also most distinctive because there is often very little hierarchy among them.

• This makes them radically different from communities organised around principles of jati-varna (caste) or those that were ruled by kings.

• Adivasis practise a range of tribal religions that are different from Islam, Hinduism and Christianity.

• These often involve the worship of ancestors, village and nature spirits, the last associated with and residing in various sites in the landscape – ‘mountain-spirits’, ‘river-spirits’, ‘animal-spirits’, etc.

• Adivasi religions themselves have influenced dominant religions of the empires around them, for example, the Jagannath cult of Odisha and Shakti and Tantric traditions in Bengal and Assam.

• The origin of the cult of Jagannath is mysterious. The deity itself accepts almost all the sects of Hindu Pantheon like Vedic religion, Vaishnavism, Saivism, Tantricism and Brahminism in His abode.

• In addition to these sects, Jainism and Buddhism acclaim the Jagannath triad belonging to their religions.

• In spite of this, scholars in the cult of Jagannath believe in the aboriginal tribal (Savara) origin of the Jagannath triad. The scholars in the field of the cult of Jagannath also differ in holding their own views and theories. But among all the theories propounded regarding the origin of the Jagannath cult, the theory of tribal origin is the most accepted one.

• The origin of the cult no one has been able to deny the intimate association of the Savaras or the tribals with the cult of Jagannath from its inception.

Water is essential for life and for good health. Not only is it necessary for us to be able to meet our daily needs but safe drinking water can prevent many water-related diseases.

Important Points

India has one of the largest numbers of cases of diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera.

• Over 1,600 Indians, most of them children below the age of five, reportedly die every day because of water-related diseases.
• These deaths can be prevented if people have access to safe drinking water.
• The Constitution of India recognises the right to water as being a part of the Right to Life under Article 21.
• This means that it is the right of every person, whether rich or poor, to have sufficient amounts of water to fulfil his/her daily needs at a price that he/she can afford.
• In other words, there should be universal access to water.

Thus, we can conclude that diseases like diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera can be prevented by providing safe drinking water.

The discussion takes place whenever there is a difference of opinion concerning the situation. It involves an interchange of questions and ideas among the students. The purpose of the discussion is to encourage an exchange of ideas and viewpoints.

Discussion methods may be superior to lectures or reading for the retention of information. This method has been found to be superior in building attitudes that are important in shaping behaviour patterns. It should be noted that a teacher can include 4-6 students for small group teaching to enable discussions. Its advantages are:

• Develops the ability to discuss with students.
• Increases self-confidence of students.
• Inspires individuals to act to improve their own situations.
• Brings out past experiences and known facts that may help in the present situation.
• Helps in knowing the deductive viewpoints of others.

Key Points 

• Discussion on government and its functioning leads to extreme views as it is a subjective topic and views and perception of different people is of varying nature. Therefore, this topic requires a more objective interaction, that is, it should not be constituted or influenced by personal opinions and should strictly be based on facts.

Thus, it is concluded that more often discussion on government and its functioning lead to extreme views, therefore teachers should organise more objective interactions as compared to deductive views.

Hint

• Avoid any debate or discussion on it.:-  Avoiding the debate will only put the learners into ignorance and they will never be able to objectively debate on government and its functioning which is needed in a democratic nation.
• Criticise the way government functions:- Criticism is not the objective of teaching, a teacher should put genuine facts in front of the learners unbiased, regardless of his/her own personal opinions.
• Argue for judicial activism:- An argument of judicial activism is again influenced by personal beliefs, moreover, it is an ideology and it cannot be the deciding parameter of government functioning effectiveness.

Socialization is the process through which communities transact or educate their members about the norms and values of society to be socially acceptable.

• It simply refers to acquire the socially approved ways of behaviour and taking ideal expectations seriously.
• Socialization is the continuous process of negotiating identities and shaping one’s concept of self, identity, various attitudes, and behaviours.
• Socialization has 4 major agents namely family, school, peers, and mass media.

Important Points

The views of social scientists vary regarding the impact of television on the behaviour and attitudes of children and adolescents. Socialization cannot take place in a vacuum. Individuals, groups, and institutions create the social context for socialization to take place. It is through these agents that we learn and incorporate the values and norms of our culture.

• Some of them think that television has been spoiling the minds of children by promoting crime, nudity etc.
• Some of them believe that television is acting as a medium of change. It is a medium of acquisition of knowledge and wisdom.

Hint

• Family:- The family as a basic social institution has always been regarded as a core component for the development of the individual as well as for society and mankind. The family transforms a young infant into a member of the human community and acts as the first medium for transmitting culture to children. Family imparts a positive impact on the students.
• School:- School refers to a whole range of formal educational institutions. In the words of Brubacher ‘school is an active, direct, and formal agency of education and socialization”.The school imparts a positive impact on students.
• Peer:- Peer group is a very unpredictable agent in shaping a child's behaviour because of the uncertainty of the type of random person one meets or observes in their surroundings and what influence they impart on the child. Peer influence is such that some children begin to challenge the dominant power of parents and family. It overshadows the parental influence as time goes on especially in the adolescent stage. It may impart a positive or negative impact.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that the views of social scientists vary regarding the impact of television on the behaviour and attitudes of children and adolescents.

The social sciences encompass diverse concerns of society and include a wide range of content drawn from the disciplines of history, geography, political science, economics, and sociology. Studying social science enables children:- 

• to grow up as active, responsible, and reflective members of society.
• to learn to respect differences of opinion, lifestyle, and cultural practices.
• to question and examine received ideas, institutions, and practices.
• to undertake activities that will help them develop social and life skills and make them understand that these skills are important for social interaction.

Key Points

The most effective strategy for students in a Social Science class to spend more time on academic tasks is to Introduce a new topic in class and assign individual projects on it.

• Doing individual projects students get involved in doing it.
• Students will try their best to find out the things required in the project.
• It is a learning experience for them, they will understand or learn the topic better after doing the project.
• In this way, the time spent by students on academic activities will get increased.

Thus, it is concluded that the most appropriate way to increase the time spent on academic activities by the students in a Social Science class assigning individual projects on new topics before discussing the topic in class.

The sources from where we get information are called information sources and these comprise documents, humans, institutions as well as mass media like newspapers, radio, and television. We can group information sources into two broad categories as follows:

• Documentary Sources:- All recorded sources of information irrespective of their contents and forms come under documentary sources. These may be published or unpublished, in print or in electronic form. These may be books, periodicals, magazines, and others.
• Non-documentary Sources:- Non-documentary sources of information are those sources that are not recorded in any form.

​

Important Points

Based on the information contents and organisational level documentary sources can be grouped into:

1. Primary source
2. Secondary source
3. Tertiary source

Key Points

A student was interested in learning more about the issues that Indian soldiers experienced during the Kargil War. She speaks with a number of troops who fought in the Kargil War. These soldiers are the main sources of information.

• Primary sources are those sources that contain original material that has been published, reported, or recorded for the first time and have not been interpreted, commented upon, summarised, translated, or evaluated by a secondary party.
• Primary sources include new raw data, a new interpretation of previously known facts or ideas, any new observation or experiment, etc.
• It provides first-hand testimony or direct evidence concerning a topic under investigation.
• They are created by participants who experienced the events or conditions.
• They are characterised by their content, regardless of whether they are available in the original format.

Hint 

• Secondary sources of information are mostly dependent upon primary sources of information for their existence. They usually present the contents of primary documents in condensed form or list them in a helpful way so that the existence of primary documents are known and access to them is made easy.

Hence, it is concluded that these soldiers can be considered the primary sources.

A case study refers to a research approach, commonly used in Social Science to investigate and analyze an individual, group, community, or phenomenon to explore the causes of basic principles. The case study describes an individual's situation in detail. Then, it identifies the key issues of the case to analyze using relevant theoretical concepts. At last, recommend a course of action for that particular case. 

Key Points

In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behaviour. By giving them a case study, the child enables to understand damage and fatalities from earthquakes depend on many factors. Earthquake-related factors include size, depth and type of an earthquake and its geographic location as well as the epicentral distance from an earthquake. Other factors include the local geology, population density and building codes. 

• Case studies can be used in a variety of fields including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.
• In earthquake topic, students will search about it and try to find information about it.
• Every student will do the case study differently and they have different views.

Thus from the above-mentioned points**, it is clear that the study of 'Earthquake' is the most appropriate for the case study.**

If we want children to learn social sciences by developing different kinds of skills, conceptual knowledge, feelings, and sensitiveness. A teacher can draw a broad list of indicators for assessment which can help her to plan the learning tasks. Each indicator consists of abilities that need to be developed in children. Predicting, making hypotheses and inferences are abilities that indicate analysis.

• Valuing observable facts over individual preferences in deriving deduction is called reasoning. Reasoning consists, essentially, in the employment of intellect, in its ability to ‘see’ beyond, and ‘within’ as well, what is available to senses. Reasoning, therefore, can be regarded as an instrument that enables mankind to grasp the ‘unknown’ with the help of the ‘known’. The reasoning is the process of using existing knowledge to draw conclusions, make predictions, or construct explanations.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that valuing observable facts over individual preferences in deriving deduction is called reasoning.

Hint

• Free association:- Free association refers to a process of discovering your genuine thoughts, memories, and feelings by freely sharing all the seemingly random thoughts that pass through your mind. Usually, you are given a prompt like a word or an image without context then, you say what it makes you think of.
• Egocentrism:-Egocentrism includes a belief system carried by adolescents that makes them consider themselves as special and unique. This feeling is accompanied by the acquisition of many new psychological abilities.
• Social brainstorming:-Social brainstorming is the oldest and best-known technique for stimulating creative thinking. It involves the use of a group whose members is presented with a problem and is asked to develop as many potential solutions as possible. Problems that demand creative or innovative solutions can be presented by the teacher to the students for brainstorming. For example, the social science teacher asks students to watch a television programme on population-related issues.

Teaching aids are objects (such as a book, picture, or map) or devices (such as a DVD or computer) used by a teacher to enhance or enliven classroom instruction. They could be audiovisual teaching aids such as videos and guest lectures or tactile like 3D models. In today's era, traditional classroom teaching is shifted to online teaching, and therefore, digital tools are used as teaching aids. Teaching aid is a tool used by the teacher to make their teaching interesting and effective. For example:- Visual and audiovisual aids etc.

Key Points

• A chart is a diagrammatic representation of a system, process, and historical sequence of events. It is the visual representation used to summarize, illustrate, compare or contrast, communicate the subject matter in an effective and concise way.
• Charts are used in all subjects for concept formation and development among learners.
• Charts are a valuable tool for use in social studies to showing land use in different countries of the world. A chart is a simple flat pictorial display material and, if used appropriately, conveys the displayed information about countries in a highly effective manner. Charts serve as an excellent means of classifying important information about countries that are to be referred to a number of times. They help summarize and simplify complex ideas which students face during reading.

Important Points 

Comparative chart:- A comparative chart is a chart that shows comparisons representing sections from the same category adjacent to each other.

• This allows for a quick visual comparison of the data.
• To show land in different countries, the teacher will show them the comparison chart to compare the land.
• It draws a comparison between two or more data on different parameters.

Hence, it is clear that To show land use in different countries of the world, a comparative chart would be a suitable teaching aid.

Hint

• Flow chart:- Flow chart is a graphical representation of data in sequential order. It is a pictorial representation. They are easy to understand charts. Flow charts are an excellent method for showing (or discovering) how a process really works.
• Timeline chart – Timeline charts are used to represent events, occurrences in chronological sequences. The evolution of man, political empires, etc can be shown using a time chart, which helps learners to compare and contrast events in relation to time. It is very important for a holistic comprehension of the topic or subject under study.
• Venn diagram:- Sets and their relationship can be represented very simply and pleasantly by diagrams, called Venn diagrams. It shows the logical relationships between two or more sets.

Objectives are the milestones to reach the destination i.e. to attain the aim or ultimate goal of education. Objectives are specific, direct and practical in nature, objectives are related to the learning outcomes or change in the behaviour of the students. The objectives are meant for both the teacher and the students.

Important Points

Instructional objectives:-

• The objectives of teachers and students are called instructional objectives.
• In this context, an objective is a statement of measurable learning that is intended to take place as a result of instruction.
• Instructional objectives are derived from the terminal behaviours the students are expected to display as a consequence of receiving instruction.

Key Points

Behaviour is divided into three basic categories, which are referred to as domains in technical terms. These are the following:

• Cognitive domain/objectives
• Affective domain/objectives
• Psychomotor domain/objectives

Cognitive domain:- Cognitive domain is the most central informal education. Cognitive objectives relate to the processing of information by the student. These objectives specify what students will be able to do intellectually as a result of instruction. The cognitive domain may be presented in the following hierarchical order :

• Knowledge
• Understanding or Comprehension
• Application
• Analysis
• Synthesis
• Evaluation

Understanding:- This is the next category in the hierarchical order of cognitive objectives. One step above knowledge is comprehension or understanding. At this stage the student is expected to have a full idea about the facts, materials, etc. Comprehension objectives will be achieved if the students are capable of translating. interpreting or extrapolating the events, concepts, principles, etc. The most common strategies for teaching at the comprehension level are summarising, questioning and answering questions on content, laboratory work, group discussions, etc.

Hint

• Knowledge:- It is the lowest level in the cognitive domain. Knowledge involves the recall of terms, concepts, processes, methods, principles, generalizations leading to theories, etc. The basic psychological process used is remembering.
• Application:-: This is the third stage in the hierarchical order in the cognitive domain. At this level, the students should be able to use the knowledge or understanding of facts and principles in new situations. In other words, the students should be able to use or relate the knowledge gained (ideas, procedures, principles or theory) in solving new problems.
• Synthesis:-: Synthesis can be defined as the ability to put together elements or parts of a concept, arranging and combining them so as to form a whole. It has elements of creativeness.

Thus, it is concluded that a  teacher writes an instructional objective for his/her lesson plan as 'Students will be able to give reasons for the downfall of Mauryan Dynasty. This objective will come under Understanding as it is a relation between the knower and an object of understanding. Students will be able to give reasons as a part of their understanding of the concept.

Thinking is the basis of all cognitive activities or processes and is unique to human beings. It involves the manipulation and analysis of information received from the environment. There are different kinds of thinking styles which include creative, logical, concrete thinking, etc. 

• Creative thinking aims at novelty in the first instance rather than truth.
• Creative thinking is always 'constructive' as it aims at novelty. It necessarily has to be different from the conventional modes of thinking.
• Creative thinking is labelled in psychology as divergent thinking which refers to a way of solving problems by more than one approach.

Key Points

Creative children:

• Creativity is the recombination of ideas or restructuring of ideas that leads to a new thought, a new output, or a new product.
• A creative child is associated with divergent thinking.
• universal and innate as well as required.
• Ideational fluency, flexibility and imagination of thinking, originality, and elaboration are elements of creativity.
• have a strong conviction in their beliefs and values.
• Thinking and a decision to think in new ways.
• Fluent and elaborative, anyone can understand their concern.
• Flexible to change.
• Synthesis from a variety of sources.
• Original and practical with life and relations.
• Purposeful, reflective judgement.
• Non- conventional (do not base on or in accordance with what is generally done or believed).
• Decide how to respond in the face of the nearly omnipresent environmental challenges.
• Creative ideas are both novel and valuable.
• Receptivity, Curiosity, Wide range of interest, Complexity.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that all are the characteristics of creative thinking except the ability to always produce the right answers to problems posed.

In order to make the learning of social science more enjoyable and effective, there is a need for innovations in teaching methods. During Social Science class, students begin to discuss whether a mobile tower should be allowed to install in the proximity of their school or not.

Key Points

A student says that the radiation from the tower would make students sick. Another student says I heard on the news that mobile towers do not make people sick. As a teacher, I would motivate students to collect evidence that will help them assess the situation objectively.

• Children learn in a variety of ways—through experience, making and doing things, experimentation, reading, discussion, asking, listening, thinking and reflecting, and expressing oneself in speech, movement, or writing—both individually and with others. They require opportunities of all these kinds in the course of their development.
• In this discussion, a teacher should motivate students to gain real hand experiences by collecting the evidence for the mobile tower and their radiations and later on discuss these things. From that, they will gain knowledge about it and understand the situation practically.
• Such experiences and post-experience activities would be valuable for them. Language is key to organizing experiences. Hence, there should be proper coordination between the kind of experience and the level of language development.

Thus it is cleared that as a teacher you would motivate students to collect evidence that will help them assess the situation objectively.

The social sciences encompass diverse concerns of society and include a wide range of content, drawn from the disciplines of history, geography, political science, economics and sociology. The selection and organisation of material into a meaningful social science curriculum, enabling students to develop a critical understanding of society. 

Key Points

• At the upper primary stage, the subject area of Social Science drawing its content from history, geography, political science and economics will be introduced.
• Simultaneously, the child may be introduced to contemporary issues and problems.
• Contemporary issues may be looked at from multiple perspectives introducing the child to the social and economic problems of society.
• Emphasis needs to be given to issues like poverty, illiteracy, child and bonded labour, class, caste, gender and environment.
• Geography and Economics may together help in developing a proper perspective related to the issue concerning the environment, resources and development at different levels from local to global.
• Similarly, Indian history will be taught emphasizing the concepts of plurality and change.
• The child will be introduced to the formation and functioning of governments at the local, state and central level and the democratic processes of participation.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that at the upper primary stage, according to NCF-2005, the content of Social Studies will draw its content from History, Geography, Political Science and Economics.

A timeline is a series of events arranged in chronological order or in which they happened. Timelines are mostly used in history textbooks.

• Timelines explained what happened and in what order.
• Timelines play an important role in learning history.

​

The advantages of timeline are:

• A timeline would be best suited To compare two dynasties.
• It helps the students to learn or understand the event's history in chronological order.
• It helps students to understand the new events in relation to previous events.
• It allows students to recognize and understand how historic events and topics overlap in time.
• It provides a visual aid for identifying the cause and effect of relationships.
• It helps the students in learning the events of history.
• Timeline helps in categorizing similar or related events, topics, themes and helps the students to compare the two different periods.

Thus, it is concluded that a timeline would be best suited for comparing two dynasties.

Maps are central to learning to think geographically. Maps are a way that geographers describe places, portray locations and spatial distributions, and analyze information. In particular, they develop the ability to visualize the world spatially and to see patterns and relationships, and these are valuable skills. 

• A map is a visual representation of an area, drawn on a flat surface. It helps to illustrate specific and detailed features of a particular area regarding distance, direction, etc.
• Mapping refers to the act of comprehending the geographical information represented on the map. To draw and understand maps, the following abilities are required to be developed in primary level students:
• An idea about relative position and orientation.
• Potential to process the symbolized information shown on the map.

​

Key Points

In upper primary level map helps:

• They discover other places and develop the locational knowledge of the world needed to interpret and understand events which helps them in making a clear drawing according to the scale.
• Some of this knowledge can be obtained from electronic sources but understanding will be enriched through the use of a globe to accurately understand the relative locations of places. The locations of other features or places and includes the concepts of proximity, centrality, and remoteness. Relative location often has more influence than absolute location.
• It helps in understanding and reflecting the relative position of places through maps and diagrams.
• Maps have the power to turn the abstract ideas, which we form in our heads, into visual reality.
• Maps teaching in upper primary schools can enhance student's knowledge of geography and spatial skills through a focus on spatial concepts and ways of thinking.

​Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that locating a place on the map is associated with skill.

Law as a force or a set of rules/guidelines necessary for securing peaceful co-existence or as that essentially influenced by the socioeconomic structure and, thus, susceptible to a large extent to be used for maintenance and reinforcement of that structure. Law is a set of rules that are binding in nature and enforced by the state. The rule of law means is that all laws apply equally to all citizens of the country and no one can be above the law.  

Key PointsChildren have little exposure to laws, therefore, while discussing laws, it is important that 

• Teachers should give many examples related to familiar contexts so that students can review different types of law and would understand them.
• It is through this they can figure out that laws are meant to apply in an equitable manner.
• Students must be aware of all the laws so that they can relate to them.

Thus it is clear that children have little exposure to laws, therefore, while discussing laws, it is important that teachers should give as many examples from familiar context.

Social Sciences constitute a broad field of knowledge and deal with human beings in relation to their social behaviour. Social Sciences study the concepts or issues like culture, tradition, lifestyles, places, environment, power and authority, governance, economy, civic sense, etc. which have social implications.

.

Key Points

Role of Teacher in Social Science classroom:

• A Social Science teacher must employ a method of Increasing the engagement of students by thought-provoking and interesting activities for being effective as it will create interest and awareness among the students.
• It is necessary to revitalize social science teaching, to help the learner acquire knowledge and skills in an interactive environment.
• The teaching of the social sciences must adopt methods that promote creativity, aesthetics, and critical perspectives; and enable children to draw relationships between past and present to understand changes taking place in society.
• Problem-solving, dramatization, and role-play are some strategies that could be employed.
• Teaching should utilize audio-visual materials including photographs, charts and maps, and replicas of archaeological and material cultures.
• Concepts should be clarified to students through lived experiences of individuals and communities.

Hint

• Increase the knowledge of students by taking tests every Monday- It is just a test for students which examines their cramming knowledge which is not an effective method.
• Award grades in a lax manner to boost the confidence of slow learners- It is not an appropriate way of teaching method as it will not create interest among students.
• Assign projects to be done at home so as to involve parents in the studies of their ward- It is also not an effective method as students will find it boring to complete the assignments.

Thus, it is concluded that a social science teacher must employ a method that increases the engagement of students through thought-provoking and interesting activities.

Today most countries in the world have a Constitution. While all democratic countries are likely to have a Constitution, it is not necessary that all countries that have a Constitution are democratic. 

Key Points

• A Constitution helps serve as a set of rules and principles that all persons in a country can agree upon as the basis of the way in which they want the country to be governed.
• This includes not only the type of government but also an agreement on certain ideals that they all believe the country should uphold.
• The Constitution plays a crucial role in laying out certain important guidelines that govern decision-making within societies.

Important Points

• The discussion on the Indian Constitution is situated within a historical context.
• This has been done with the express intent that students become aware of the major influence that our anti-colonial struggle had on Indian democracy.
• It influences the making and framing of laws in the constitution.

Hence, it is concluded that in a discussion on the constitution, it is important that is it discussed in a historical context so that students become aware that the anti-colonial struggle had its major influence.

With the growing trend of technological advancement, it has become imperative to align learning, with attributes such as just in time, skill-based and adaptive, to meet the desired business need. So outcome-based learning becomes key to meeting the growing and changing business requirement of having access to the right knowledge at the right time.

• “Outcome-based education (OBE) is a process that involves the restructuring of curriculum, assessment and reporting practices in education to reflect the achievement of high order learning and mastery rather than the accumulation of course credits”.

Key Points

OBE is a student-centred learning approach that assists teachers in planning course delivery and assessment with the end goal in mind. The outcome-oriented student learning model in Social Science will focus primarily on Learning objectives, learning activities, formative and summative assessments.

• Learning objectives:- Objectives that are achieved after finishing the particular topic or chapter.
• Learning activities:- Activities that are included for explaining the topic or chapter.
• Formative assessment:- It is an in-process evaluation conducted during the lesson or topic.
• Summative assessment: It is taken after the particular topic or lesson is over.

Thus, it is concluded that the outcome-oriented student learning model in social science will focus primarily on learning objectives, learning activities, formative and summative assessments.

The social sciences are fields of academic scholarship which explore aspects of human society and complex human relationships. Social science perspectives and knowledge are indispensable to building the knowledge base for a just and peaceful society. The social sciences encompass diverse concerns of society and include a wide range of content drawn from the disciplines of history, geography, political science, economics, sociology, and anthropology.

Important Points

• Social science content should aim at raising students’ awareness through critically exploring and questioning familiar social realities. The possibilities of including new dimensions and concerns, especially in view of students’ own life experiences, are considerable.
• Selecting and organizing material into a meaningful curriculum, one that will enable students to develop a critical understanding of society, is, therefore, a challenging task.
• Developing concepts and the ability to assess social reality should take precedence over simply remembering facts without understanding them.
• Content, therefore, needs to focus on a conceptual understanding rather than lining up facts to be memorized for examinations.
• It is also necessary to recognize that the social sciences lend themselves to scientific inquiry just as much as the natural and physical sciences do, as well as to indicate ways in which the methods employed by the social sciences are distinct but in no way inferior to those of the natural and physical sciences.

​

Hint

• Making students familiar with happenings in the world around, Inculcating nationalism in students and imparting knowledge about developed countries. These all options are part of the social science text but not the aim.

Thus, it is concluded that the content of Social Science should aim at raising students awareness through critically exploring and questioning familiar social reality..

The textbook is a specially written book that contains selective and systematic knowledge. It is not a bare statement of knowledge but is armed with various teaching-learning devices to fulfil the desired instructional role.

Key Points

• Textbooks are seen as the major source of knowledge. This foreclosed any possibility of innovation by the active participation of the learners, both teachers and students. The textbook should be seen as opening up avenues for further enquiry. This would encourage the learner to go beyond the textbook, to further reading and observation.
• In a plural society like ours, it is important that all regions and social groups be able to relate to the textbooks. This is often impossible given the centralised nature of textbook production. Therefore, it is necessary to work towards institutionalising an alternate, more decentralised mechanism of knowledge generation in which teachers, students, and the local community feel empowered to bring in their own realities to the content of social studies.
• Relevant local content should be part of the teaching-learning process, ideally transacted through activities drawing on local teaching-learning resources.

Thus, it is concluded that in a pluralistic society like ours, it is important that textbooks should be such that all regions and social groups be able to relate to them.

Social Sciences constitute a broad field of knowledge and deal with human beings in relation to their social behaviour. Social Sciences study the concepts or issues like culture, tradition, lifestyles, places, environment, power and authority, governance, economy, civic sense, etc. which have social implications. While physical sciences are concerned with physical concepts or issues like stone, matter, force, area, distance, heat, etc., social sciences deal with human beings and their relation to each other in society at different places and times. 

Key Points

NCF 2005: 

• It is a document that seeks to provide a framework within which teachers and schools can choose and plan experiences that they think children should have.
• It addresses four issues such as educational purpose, educational experience, organization of experience, and assessing the learner.

Important Points

• According to the National Center for Education Statistics, the social science curriculum should attempt to raise students' knowledge by critically analysing and questioning common social facts. There are several opportunities to incorporate new aspects and issues, particularly in light of students' own life experiences. As a result, selecting and structuring content into a relevant curriculum that would allow pupils to develop a critical perspective of society is a difficult endeavour.
• The aim of education in Social Science should be to enable students to analyze socio-political reality. These are issues that are regulated by a political policy that affect whole societies like global warming, communicable disease control, radioactive waste disposal, resource management, fish and wildlife, and biotechnology.
• Developing concepts and the ability to assess social reality must take precedence over simply remembering facts without understanding them.

Hence, it is concluded that according to NCF 2005, the aim of education in Social Science should be to enable students to analyse socio-political reality.

The Civil Rights Movement is an umbrella term for the many varieties of activism that sought to secure full political, social, and economic rights for African Americans in the period from 1946 to 1968.

• Civil rights activism involved a diversity of approaches, from bringing lawsuits in court to lobbying the federal government, to mass direct action, to black power.
• The efforts of civil rights activists resulted in many substantial victories, but also met with the fierce opposition of white supremacists.
• The Civil Rights Movement in the USA (1954-1968) refers to a set of events and reform movements aimed at abolishing legal racial discrimination against African-Americans.
• This was led by Martin Luther King Jr., this movement practised non-violent methods of civil disobedience against racially discriminatory laws and practices.

Thus, it is clear that the Civil Rights Movement was started in the U.S.A. to demand equal rights and end racial discrimination.

Additional Information

• Demand for voting rights for women was called the Women's Suffrage Movement.

As a real executive authority, the Chief Minister is called the head of the government.

• He is assisted by his council of ministers who are a part of the state executive along with Governor and Advocate-General of State.
• Similar to the Prime Minister who is the head of the government at the centre, the Chief Minister is the head of the government at the state level.

Appointment of Chief minister:

• According to the article of the Indian Constitution 164, the chief minister is appointed by the governor.
• Art. 164 of the Constitution provide that there shall be a Council of Ministers with the Chief Minister at its hand to aid and advice the governor.
• The governor has to appoint the leader of the majority party in the state legislative assembly as the chief minister not according to his wishes.
• The MLAs of the party which has got a majority in the election will elect their leader who will become the chief minister.

Thus, we can say that Chief Minister is chosen by the MLA's of the party which has got a majority in the election.

Additional Information

• When no party gets a majority in the elections, the governor exercises his own discretion and appoint a Chief Minister accordingly.
• In a case where no party has won the majority votes, Governor appoints the member of the largest party or one from the coalition (if occurs) as the Chief Minister and then he is given 1 month time to prove confidence in the house.
• If the incumbent dies in the office, Governor at his own discretion can appoint a Chief Minister however, the ruling party nominates a member and Governor usually appoints that person as the Chief Minister. This person then has to prove confidence within a specified time.
• A person not belonging to either house (Legislative Assembly & Council) can also be appointed as the Chief Minister, however, within six months of his tenure as a CM he should be elected to either house without which he ceases to be a CM.
• Chief Minister can belong to any house in the State Legislature.

A gender stereotype is a generalised view or preconception about attributes or characteristics that are or ought to be possessed by women and men or the roles that are or should be performed by men and women. 

• It is therefore harmful when it limits the capacity of women and men to develop their personal attributes or professional skills and to make decisions about their lives and plans.
• There are also some common stereotypes of men and women, such as:
• Girls can do only household works.
• In the above example, it can be seen that it is presumed that household should be done by the women.

Thus, we can conclude that the statement "Girls can do only household works." shows gender stereotyping.

Everything ranging from the stall at the local fair to the programme that you see on TV can be called media.

• Media is the plural form of the word ‘medium’ and it describes the various ways through which we communicate in society.
• Because media refers to all means of communication, everything ranging from a phone call to the evening news on TV can be called media.
• TV, radio and newspapers are a form of media that reaches millions of people, or the masses, across the country and the world and, thus, they are called mass media.

Important Points

In a democracy, the media plays a very important role in providing news and discussing events taking place in the country and the world.

• It is on the basis of this information that citizens can, for example, learn how government works.
• And often, if they wish to, they can take action on the basis of these news stories.
• Some of the ways in which they can do this are by writing letters to the concerned minister, organising a public protest, public protest starting a signature campaign, asking the government to rethink its programme, etc.
• Given the role that the media plays in providing information, it is important that the information be balanced.

Thus, Media plays an important role in democracy by providing news and discussing events taking place in the country and the world.

The correct answer is 'using technology'.

Key Points

• The answer can be decided looking at the lines: With modern technology teachers could observe their own lessons and then when viewing them back, decide whether they want to share them with a mentor.
• According to the above lines, it can be deduced that teachers can self reflect and self evaluate their own lessons by using modern technology.
• Thus, option 1 will be the correct answer.

The correct answer is 'discuss their own practices'.

Key Points

• The answer can be decided looking at the lines: "Teachers talk about teaching, teachers observe each other's practice, teachers plan, organize and **evaluate their work together rather than separately, an that teachers teach each other."**
• According to the above explanation and the highlighted part, it can be deduced that an outstanding school has four factors in which teachers can discuss their own practices, plans, and they can maintain their work together and they can teach each other.
• So, we can conclude that 'Teachers talk about teaching' means that they 'discuss their own practices'.
• Thus, option 2 will be the correct answer.

The correct answer is 'create opportunities within the system for development'.

Key Points

• The answer can be decided looking at the lines: Sir Tim then encouraged schools to focus on activities that were low effort but high impact, describing as them as "butterflies". Some examples he gave included rotating staff meetings around different classrooms with the host, at the start, describing the room layout and displays, or discussing other teaching techniques and approaches.
• According to the above lines it can be deduced that with low efforts and high impacts we can create opportunities and renowned educationalist Sir Time Brighouse gave some suggestions including staff meeting rotation with host, and discussions of other teaching techniques and approaches.
• Thus, option 4 will be the correct answer.

The correct answer is 'self-diagnose their practices'.

Key Points

• The answer can be decided looking at the lines: With modern technology teachers could observe their own lessons and then when viewing them back, decide whether they want to share them with a mentor.
• Upon the perusal of the above lines it can be deduced that technology is helpful for teachers to self evaluate their practices. With the help of technology teachers can observe their own lessons.
• So, we can conclude that they can self-diagnose their practices.
• Thus, option 4 will be the correct answer.

The correct answer is 'seen'.

Key Points

• 'Visible' means able to be seen, able or likely to attract public attention and be noticed.
• For example:
• There are few visible signs of the illness that kept her in hospital for so long.
• 'Seen' is a past participle of see which means to become conscious of something, using your eyes, to use the power of sight, to perceive with the eyes; look at.
• For example:
• I have seen the light.
• According to the above explanation 'visible and seen' are same in their meanings, thus, make a synonym pair.
• Thus, option 1 will be the correct answer.

Additional Information

Let's look at the meanings of other given options:

• Obvious: means easy to see, recognize, or understand,
• Appealing: means attractive or interesting, showing that you want people to help or protect you.
• Bright: full of light, shining, strong in colour.

The correct answer is 'share their own practices with others'.

Key Points

• The answer can be decided looking at the lines: Sir Tim then encouraged schools to focus on activities that were low effort but high impact, describing as them as "butterflies". Some examples he gave included rotating staff meetings around different classrooms with the host, at the start, describing the room layout and displays, or discussing other teaching techniques and approaches.
• Upon the perusal of the above lines it can be deduced that rotating staff meetings in the class rooms helps teachers to discuss their practices and teaching techniques and approaches with each other.
• Thus, option 3 will be the correct answer.