CTET Paper 2 Maths & Science July 2013 (English-Hindi-Sanskrit) (Previous Year Paper)

Key Points

• The theory of multiple intelligences was first proposed by Howard Gardner in his 1983 book “Frames of Mind”, where he broadens the definition of intelligence and outlines several distinct types of intellectual competencies.
• Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that people are not born with all of the intelligence they will ever have. This theory challenged the traditional notion that there is one single type of intelligence, sometimes known as “g” for general intelligence, that only focuses on cognitive abilities.
• The theory of multiple intelligences proposes the differentiation of human intelligence into specific “modalities of intelligence”, rather than defining intelligence as a single, general ability.
• To broaden this notion of intelligence, Gardner introduced eight different types of intelligence consisting of: Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalist.

Criticism of this theory:

• The fundamental criticism of this theory is the belief by scholars that each of the seven multiple intelligences is in fact a cognitive style rather than a stand-alone construct.
• Hunt (2001) criticized Gardner’s theory on the ground that the “theory of multiple intelligences cannot even be evaluated by the canons of science until it is made specific enough to generate measurement models”.
• M. W. Eysenck (1990) remarked that “there are grounds for doubting that he has identified different intelligences rather than different abilities”.
• As Sternberg and Frensch (1990) pointed out, it seems strange to describe someone who is tone-deaf or physically uncoordinated as unintelligent.
• Other criticisms include the notion that the theory of multiple intelligences is not empirical, is incompatible with “g”, heritability, and environmental influences, and broadens the construct of intelligence so widely as to render it meaningless.

Hence, Multiple intelligence is only the 'talents' present in intelligence as a whole is a critique of theory of multiple intelligences.

Language development is a slow process through which a child learns to communicate through a language in the early childhood period. Child vocabulary starts to grow gradually.

Important Points

Chomsky theory is based on the fact that:-

• all languages contain similar structures and rules.
• children are born with an innate ability to learn the language.

Vygotsky** believed that language and thought initially have different roots but they converge during the **development process around the age of three.

Piaget believed that thought processes come before language. A child learns to think first then from that though they speak.

Skinner believed that children learn language through operant conditioning. The child receives rewards for using language in functional manner when the child realizes the communicative value of words and phrases. So language is not a stimulus in the environment.

Hence, 'language is a stimulus in the environment- B.F Skinner' is the least correct match.

Gender roles are based on certain standards set by society. When it comes to gender, there are usually two categories that the world relates to, male and female.

Key Points 

Gender stereotype:

• These are the beliefs that people have pertaining to the social roles that each gender fulfils in a culture.
• It is a belief about how males and females are supposed to act. Women are supposed to be submissive and men, on the contrary, are supposed to be more dominative.

Gender role attitudes: It ranges from traditional to egalitarian (non-traditional) wherein the traditional gender-role attitudes refers to the distinction in power between the roles of a husband and wife whereas a non-traditional gender is where the husband and wife contribute equally, both financially and in child-rearing.

Gender role strain: Gender role strain is means different for men and women. Masculine gender role strain means the men’s acceptance of violence against women. In the case of women, it means thinking, feeling and behaving in restrictive ways that are socially believed as masculine.

Gender role diagnosticity: It is the probability that a person is male or female based on gender-related identifying characteristics.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that features assigned due to social roles and not due to the biological endowment are called gender role stereotypes.

Ways to maximize learning

• Objectives then activities: As a teacher, it can be tempting to think of an activity and then base some learning around it. However, this could mean that you end up wasting time tasking your students with something that has no end goal. Instead, always start with a learning objective and then base an activity around this.
• Decrease the distractions: Distractions, in whatever form they come in can be harmful to lessons. Sometimes the teacher needs some additions to your standard approach to teaching, but all the flashy extras may end up distracting your students rather than helping them.
• Structure your lessons well: One way that one can make the most of the lesson time is to structure it as best one can. A great way to get a lesson underway is to start with an activity that is linked to the previous lesson learning. Not only does this get the students focused on working, but also encourages them to think about their previous learning
• Manage negative behaviour: One of the main causes of wasted behaviour for many schools is negative behaviour from students. There are a number of ways that one can manage this negative behaviour and it really will depend on the age of the students, as well as the students misbehaving too. Sometimes all a teacher need is to let them know that you have noticed their behaviour perhaps with non-verbal communication.

Conclusion: There are various ways to maximize the learning of the students. One of the important things is to remove the distraction from the classroom, whether it is from the teacher end or the students end. For this, a teacher should always be prepared with new teaching styles, content information, etc. But the best way to maximize learning is the awareness about the cognitive or grasping ability of the child as well as teachers' own cognitive level. Individual differences and cultural differences are common in each classroom. So these are not the hindrance in learning. Hence, option (1) is correct.

Assessment as learning focuses on students' active involvement in their own learning process. It encourages learners to reflect, self-assess, and use feedback to improve their understanding. The teacher's role is to guide students in becoming self-regulated learners.

Key Points

• Telling students to take internal feedback - This supports assessment as learning by promoting self-awareness and self-monitoring.
• Generating a safe environment for students to take chances - Creating a supportive atmosphere encourages learners to take academic risks, ask questions, and reflect, which are essential components of assessment as learning.
• Tell students to reflect on the topic taught - Reflection helps students evaluate their understanding and plan for improvement, which directly supports assessment as learning.

Hint

• Testing students as frequently as possible - This approach aligns more with assessment of learning, which emphasizes measuring performance. It does not encourage self-reflection or student-driven learning.

Hence, the practice that does not promote assessment as learning is testing students as frequently as possible.

Assessment is a process of collecting, receiving, and using data for the purpose of improvement in the learning process.

• Assessment is a systematic way of collecting information to make a judgment about student learning.
• It is integral to the teaching-learning process which helps in facilitating student learning and improving instruction.

Important Points

There are mainly two types of assessment:-

Hence, it could be concluded that when a cook tastes a food during cooking it may be akin to assessment for learning.

Differentiated instruction:

• Differentiated instruction is a teaching approach that tailors instruction to students' different learning needs.
• Differentiated instruction, also known as differentiated learning or, in education, simply, differentiation, is a framework or philosophy for effective teaching that involves providing all students within their diverse classroom community of learners a range of different avenues for understanding new information (often in the same classroom) in terms of acquiring content; processing, constructing, or making sense of ideas; and developing teaching materials and assessment measures so that all students within a classroom can learn effectively, regardless of differences in their ability.
• Students vary in culture, SES, language, gender, motivation, ability/disability, learning styles, personal interests, and more, and teachers must be aware of these varieties as they plan in accordance with the curricula. By considering varied learning needs, teachers can develop personalized instruction so that all children in the classroom can learn effectively.
• Instead of teaching the whole group in one way (like a lecture), a teacher uses a bunch of different methods. This can include teaching students in small groups or in one-on-one sessions.

Conclusion: Just as everyone has a unique fingerprint, every student has an individual learning style. Chances are, not all the students grasp a subject in the same way or share the same level of ability. Differentiated instruction is a teaching approach that tailor’s instruction to all students’ learning needs. All the students have the same learning goal. But the instruction varies based on students’ interests, preferences, strengths, and struggles. Thus differentiated instruction is not about making different groups of students or activity for undisciplined students or focus on the group that never change. It is all about different types of instruction for all students in the classroom keeping in mind their interest, readiness, attitude, etc. Hence, option (2) is correct.

Cultural and linguistic diversity is the most challenging job faced by any teacher in a globalized world. A diverse classroom is the one in which students come from a variety of cultures, status, race, abilities, etc.

Linguistic problems are faced by students who have grown up immersed in their mother-tongue and may find it difficult to learn a new language. So, the process of acquiring a new language is profoundly influenced by their mother-tongue.

Key Points

A good teacher is the one who can:

• Evaluate the influence of a student’s mother-tongue and give them the appropriate attention to be able to learn an entirely new language. This requires special training and skills on part of the teacher.
• Puts in efforts to research and reflect on how to address the problem and to identify the dominant language in a student.
• Make students to pair with other students speaking the same language as them in order to evaluate their learning levels.
• Have detailed discussions with parents regarding the languages spoken at home so that students can be helped with making connections between the language they speak and the language that they are trying to acquire.

Hence, it could be concluded that in the above-mentioned situation a teacher should evaluate students on her/his mother language to establish disability.

Learning disability is a disorder that affects people’s ability to either interpret what they see and hear or to link information from different parts of the brain. Since these limitations can show up in many forms, it is difficult to pinpoint the exact cause. Several factors affecting learning may include:

• Tobacco, alcohol and other drug use: Mother’s use of cigarettes, alcohol, other drugs during pregnancy (prenatal) can affect foetal development and have damaging impacts on the unborn child. Consumption of alcohol or drugs during the prenatal stage may lead to problems in learning, memory, or problem-solving.
• Mental retardation: During the various stages of pregnancy, the foetal brain develops from a collection of cells into a complex organ made of neurons. If any disruptions in the brain occur early, the infant may be born with widespread disabilities or even lead to mental retardation.
• Meningitis during infancy: The inflammation of tissues that line the brain and spinal cord is called meningitis. Even after recovery from this dangerous infection, it can lead to permanent disabilities in the functioning of the human brain.

A few other causes of learning difficulties include genetic abnormalities that run in the family, presence of toxins in the child’s environment, eg. Breathing lead, complications during pregnancy or delivery, etc.

Key PointsInclusive school

• Inclusion in education refers to a model wherein students with special needs spend most or all of their time with non-special needs students.
• Inclusive school means that all students attend and are welcomed by their neighborhood schools in age-appropriate, regular classes and are supported to learn, contribute and participate in all aspects of the life of the school.
• Inclusive education is about ensuring access to quality education for all students by effectively meeting their diverse needs in a way that is responsive, accepting, respectful and supportive. Students participate in the education program in a common learning environment with support to diminish and remove barriers and obstacles that may lead to exclusion.
• An inclusive belief that all children can learn and reach their full potential given opportunity, effective teaching, and appropriate resources. Programs will be offered to best meet the individual needs of each child and student within the school community.
• Instead of pulling children out of the classroom to offer them specialized instruction, in an inclusive classroom special education teachers come into the classroom. This allows for general education teachers and specialists to work together in the same learning environment, benefiting all students, who are offered additional resources and support.

Conclusion: Education is everyone's right. Awareness and support by the school community are essential to successful inclusion. Diversity must be valued in order for inclusion to be successful. It is based on the understanding that all children and families are valued equally and deserve access to the same opportunities. In inclusion, it is believed that all students can learn irrespective of their disability and for that, a learning environment is created with the help of a team of teachers where such strategies are formulated that can cater to the need of every child. Inclusion does not believe in segregation or exclusion. Hence, option (3) is correct.

Exceptional children are those who deviate from the normal population and need special education services to meet their needs. It includes children who are gifted, backward, creative, learning disabled, etc.

• A gifted child is one who displays consistently remarkable performance in various physical or cognitive aspects and exhibits superiority in general intelligence levels.

Key Points

Characteristics of Gifted Child:

• Easy retention of facts.
• High intellectual curiosity.
• Unusual alertness, even in infancy.
• High speed in processing information.
• Early development of a sense of time.
• Advanced logical and creative thinking: creative thinking is labeled in psychology as divergent thinking.
• Excellent memory and novelty in expression.
• Curiosity, creativity, and independence in thought.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that Gifted students are divergent thinkers

Additional Information

Hint

Extroversion: Extroversion is a personality type of an individual who is energized by the company of others in comparison to an introvert who prefers to be by themselves most of the time. It is not necessary that an individual exhibiting convergent thinking is an extroverted person.

Sigma value in Normal Distribution Curve

• The empirical rule also referred to as the three-sigma rule or 68-95-99.7 rule, is a statistical rule which states that for a normal distribution, almost all observed data will fall within three standard deviations (denoted by σ) of the mean or average.
• One standard deviation, or one sigma, plotted above or below the average value on that normal distribution curve, would define a region that includes 68 percent of all the data points. Two sigmas above or below would include about 95 percent of the data, and three sigmas would include 99.7 percent.
• In particular, the empirical rule predicts that 68% of observations falls within the first standard deviation (µ ± σ), 95% within the first two standard deviations (µ ± 2σ), and 99.7% within the first three standard deviations (µ ± 3σ).
• The empirical rule is also used as a rough way to test a distribution's "normality". If too many data points fall outside the three standard deviation boundaries, this suggests that the distribution is not normal and maybe skewed or follow some other distribution.
• The empirical rule is also known as the three-sigma rule, as "three-sigma" refers to a statistical distribution of data within three standard deviations from the mean on a normal distribution (bell curve), as indicated by the figure below.

Conclusion: The empirical rule is beneficial because it serves as a means of forecasting data. This is especially true when it comes to large datasets and those where variables are unknown. Since in the given data the child is highly intelligent, highly motivated, and highly creative. So the child will fall after 3 sigmas. Hence, option  (3) is correct.

Children centered activity

• The ideas behind child-centered education date back to the 19^th century. Back then, kindergarten was believed to be “a garden for children” where kids could learn at their own pace. Children-centered education emphasizes the importance of group work. This is done by encouraging students to collaborate on activities that broaden their minds. This approach considers the act of play as a type of work or lesson. When children play, they consistently learn. They discover how to plan, ask questions, and experiment.
• Child-centered education in today’s world is based on the thinking that students must be encouraged to learn at their own pace. Their study exercises should be tailored in accordance with their specific needs and with an inclination towards their interests.
• The very core of learning centered around children is to help the child achieve holistic development. It includes the development of physical capabilities along with intellectual abilities, cognitive or mental abilities, emotional abilities, and social skills. Child-centered teachers engage in an “active learning” process to help the child develop the knowledge and skills needed in all areas.
• According to many studies, play-acts as a medium of learning for children from a very young age.  It stimulates early brain development. It allows children to create and imagine, which is an important aspect of child-centered education.  Play promotes healthy development and critical thinking skills and reinforces memory.

Conclusion: Playing also provides opportunities for children to learn social interaction. When children play together they learn to cooperate, follow rules, develop self-control, and generally get along with other people. All the classroom activity and classwork that does not please the child, they forget it easily and even don't try to recall it. But the things that interest them and are useful for them, they recall that. It means children learn faster when they are involved in activities that seem to be useful in real life. Hence, option (4) is correct.

CBSE Curriculum

The curriculum refers to the lessons and educational content to be taught to a learner in a school. In empirical terms, it may be regarded as the sum total of a planned set of educational experiences provided to a learner by a school. It encompasses general objectives of learning, competencies to be attained, courses of study, subject-wise learning outcomes and content, pedagogical practices, and assessment guidelines. The curriculum provided by CBSE is based on National Curriculum Framework-2005 and seeks to provide opportunities for students to achieve excellence in learning.

Integrating all areas of learning:

• According to CBSE, children should get opportunities to think laterally, critically, identify opportunities, challenge their potential and be open to new ideas.
• Children should be engaged in practices that promote physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development and wellbeing, connect different areas of knowledge, application, and values with their own lives and the world around them.
• The holistic nature of human learning and knowledge should be brought forth while transacting the curriculum to make them good citizens who can contribute to making the world a happy place.

Importance of group activity

• Group projects can help students develop a host of skills that are increasingly important in the professional world.
• Positive group experiences, moreover, have been shown to contribute to student learning, retention, and overall success.
• Properly structured, group projects can reinforce skills that are relevant to both group and individual work, including the ability to, break complex tasks into parts and steps, plan and manage time, develop stronger communication skills.
• Group projects can also help students develop skills specific to collaborative efforts, allowing students to, tackle more complex problems than they could on their own, delegate roles and responsibilities, share diverse perspectives, pool knowledge, and skills.

Conclusion: According to the new curriculum of CBSE, importance is given to the holistic development of the child. Apart from cognitive development, emotional, ethical, and spiritual development should also be taken into consideration. For this CBSE has prescribed group activity over individual activity, to overcome the burden of individual competition that is prevalent in learning strategy. CBSE, as a system values children above monetary funds, teacher's work pressure, and the schedule of the schools. So, we can conclude that group activity has been prescribed by CBSE to reduce the emotion of individual competition and hence to boost the mental health of the students. Hence, option (1) is correct.

Behavior Modeling theory

• In social learning theory, behavior modeling is the precise demonstration of the desired behavior. According to the theory, we learn not only by doing but by watching what others do.
• Albert Bandura created psychology Modeling which is a social approach that exaggerates how important it is to be aware of attitudes and the result of emotional responses. Modeling focuses on learning by observing others. It is used to uncover evolved behavior.
• This psychology is an emphasis on the learning that takes place in social situations and how people obtain behaviors from others through imitation. The people that are being observed are called the "models." Children are surrounded by these models which is where they learn much of their behavior.
• Children pay attention to this and subconsciously imitate the behavior. Whether or not this is relevant to them and their gender, they will continue to imitate it because it was learned.
• Modeling works by observing designated people and learning how to act by watching their physical and emotional behavior. The observer will pay attention to the features of the model. They must be attentive to the model's characteristics.

Points to remember

• E.L.Thorndike: Thorndike founded the theory of connectionism. This learning theory represents the original Stimuli-Response framework of behavioral psychology, which states that learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses.
• J.B.Watson: Behaviorism, according to Watson, was the science of observable behavior. Within behaviorism, Watson specialized in child development, arguing that a child's environment is the factor that shapes behaviors over their genetic makeup or natural temperament.
• Jean Piaget: Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive processes and abilities

Conclusion: Modeling or social learning is the process of understanding models and using social media so that the learning can be enhanced further. The goal of modeling is to learn through observing these people and understand that a mental state has everything to do with the end result of a circumstance. It aims to teach students that just because something has been learned it doesn't mean that it will actually change the given behavior. This concept of social learning was proposed by Albert Bandura. Hence, option (3) is correct.

Keywords:

• Simulation: A simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time. Simulations require the use of models, the model represents the key characteristics or behaviors of the selected system or process, whereas the simulation represents the evolution of the model over time. Simulation can be used to show the eventual real effects of alternative conditions and courses of action. Simulation is also used when the real system cannot be engaged, because it may not be accessible, or it may be dangerous or unacceptable to engage, or it is being designed but not yet built, or it may simply not exist.
• Social learning: Social learning is defined as learning through the observation of other people's behaviors. It is a process of social change in which people learn from each other in ways that can benefit wider social-ecological systems.
• Generalization: Generalization, in psychology, is the tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli. For example, a dog conditioned to salivate to a tone of a particular pitch and loudness will also salivate with considerable regularity in response to tones of higher and lower pitch.

Conclusion: Simulation, social learning, and generalization are similar concepts, in which imitation is done in different situations. In the simulation, imitation of real-world activity is done by the use of some models, in social learning imitation of behavior is done by observing others, and in generalization, the response is given in the same way to different but similar stimuli. Here, the child is learning by observing the models in the fashion show, which is a kind of social learning. Hence, option (3) is correct.

Working with students who make too much error

• Every individual is unique with different IQ levels. Some students have the capability of grabbing fast and memorize for a long. Others have less picking capacity.
• Teachers and professors are supposed to take care of each and everybody as per their specific needs. Weak students, slow learners, or error-making children require extra attention. Punishing a weak student won’t provide the necessary solution.
• The more we think about a particular student’s flaws and strengths, the more we will be able to guide him/her in the right way. Understand the core problem.
• Scolding and harsh punishment may discourage such children. He may get scared of sharing his problems. Therefore, find the vulnerable students’ strength and utter encouraging words for him/her. Confidence is the keyword. It will make him/her feel his worth and importance.
• Make a proper timetable for the error-making students. Students are not matured. They make mistakes by not following the goal to study well and earn good grades. Teachers can help them in dividing the given time into various slots for completing each topic, revise and give exams. Doing the appropriate thing at the proper time can achieve the goal.
• Pleasant and polite behavior with individual care can boost confidence and willpower, and the not-so-good students can come up with excellent grades in the future.

Conclusion: The most important thing for a teacher while dealing with students who make too much error is, to be patient. If such children will be given proper guidance, care, and practice, then their error counting can be easily reduced. If such students will not be taken proper care of and left on their own or made to stand outside the classroom or even complaint to the principal will not reduce their error mistake but it will increase with time. Hence, option (1) is correct.

Anxiety: Anxiety is a feeling of fear, dread, and uneasiness. It might cause to sweat, feel restless and tense, and have a rapid heartbeat. It can be a normal reaction to stress.

Managing anxiety during exam

Many students freeze during exams and get depressed. Here are a few strategies to reduce examination pressure:

• Maintain a healthy life: Continue to get adequate sleep, exercise, and healthy food during exam time. Avoid substances that increase anxiety:  caffeine, sugar, nicotine, and cannabis.
• Get accurate information: Know what to expect when you arrive at the exam – format of questions, what material the exam will cover, and how much it is worth, etc.
• Study effectively: Spread your studying over the whole term rather than “cramming.”  Feeling that you don’t have enough time to cover everything increases anxiety. Reduce anxiety by being well prepared.
• Prepare to write the exam: Think about what commonly distracts you during exams (e.g.: frequent clock-watching, noise from other students, etc.) and develop strategies in advance for dealing with these distractions.
• Adjust your attitude: Maintain an attitude of doing the best you can under the circumstances, rather than requiring perfection from yourself.

Conclusion: Anxiety can be normal in stressful situations such as public speaking or taking a test. Anxiety is only an indicator of underlying disease when feelings become excessive, all-consuming, and interfere with daily living. It can easily be reduced by proper strategy. Too much thinking about the problem causes more stress. Hence, option (2) is the correct explanation to the question.

Benjamin Bloom's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models that refers to the classification of educational learning objectives. In the taxonomy, Bloom identified three domains of learning which include cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.

These three domains have been divided in a way that proceeds from the simplest process to the complex.

• Cognitive domains: In this domain, a child deals with knowledge and hence, learns to create, evaluate, analyze, etc.
• Psychomotor domains: It is concerned with acquiring skills that require the integration of mental and physical movements.
• Affective domains: It includes how we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, etc.

The work of preparing questions is related to the 'cognitive domain' which involves mental skills that are categorized into six levels of learning that serve in the development of intellectual skills and acquisition power. 

The cognitive domains as per Bloom's taxonomy:

• Remember: Retrieving the relevant knowledge from long-term memory.
• Understand: Construct meaning from instructional messages, including oral, written, and graphic communication.
• Application: Carry out or use a procedure in a given situation.
• Analysis: Break material into its constituent parts and determine how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose.
• Evaluation: Make judgments based on criteria or standards.
• Create: Put elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure.

Hence, we can conclude that Bloom's taxonomy is a hierarchical organization of cognitive objectives.

The goal setting is very vital to enhance the performance of any individual and organization. Goal setting is the process of identifying something that you want to accomplish and establishing measurable goals and timeframes. The goals were divided into three types or groups (Elliot and McGregor (2001):

• Mastery goals
• Performance-approach goals
• Performance-avoidance goals

A, B, and C are three students studying English. 'A' finds it interesting and thinks it will be helpful for her in the future. 'B' studies English as she wants to secure the first rank in the class. 'C' studies it as she is primarily concerned to secure passing grades. A is focused on mastery goals, B focusing the performance goal, and C  focusing on the performance-avoidance goals.

Key Points

Let's understand these three goals in brief

• Mastery goal: A mastery goal is a goal someone sets to accomplish or master something such as “I will score higher in this event next time.”
• Performance-approach goals: A performance-approach goal is a goal where someone tries to do better than his or her peers. This type of goal could be a goal to look better by losing 5 pounds or getting a better performance review.
• Performance-avoidance goals: A performance-avoidance goal is a goal where someone tries to avoid doing worse than their peers such as a goal to avoid negative feedback.

Hence, we can conclude that in the above situation, the goals of A, B, and C respectively are Mastery, Performance, Performance Avoidance.

Maslow’s Hierarchical Theory of Motivation:

• This theory was developed by Abraham H Maslow, an American Psychologist who suggested that individual needs exist in a hierarchy consisting of physiological needs, security needs, belongingness needs, esteem needs, and self-actualisation needs.
• The bottom-level needs such as the physiological and security needs must be met before top-level needs such as belongingness, esteem, and self-actualisation can be motivational.

Key Points

• According to Abraham Maslow, self-actualization “refers to man’s desire for self-fulfilment, namely, to the tendency for him to become actualised in what he is potential. This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming”.
• The excellent life, according to Maslow, is one that leads to self-actualization, which is the pinnacle need. When you maximise your potential and do the best you're capable of, you've achieved self-actualization. Captain Vikram Batra, for example, who died fighting in the Kargil War while defending his country, exemplifies self-actualization.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that Captain Vikram Batra might have achieved self-actualisation.

Additional Information

Extinction of response:

 In psychology, extinction refers to the gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing. In other words, the conditioned behavior eventually stops. 

Cause of extinction:

In classical conditioning, when a conditioned stimulus is presented alone without an unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will eventually cease.

In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when a response is no longer reinforced following a discriminative stimulus.

• Continuous reinforcement: Continuous reinforcement is a method of reinforcing behavior in an effort to increase or decrease a particular behavior's frequency. It is part of a method of learning known as operant conditioning. In continuous schedules, reinforcement is provided every single time after the desired behavior. We have come to expect our behavior to be reinforced every time it is performed and quickly grow discouraged if it is not.
• Partial reinforcement: Unlike continuous schedules, partial schedules only reinforce the desired behavior occasionally rather than all the time. This leads to slower learning since it is initially more difficult to make the association between behavior and reinforcement. However, partial schedules also produce behavior that is more resistant to extinction.

Conclusion: Reinforcement and punishment are principles of operant conditioning that increase or decrease the likelihood of a behavior. Reinforcement and punishment are principles that are used in operant conditioning. Punishment is any consequence or outcome that decreases the likelihood of a behavioral response. Extinction, in operant conditioning, refers to when a reinforced behavior is extinguished entirely. This occurs at some point after reinforcement stops; the speed at which this happens depends on the reinforcement schedule. Partial reinforcement produces behavior more resistant to extinction. Hence, option (1) is correct.

Mastery Orientation:

• Mastery orientation is defined as having the goal of learning and mastering the task according to self-set standards. The learner is focused on developing new skills, improving, and acquiring additional knowledge.
• Mastery-orientated students find satisfaction with the work and are not influenced by external performance indicators such as grades. Students who have mastery goals tend to engage in activities that will increase their knowledge. They pay more attention, are more likely to process information at a higher level, and are not afraid to ask for help.
• Mastery orientation is described as a focus on learning and improvement. Mastery orientation focuses on learning, not grades; improvement, not appearances; competency, not competition. This person wants to understand and grow, not just prove how smart he or she is.
• Students who are more mastery motivated see learning as incremental. They believe abilities can be improved with practice and that they have control over their learning, These students exhibit academic behaviors that positively impact their learning successes. These behaviors include persevering through difficult tasks and using feedback to improve their performance.
• In mastery orientation, classroom emphasis is not on the outcome, but on the process and the progress. Students are recognized for improved performance and feedback is geared toward improvement. Reward systems are less extrinsic and more intrinsic.
• A systematic classroom program for influencing students to adopt a mastery goal mindset is TARGET. TARGET is concerned with task, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation, and time

Conclusion: Students’ motivational goal orientation is important to their successes as students as well as in the workplace. Students who adopt mastery goals with the growth mindset are more likely to develop a love for learning and that intrinsic motivation to learn is important to students’ academic growth – including their successful acquisition of skills. Teachers’ own beliefs, the feedback they choose to use, the time they give to students to complete tasks, the choices of tasks they give students, and the credence they give to students’ thoughts about learning experiences all play a role in shaping a students’ mindset toward learning. So, for mastery orientation, focussing on a student's individual effort is more important than comparing him with others, assigning a task, or unexpected test conduction. Hence, option (1) is correct.

The term “development” is generally used to refer to the dynamic process by which an individual grows and changes throughout its lifespan. It is often thought of as the process of qualitative change taking place from conception to death.

Key Points

Social Development: Social development refers to the overall transformation of individuals and society, which may enable every person to achieve moral, social physical, and material well-being. Egalitarian development is a desired goal, but it remains only an ‘ideal’. 

• It refers to the ability of the child to establish relationships with persons in his/her environment.
• As an infant, strong ties are established between the child and his/her caretaker, generally mother, father or family members. It may be mentioned that the quality of the relationship between parents and the child determines his/her behaviour later in life as an adult.
• As the child grows older, relationships with peers and visitors in the family, are established. By the age of two, group behaviour among children begins.
• By interaction with the members of his/her group, the child develops an image about himself/ herself (self-concept).

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that 'Social Development - Environment' is correctly matched.

Additional Information

• Physical development refers to the changes in size, structure and proportion of the body that take place from the time of conception. Bodily growth occurs through approximately the first 20 years of life in humans. Growth is more rapid and more likely to show spurts during infancy, early childhood and adolescence than during middle childhood. The environment is not a prominent factor that affects physical development.
• Cognitive development refers to the growth and change in the mental capacity that begins in infancy and reaches maturity in adolescence. According to Piaget, Cognitive development is related to maturation via stages sensory-motor, pre-operational, concrete operational and formal operation. Ascending order for Cognitive development is sensory-motor >> pre-operational >> concrete operational >> formal operation.

Emotionally and socially fit students:

• Display self-control: Emotionally and socially fit students are able to manage their anger as well as joy. In adverse situations, they remain calm and controlled and in a happy situation, they will share their happiness with others.
• Express feeling in words: Whatever they feel for others or whatever is the situation, such kids try to express themselves openly.
• Take pride in accomplishment: In every accomplishment, whether it is success or failure, they accept this with pride without feeling jealous or competitive with others.
• Ask for help when needed: In need without any doubt, they will ask for help from their peers, teachers, and parents. Instead of hiding any adverse situation, such kids like to share with others and believe in getting their help.
• Shows affection to familiar people: They love the people around them. Those people may be their parents, family members, peers, teachers, etc.
• Aware of others' feeling: They always respect the feelings of others. They will neither shy away from expressing themselves nor do they disrespect others' feelings.

Conclusion: A socially and emotionally healthy child will always respect others, have self-control, takes pride in his/her accomplishment, and love all those people whom they know. Hence, option (4) is not the characteristic of a socially and emotionally healthy child.

Environmental factors contribute significantly to the effective teaching and learning experience of an individual. A teacher should be able to manage the learning environment in such a way so that each child can learn effectively.

Important Points

There has been a steady increase in students' average performance on IQ tests in the last few decades, it shows the environment brings variations in the development.

Key Points

A learning environment could be managed in three ways:

• Self-directed learning: It occurs when an individual takes responsibility for his/her learning. The primary responsibility of the planning, executing, and evaluating a learning experience is on the individual's shoulder.
• Collaborative learning: Students working together in a group is known as a collaborative or cooperative learning practice. For some students, learning can be made more effective by engaging them in group activities rather than learning individually.
• Learning-style preference: It includes cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that influence the way a learner interacts with the learning environment. A teacher has to ensure a considerable variety in the teaching methodologies to ensure optimum levels of learning in each student.

Hence, we conclude that the above statement supports the role of the environment in the development of a child.

Socialization is known as the process of inducting the individual into the social world. It is the process through which a person, from birth through death, is taught the norms, customs, values, and roles of the society in which they live It is the means by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary to perform as functioning members of their society.

Key Points The role of socialization:

• Socialization prepares people for social life by teaching them a group’s shared norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors.
• The role of socialization is to acquaint individuals with the norms of a given social group or society.  It prepares individuals to participate in a group by illustrating the expectations of that group.

Goals of socialization:

• First, socialization teaches impulse control and helps individuals develop a conscience.
• Second, socialization teaches individuals how to prepare for and perform certain social roles—occupational roles, gender roles, and the roles of institutions such as marriage and parenthood.
• Third, socialization cultivates shared sources of meaning and value. Through socialization, people learn to identify what is important and valued within a particular culture.

Conclusion: The term “socialization” refers to a general process, but socialization always takes place in specific contexts. Socialization is culturally specific: people in different cultures are socialized differently, hold different beliefs and values, and behave in different ways. The goals of socialization are to teach us to control biological impulses as children, to develop a conscience that fits with the norms of society, to teach and develop meaning in social life (what is important and valued), and to prepare us for various social roles and how we will perform them. So, from this, we conclude that socialization helps to shape the personality of the individual also. Hence, option (2) is correct.

Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, belongs to the cognitive school of psychology, is famous for his work on child development. He strongly believed that children are little scientist and they actively construct their understanding of the world.

This task is based on the principle of Conservation. This principle says that even if there is a change in the appearance of the object, its characteristics remain the same.

• As per the situation given in the question, the students are having the difficulty in dealing with decentring because they are unable to decentre or consider more than one aspect at the same time. They are only focussing on the height of the water level and only focus on one dimension/aspect at one time
• The concepts like decentring and reversibility the child developed in the third stage of Piaget cognitive development i.e. Concrete Operational stage, where a child age 7-12 shows increased use of logic.

Key Points

The theory is categorized into four stages as explained below:

Hence, we conclude that the above situation showing the students have difficulty in dealing with​ the decentring process.

Lawrence Kohlberg, an American psychologist, has propounded the 'Theory of Moral Development'. He has made a systematic study of moral development in his theory that is categorized into 3 levels and 6 stages.

Key Points

Post-conventional level

• At this stage right actions tend to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society.
• Apart from what is constitutional and democratically agreed upon the right is a matter of personal values.
• Values act as a guiding force that defines the right action based on one’s own conscience.
• Right is defined by the decision of the conscience in accordance with self-chosen ethical principles appealing logical comprehensiveness, universality and consistency.
• Universal and abstract moral values including equality, respect, etc. guide one's behaviour.
• Personality development is highly governed by ethical-moral thinking and internal moral principles.
• Karnail Singh does not pay income tax despite legal procedures and expenses. He thinks that he cannot support a corrupt government that spends millions of rupees in building unnecessary dams. He is probably in a post-conventional stage of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development because it shows a guiding force that defines the right action based on one’s own conscience.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that Kamal Singh is probably in post-conventional stage of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.

Important Points

Refer to the table to be familiar with all the levels of Kohlberg's theory:

Key Points

Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence is a cognitive-contextual theory that defines intelligence as "the ability to adapt to, shape, and select environments." It proposes that there are three types of intelligence: analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence.

• Analytical intelligence is the ability to analyze information, solve problems, and make decisions.
• Creative intelligence is the ability to generate new ideas, solve problems in novel ways, and adapt to change.
• Practical intelligence is the ability to use knowledge and skills in everyday situations.

The triarchic theory of intelligence also includes three meta-components: metacognition, executive control, and knowledge acquisition. Metacognition is the ability to think about one's own thinking. Executive control is the ability to plan, organize, and execute tasks. Knowledge acquisition is the ability to learn new information and skills.

The triarchic theory of intelligence is a comprehensive theory that incorporates both the mental processes involved in intelligence and the varied forms that intelligence can take. It is one of the most widely cited theories of intelligence in the field of psychology.

Therefore, the only theory that incorporates the mental processes involved in intelligence and the varied forms that intelligence can take is Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence. So the answer is (2).

Given:

Range = -8 < x < -3

Concept used:

An integer is a number that can be written without a fractional component. Example: 1, 11, 45, 8245, -14, -4295 

Detailed solution:

The integers that lie within the given range are:

-7, -6, -5, -4

∴ The number of integers within the given range is 4

Given:

Distance between two places = 12 km

Scale = 1 ∶ 25000

Concept used: 

1 km = 1000 m

1 m = 100 cm

1 km = 100000 cm

Map scale: It is a ratio of the distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground 

Calculation:

Let the distance between two places on the map be x cm

$⇒ \dfrac {x}{12} = \dfrac{1}{25000}$

$⇒ \dfrac {x}{1200000} = \dfrac{1}{25000}$      ----(12 km = 1200000 cm)

$⇒ x = \dfrac{1200}{25}$

⇒ x = 48 cm

∴ The distance between the two places on the map is 48 cm

Given:

$\dfrac{-3}{8} \times \left( \dfrac{-7}{13}\right)$

Calculation:

Solving the given expression,

$\Rightarrow \dfrac{-3}{8} \times \left( \dfrac{-7}{13}\right)$

$\Rightarrow \dfrac{3 \times 7}{8\times 13}$

$\Rightarrow \dfrac{21}{104}$

Reciprocal = 104/21

∴ The reciprocal of the given expression is 104/21

​Given:

Number of edges = 30

Number of faces = 12

Formula used:

F + V = E + 2

Where, 

F = Number of faces 

E = Number of edges 

V = Number of vertices

Calculation:

Let the number of vertices be V

⇒ 12 + V = 30 + 2

⇒ V = 32 - 12

⇒ V = 20

∴ The number of vertices is 20

Given:

Half of a number is increased by 15 = 39

Calculation:

Let the number be x

⇒ (x/2) + 15 = 39

⇒ x/2 = 24

⇒ x = 48

Sum of digits of the number = 4 + 8

⇒ 12

∴ The sum of digits of the original number is 12

Given:

PQ = PT

PR = PS 

∠PTS = 62° 

∠RPS = 34°

Calculation:

Two sides of the triangle are equal thus,

∠PQT = ∠PTQ (base angles of isosceles triangle)

⇒ ∠PTS = ∠PTQ (same angle)

⇒ ∠PQT = 62° 

In ΔPRS, PR = PS (given)

⇒ ∠PRS = ∠PSR (base angles of isosceles triangle)

⇒ ∠PRS = (180° - ∠RPS)/2

⇒ ∠PRS = (180° - 34°)/2

⇒ ∠PRS = 73° 

∠QPR = ∠PRS - ∠PQT  [Exterior angle theorem]

⇒ ∠QPR = 73° - 62° 

⇒ ∠QPR = 11° 

∴ The measure of ∠QPR is 11°

Given:

ΔCAB and ΔEDF are congruent

Concept used:

If two triangles are congruent then their corresponding sides and corresponding angles are equal

Detailed solution:

If ΔCAB and ΔEDF are congruent, then

CA = ED

AB = DF

CB = EF

∠C = ∠E    

∠A = ∠D    

∠B = ∠F    

∴ Amongst the given options, only AB = EF does not satisfy the congruency

Given:

40% of (100 - 20% of 300)

Calculation:

Solving the given term,

⇒ 40% of (100 - 20% of 300)

⇒ (2/5) × [100 - (1/5) × 300]

⇒ (2/5) × (100 - 60)

⇒ (2/5) × 40

⇒ 2 × 8

⇒ 16

∴ The given term is equal to 16

Given:

HCF = 28

LCM = 336

One number = 112

Formula used:

HCF × LCM = Product of the two numbers

Calculation:

Let the other number be x

⇒ 28 × 336 = 112 × x

⇒ 28 × 3 = x

⇒ x = 84

∴ The other number is 84

Given:

$\dfrac{2}{3}$x = 0.6

0.02 y = 1

Calculation:

The value of x is

⇒ 2x/3 = 6/10

⇒ x = 18/20

⇒ x = 9/10

The value of y is

⇒ 2y/100 = 1

⇒ y = 100/2

⇒ y = 50

Putting the values of x and y,

⇒ x + y^-1 = (9/10) + (1/50)

⇒ (45/50) + (1/50)

⇒ (45 + 1)/50

⇒ 46/50

⇒ 23/25

⇒ 0.92

∴ The value of x + y^-1 is 0.92

Given:

$y = \dfrac{x - 2}{x + 1}$

Calculations:

Solving the given expression,

$⇒ y = \dfrac{x - 2}{x + 1}$

⇒ (x + 1)y = x - 2

⇒ xy + y = x - 2

⇒ x - xy = y + 2

⇒ x(1 - y) = y + 2

$\Rightarrow x = \dfrac{y+ 2}{1-y}$

∴ The value of x is $\dfrac{y + 2}{1-y}$

Given:

Perimeter of Square = Perimeter of Circle

Formula used:

Perimeter of Square = 4a 

Perimeter of Circle = 2 π R

Area of Square = a²

Area of Circle = π R²

Where,

a = Side of square

R = Radius of circle

Calculations:

When the perimeter is equal 

⇒ 4 × a = 2 × π × R

⇒ 2a = π R

⇒ a = (π R)/2

Ratio of area = a² ∶ (π R²)

⇒ [(π R)/2]² ∶ (π R2)

⇒ [(π² × R²)/4] ∶ (π × R2)

⇒ π ∶ 4

∴ The ratio of area is π ∶ 4

Given:

AB = (x + 16) cm

BC = (3x) cm

Concept used:

All the sides of a square are equal

Formula used:

The perimeter of square = 4 × Side of the square

Calculations:

Sides of square are equal thus,

AB = BC

⇒ x + 16 = 3x

⇒ 2x = 16

⇒ x = 8 cm

The side of the square = (x + 16) = 3x = 24

Perimeter of square = 4 × 24

⇒ 96 cm

∴ The perimeter of the square is 96 cm

Given:

Mean = 0

Number of observations = 10

Formula used:

Mean = Sum of all the observations/Number of observations

Calculations:

Let the initial sum of all the observations be S

Mean = 0

⇒ S/10 = 0

⇒ S = 0

When 72 and -12 also included,

⇒ Sum = 0 + 72 - 12

⇒ Sum = 60

Number of observations = 10 + 2

⇒ 12

New mean = 60/12

⇒ 5

∴ The new mean is 5

Given:

Circumference = 44 cm

Height of cylinder = 15 cm

Formula used:

Circumference of base of cylinder = 2 π R

Volume of cylinder = π R² h

Where, 

R = Radius of the base of cylinder

h = Height of cylinder

Calculations:

Let the radius of the base of cylinder be R

⇒ 2 × (22/7) × R = 44

⇒ R = 7 cm

Volume of cylinder = (22/7) × 7 × 7 × 15

⇒ 22 × 7 × 15

⇒ 2310 cm³

∴ The volume of cylinder is 2310 cm3

Mathematics is a subject that is present everywhere and all the basic things or tasks that are required to be done in daily life need mathematical knowledge and skills. It usually studies the different types of shapes, patterns, geometrical objects, and data.

• It helps to understand the world around us by exploring hidden patterns in a systematic and organized manner as it has universal applicability.

Key Points

There is no specific rule or formula to solve any math word problem. It is all about logic and an approach to solving the problem.  

• The first step to solve the problem is to read, understand and identify the key pieces of information to find the answer.
• Choose the better strategy and need to figure out the formula or rule to solve the problem in the minimum time.
• In the given problem, students must have a better and clear understanding of rectangle and square and also a formula to calculate the area and perimeter of square and rectangles. According to Problem, the area of the square is divided among four rectangles and the perimeter of each rectangle is given, so a concept related to the meaning of the terms square, rectangle, congruent, perimeter, etc. is required.

Hence, the meaning of the terms square, rectangle, congruent, perimeter, etc. is key mathematical concepts required to solve this problem.

Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, has made a systematic study of cognitive development in his theory that is categorized into four stages. Piaget proposed that children are no less intelligent than adults. According to him, children think differently as compared to adults The following are his stages of development:

• Preoperational stage (2-7 yrs)
• Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs)
• Concrete operational (7-11)
• Formal operational (11 yrs onwards)

Key Points

According to Jean Piaget's theory of Cognitive Development, it is appropriate to introduce Algebra at the formal operational stage because mathematics is abstract in nature and it requires abstract thinking to solve mathematical problems. In this stage, the child develops abstract thinking, a problem-solving attitude, and deductive reasoning.

• At this stage, children begin to think abstractly about hypothetical problems. Children may use hypothetical reasoning.
• They begin to think more about social, moral, political, etc. issues.
• Ability to use deductive reasoning and scientific reasoning.

Hence, according to Piagets' theory of cognitive development, it is appropriate to introduce algebra at this stage at the formal operational stage and is fully mature to grasp the abstract concepts. 

Additional InformationLet's understand all the stages from the given figure:

Mathematics is the study of patterns, numbers, geometrical objects, data, and information. It deals with data analysis, integration of various fields of knowledge, deductive and inductive reasoning, and generalizations.

• Assessment in mathematics refers to the process of collecting, receiving, and using data for the purpose of improvement of the mathematical learning process.
• ​It is expected that every teacher while teaching mathematics in the classroom, should explore the nature of their student's development of the concepts and procedures.

Key Points

The laws of Exponents provide a set of rules that can be used to simplify complex expressions that contain exponents. There are different Exponent Rule to solve problems. In the given problem, while assessing the sheet Mr Sharma observed that child has understood the law of exponents for the cases where the base is the same and has missed the concept for the case where the base is different.

• It is observed that Options (a),(c),(d) are correct responses but others responses are incorrect. Other responses i.e Option (b),(e) are based on concepts where the base is different. It is obvious that student is facing problem when the base is different but have proper understanding and clarity when the base is same.​

​Hence, it is clear from the above observation that the child has understood the law of exponents for the cases where the base is the same and has missed the concept for the case where the base is different.

Van Hiele is a model that describes how students learn Geometry. It originated in 1957.

Important Points 

It postulates five levels of geometrical thinking which are visualization, analysis, abstraction, formal deduction, and rigor. 

• Level 0 (Visualization): In this level, they can recognize shapes by their appearance, but not by properties.
• Level 1 (Analysis): At this level, students can describe the properties of shapes. Eg: Students at this level can classify shapes according to their properties.
• Level 2 (Abstraction/Informal Deduction): Students will be able to participate in and understand informal deductive discussions about shapes and their characteristics.
• Level 3 (Formal Deduction): Students will be able to work with an abstract statement about geometric properties and can make conclusions.
• Level 4 (Rigor): This is the last level, Students will be able to compare geometric results in different axiomatic systems.

​If Students of class VII are asked to classify the quadrilaterals according to their properties. These students are at the Analysis level of Van Hiele Geometrical thought.

Additional Information

So, it is concluded that at the analysis level of the Van Heile Model of geometric thinking, learners can analyze and name properties of geometric figures and can not see relationships between properties.

This task refers to the need for a higher level of cognitive demand, required to think abstractly to solve mathematical problems.

Key Points

The above question asked to students of Class IV refers to higher-level demand tasks as the problem can be solved by making diagrams and connections between many possible situations. Higher-level demand tasks required deep knowledge about facts and concepts. Here, solving the problem requires a deep understanding of how to find height when the length and breadth of the box are given. Higher-level cognitive demands:

Higher-level demands (procedures with connections): 

• use procedure for deeper understanding of concepts
• broad procedures connected to ideas instead narrow algorithms
• usually represented in different ways
• require some degree of cognitive effort; procedures may be used but not mindlessly

Higher-level demands (procedures without connections):

• require complex non-algorithmic thinking
• require students to explore and understand the mathematics
• demand self-monitoring of one’s cognitive process
• require considerable cognitive effort and may involve some level of anxiety b/c solution path isn’t clear

Thus it is clear that this task refers to a higher level of cognitive demand as it requires the use of conceptual understanding that underline the procedure to complete the task.

Key Points

Formative Assessment (Assessment for Learning) : 

• It is also known as Assessment for Learning, used to evaluate student learning progress and achievement.
• The goal is to collect detailed information like strengths, weaknesses, knowledge, skills, etc., and then plan the next lesson in a way to improve the performance of the students.
• It helps teachers to identify problem-facing areas, to understand and learning needs for achieving academic growth.
• It is considered an Informal Method of assessment as it can be conducted at any time or during teaching also.
• Example: Discussions, Class tests, homework, assignments, debate, plays, etc.

Important Points

• Reflective task refers to any task where a time limit has been set during the class.
• Formative Assessment objective is to collect detailed information like strengths, weaknesses, knowledge, skills, etc., and then plan the next lesson in a way to improve the performance of the students. Example: debate, discussions, homework, test, plays, etc.
• In the given problem, option (3) is correct i.e reflective as well can be used for formative assessment because the time limit is set to speak for two minutes which represents it as reflective.
• The teacher may also try to collect information like strengths, weaknesses, knowledge, and skills while discussing it.

Additional Information

Summative Assessment (Assessment of Learning):

• It is also known as Assessment of Learning is to evaluate student learning by comparing it against some standard or level.
• The main objective is to rank, grade, classify and compare students periodically that indicate their level of performance.
• It is considered a Formal method of Assessment as it is conducted at a specific time.
• Example: Mid-term Exams, unit tests, final projects, semester exams, etc.

Assessment as Learning

• It is the self-assessment by students to monitor their learning, skills and making decisions to improve performance.
• Example: Metacognition - It is a method to think about own mental process or own knowledge with the sense of self-awareness.

It can be concluded that the task is reflective and can be used for formative assessment.

The quadrilateral is defined as a closed two-dimensional shape that has four straight lines.

• It has four sides, four angles, and four vertices.
• The Sum of the Internal angle of the Quadrilateral is 360°.
• A few Examples of Quadrilateral are Rhombus, Rectangle, Square, and Trapezium.

           Each type of Quadrilateral has its properties.

Key Points

A child of class7 must be aware of the complete properties of each quadrilateral. The definition given above reflects that the child knows some properties, but missed another important part to complete the definition.

• The rectangle is quadrilateral with four sides, four angles, and four vertices.
• The opposite sides of the rectangle are parallel and equal.
• Each interior angle is equal to 90°.
• Diagonals of the Rectangle bisect each other.
• Both diagonals of the rectangle are of the same length.

Hence, we can conclude that the child knows some properties, but missed some important to complete the definition.

The error in solving a mathematical problem is a deviation from the accuracy or rules in solving a math problem. Students may tend to make several kinds of errors while solving mathematical problems which are of five types.

Important Points

In mathematics learning at the early school level, students commit several errors which are broad of five types:

• Conceptual Error: This is the error that is made by a student at the initial stage of solving a problem. For example, errors related to signing convention, a very common error observed in the addition to linear expression is 5y + 3 = 8y.
• Process/Procedural skills errors (P) is committed when the child identified an appropriate operation, or sequence of operations, but did not know the procedures necessary to carry out these operations accurately.
• Reading errors (R) is committed if the child could not read a keyword or symbol in the written problem to the extent that this prevented him/her from proceeding further along an appropriate problem-solving path
• Comprehension errors (C) are committed when the child had been able to read all the words in the question but had not grasped the overall meaning of the words and, therefore, was unable to proceed further along an appropriate problem-solving path.
• Transformation errors (T) are committed when the child had understood what the questions wanted him/her to find out but was unable to identify the operation, or sequence of operations needed to solve the problem.
• Encoding errors (E) are committed when the child correctly worked out the solution to a problem, but could not express this solution in an acceptable written form

Hence, Conceptual Error is the correct answer.

Mathematics deals with data analysis, integration of various fields of knowledge, involves proofs, deductive and inductive reasoning, and generalizations. 

• The textbooks of mathematics are being published very early but the scope of mathematics is continuously expanding and becoming more lively.
• The teacher should introduce new concepts according to the interest and abilities of students instead of focusing on the procedures mentioned in textbooks only.

Important Point

Values Inculcated through mathematics: Values of Learning Mathematics are the outcomes or results achieved after teaching according to certain aims. They are the actual results of our teaching effort. They enable the students to acquire mathematical knowledge, skills, develop interests and attitudes. The various values are as follows:

1. Practical or Utilitarian values
2. Intellectual values
3. Social values
4. Moral values
5. Disciplinary values
6. Cultural values
7. International values
8. Aesthetic values
9. Vocational values
10. Psychological values

Key Points

Prabal initially invested Rs.5000 for two years, after two years he withdrew only Rs.3500 which are required to buy study table and he again invested the remaining amount for next two year to avoid any financial stress in future which simply displays the habit of saving money and spending it wisely.

Thus it is clear that the habit of saving money and spending it wisely can be inculcated in students through this question.

Bloom's Taxonomy is a hierarchical model which categorizes learning objectives into varying levels of complexity, from basic to advanced level and from factual to complex. Bloom's Taxonomy is important because it helps teachers to meet learning goals and develop plans accordingly. Bloom has provided us with his taxonomy on basis of different levels of thinking. This taxonomy ranges from lower to higher levels of cognitive thinking. These levels are 

• Knowledge
• Comprehension
• Application
• Analysis
• Synthesis
• Evaluation

Key Points

Bloom's Cognitive domain referred to in the above question is Comprehension. Comprehension refers to the ability to grasp the meaning of the material. Comprehension was the second classification level off Bloom's Taxonomy, which assesses true reading comprehension skills. Asking questions before reading can provide the teacher with insight into how the student will process the information.

Classification of the objective under Bloom's taxonomy:

Thus it is clear that comprehension is referred in the above question.

Given:

p = 32000 + 3-2000 

q = 32000 - 3-2000

Formula used:

a² - b² = (a + b)(a - b)

Calculations:

Solving the given expression,

⇒ p2 - q2 = (p + q)(p - q)

⇒ (32000 + 3-2000 + 32000 - 3-2000)(32000 + 3-2000 - 32000 + 3-2000)

⇒ 2 × 32000 × 2 × 3-2000 

⇒ 4

∴ The value of p2 - q2 is 4

Given:

Square of 9 is divided by the cube root of 125

Calculations:

Solving the given expression,

⇒ 9²/(125)^1/3

⇒ 81/5

The closest term to 81 which is divisible by 5 is 80

Remainder = 81 - 80 

⇒ 1

∴ The remainder is 1

Given:

$\sqrt{16\sqrt{8\sqrt 4}}$

Calculations:

Solving the given term,

$⇒ \sqrt{16\sqrt{8\sqrt 4}}$

$⇒ \sqrt{16\sqrt{8\times 2}}$

$⇒ \sqrt{16\sqrt{16}}$

$⇒ \sqrt{16\times 4}$

$⇒ \sqrt{64}$

⇒ 8

∴ The value of the given expression is 8

Given:

One-half of 1.2 × 1030 

Calculations:

Simplifying the given term,

⇒ (1.2 × 1030)/2

⇒ 0.6 × 10³⁰

⇒ 6 × 10²⁹

∴ The value of the given term is 6 × 1029

Given:

$\dfrac{2}{3}, \dfrac{23}{30}, \dfrac{9}{10}, \dfrac{11}{15}\ and\ \dfrac{4}{5}$

Concept used:

The fractions can be compared when all the fractions have the same denominator

Calculations:

Taking the lcm of the denominator,

LCM of (3, 30, 10, 15, 5) = 30

Making the terms of the same denominator,

$\dfrac{20}{30}, \dfrac{23}{30}, \dfrac{27}{30}, \dfrac{22}{30}\ and\ \dfrac{24}{30}$

Arranging the terms in ascending order,

$\dfrac{20}{30}<\dfrac{22}{30}<\dfrac{23}{30}<\dfrac{24}{30}\ < \dfrac{27}{30}$

∴ The middle term in the above arrangement is 23/30

Explanation:

Compost

• Compost is formed by organic waste like vegetable peel, egg shells or other such kitchen garbage.
• Compost is formed by making such organic waste rot.
• It is natural manure and used for the fertilization of the soil.

Making a compost 

• The kitchen garbage is put in a pit.
• That pit is covered with soil.
• After leaving this for few days it can be observed that the garbage turned black and it has no foul smell.
• If that happens we can say that the compost has been ready

Vermicomposting

• The method of preparing compost with the help of redworms is called vermicomposting.
• For this, a pit is made.
• The bottom part is covered with a net, chicken mesh, or sand that is spread at the bottom of the pit.
• Now some kitchen garbage is put in the pit.
• Some water could be sprinkled if required, to make the surface wet.
• After that worms are added.
• Now, this is covered with grass or a gunny bag.
• Some food for red worms which does not contain meat, vinegar, salt, etc could be added. For example fruits, egg shells etc.
• This is observed for 3 - 4 weeks.
• After that, some waste is put is left nearby of the pit.
• Worms will move toward new waste for food vacating the old pit.
• The old pit content can be dried up and this is the vermicompost formed.

Conclusion:

The steps followed was 

1. (B) Cover the bottom of the pit with sand.
2. (A) Put the garbage in the pit.
3. (D) Add worms.
4. (C) Cover the pit loosely with grass or a gunny bag.

So, the correct order is (B), (A), (D), (C).

The correct option is symbiosis.

Key Points

Symbiosis - 

• The term symbiosis means "living together'' (G. syn = together, bios = life).
• Some organisms live together and share shelter and nutrients. This is called a symbiotic relationship.
• For example, certain fungi live in the roots of trees.
• The tree provides nutrients to the fungus and, in return, receives help from it to take up water and nutrients from the soil.
• This association is very important for the tree.
• In organisms called lichens, a chlorophyll-containing partner, which is an alga, and a fungus live together.
• The fungus provides shelter, water and minerals to the alga and, in return, the alga provides food which it prepares by photosynthesis.

Additional Information

• Autotrophy / Autotrophic nutrition - The mode of nutrition in which organisms make food themselves from simple substances is called autotrophic (auto = self; trophos = nourishment) nutrition. Therefore, plants are called autotrophs.
• Heterotrophy / Heterotrophic nutrition - Animals and most other organisms take in ready-made food prepared by the plants. They are called heterotrophs (heteros =
• other) & this mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic nutrition.
• Parasitism -  The organism that lives on or inside other living organisms, to derive their food are called parasites & this mode of nutrition is called parasitism.

Key Points

• The alimentary canal is basically a long tube extending from the mouth to the anus.
• It consists of different parts. Various regions are specialised to perform different functions.
• The food that we eat is first crushed by the teeth into smaller pieces, these are then thoroughly mixed with saliva and moved around the mouth while chewing by the muscular tongue. This makes the food easy to swallow.
• It is necessary to move the food in a regulated manner along the digestive tube so that it can be processed properly in each part.
• The lining of the canal has muscles that contract rhythmically in order to push the food forward (down).
• These peristaltic movements occur all along the gut.
• Thereby, the swallowed food moves downwards because of the contraction of muscles in the wall of the food pipe.

​

​

Additional Information 

The main organs of the alimentary canal are:

• The Mouth: It is the first part of our digestive system. Food is ingested through the mouth.
• Buccal cavity: It comprises the palate, tongue and teeth.
• Pharynx: It is the common passage for food and air. Epiglottis prevents the entry of food into the windpipe
• Oesophagus: It is a muscular tube through which a small bolus of food passes from the mouth to the stomach.
• Stomach: It is a muscular bag, positioned at the upper left part of the abdominal cavity.
• Intestine:
• Small intestine: Consists of three parts, Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ileum.
• Large intestine: Consists of three parts, Caecum, Colon, and Rectum.

Concept:

• Breathing means taking in air rich in oxygen and giving out air rich in carbon dioxide with the help of respiratory organs.
• The taking in of air rich in oxygen into the body is called inhalation and giving out of air rich in carbon dioxide is known as exhalation.

Explanation:

• Earthworm and frogs breathe through their skin.
• The air can pass easily through their skin which makes it moist & slimly.
• Small blood capillaries are present in the moist skin region where the exchange of gases occurs.
• The oxygen gets picked by the dissolved haemoglobin, and the carbon dioxide is removed from the body.
• Hence moist and slimy will be the correct answer.

Important Points 

• Frogs have a pair of lungs like human beings and they can also breathe through their skin, which is moist and slippery. Hence, they show two types of respiration - cutaneous & pulmonary respiration.

Additional Information

• Different organisms use different organs for breathing.
• Fishes breathe through the gills, Earthworm uses their moist skin, Amphibians, Reptiles & Mammals breathe using vascularised bags called the lungs.
• Cockroaches & other insects breathe through the spiracles.

Concept:

• Speed: Total distance traveled by the total time taken is called speed.
• Speed measures how fast the body is moving.

$\rm speed = \dfrac{distance}{time}$

• Average speed: It is defined as the total distance traveled by the total time taken.
• Odometer: It is the device that is used to measure the distance traveled by a vehicle.
• Average speed: The total distance traveled by the total time taken will give the average speed.

$\rm Average \ speed = \dfrac{total \ distance}{total \ time}$

• Conversion of speed from km / hr to m /s

1 km = 1000 m

1 hr = 3600 second

1 km / 1 hr = 1000 m / 3600 second = $\frac{5}{18} \ m / s$

Calculation:

The initial reading of the odometer = 78752 (at 8.00)

Final reading of the odometer = 78806 (at 9.00)

Distance travelled d = 78806 - 78752 = 54 km

Time taken = 9;00 - 8:00 = 1 hr

So, average speed = (total distance) / (total time) = 54 km / 1 hr = 54 km / hr

Now, this has to be converted into m /s by multiplying it with $\frac{5}{18} \ m / s$

So,  

$54 \ km /hr = 54 \times \frac{5}{18} m /s = 15 m /s$

So, the correct option is 15 m / s.

Mistake Points

Students may write answer in km/hr instead of m /s . Questions should be always read properly.

Concept:

Spherical mirrors

• The mirror with a curved reflecting surface is called a spherical mirror.
• The two types of spherical mirrors are concave and convex.
• Concave mirrors have reflecting surface curved inward and convex mirror as reflecting surface curved inward.
• Both types of mirrors can be observed in a spoon.
• The curved inward part of the spoon will act as a concave and the outward part will act as a convex lens.

Spherical Lens

• A lens is a transparent medium bounded by spherical surfaces.
• Usually, there are two types of lenses, concave and convex.
• The concave lens has both surfaces curved inward and the convex lens has both surfaces curved outward.
• A convex lens can be observed in a simple magnifying glass.

Explanation:

• The concave mirror can form a magnified image when the object is kept at a certain distance.
• A virtual, erect, and magnified image is formed when the object is placed very close (on focal length) to a concave mirror.
• This mirror is used by the dentist to get a magnified view of the teeth.
• On the other hand, the convex mirror gives a diminished image.
• A convex lens forms a virtual, erect, and enlarged image when the object is placed on its focal length.
• The concave lens forms a diminished image.

So, for magnification, a concave mirror or convex lens is used. 

• Real images are formed by the real intersection of light and are inverted.
• The virtual image is formed when the light intersection is apparent. Image formation by a plane mirror or convex mirror are always virtual.

Additional Information

• The image formation by the concave mirror at different locations can be seen in the figure in the form of a ray diagram.

• The image formed by the convex lens can be seen in the below ray diagram.

Concept:

• When plants of the same kind are grown and cultivated at one place on a large scale, it is called a crop.
• Crops can be classified on the basis of the season in which they grow.
• India is a vast country. The climatic conditions like temperature, humidity and rainfall vary from one region to another.
• Accordingly, there is a rich variety of crops grown in different parts of the country.
• Despite this diversity, two broad cropping patterns can be identified. These are Kharif Crops and Rabi Crops.

Explanation:

Kharif Crops :

• The crops which are sown in the rainy season are called Kharif crops.
• The rainy season in India is generally from June to September.
• Paddy, maize, soyabean, groundnut, cotton, etc., are Kharif crops.

Additional Information 

Rabi Crops:

• The crops grown in the winter season are called rabi crops.
• Their time period is generally from October to March.
• Examples of rabi crops are wheat, gram, pea, mustard and linseed.

The Correct statements are (B), (C), and (D)

Key Points 

• The undesirable plants that grow naturally along with the crop are called weed.
• The removal of weeds is called weeding.
• Weeding is necessary because -
• Weeds compete with the crop plants for water, nutrients, space and light. Thus, they affect the growth of the crop.
• Some weeds interfere even in harvesting and may be poisonous for animals and human beings.

Thereby, the correct statements are (B), (C), and (D)

Additional Information

Methods of Weeding - 

• Tilling - The process of loosening and turning the soil is called tilling or ploughing. Tilling before sowing crops helps in uprooting and killing weeds, which may then dry up and get mixed with the soil.
• Manual removal - Manual removal includes the physical removal of weeds by uprooting or cutting them close to the ground, from time to time. This is done with the help of a khurpi.
• Using Weedicides - Weeds are also controlled by using certain chemicals, called weedicides, like 2,4-D. These are sprayed in the fields to kill the weeds. They do not damage the crops. The weedicides are diluted with water to the extent required and sprayed in the fields with a sprayer.

Concept:

• Metals react with bases and release hydrogen gas.
• The hydrogen gas released burns with a pop sound.
• This is the test for the presence of hydrogen gas.
• Hydrogen gas is Colourless and odourless.

Explanation:

• Sodium Hydroxide is a base and aluminium foil.
• The reaction gives hydrogen gas which gives a pop sound on burning.
• Hydrogen is the Colourless and odourless gas that produces a ‘pop’ sound when a burning match stick is brought near it.
• The chemical equation for the process is

2Al + 2NaOH + 6H₂O → 2Na[Al(OH)₄] + 3H₂

• Bases are bitter in taste and have a soapy feel.
• Acids are sour in taste.
• Metals more reactive than hydrogen reacts with acid and releases hydrogen gas.

Concept:

Acid and Base

Indicators

• The indicators are chemicals or natural substances which change their color in presence of acid or base.
• Litmus paper is an indicator that is obtained from lichens.
• There are other indicators like turmeric, methyl orange, china rose, etc.

Nature of Oxides

• Oxides of non - metals are acidic in nature.
• In an aqueous solution, they will behave as acid and turn blue litmus to red.
• The aqueous solution of a metallic oxide is basic in nature.
• In an aqueous solution, they will behave as a base as turn red litmus to blue.

Explanation:

• In the given options we have 3 metallic oxides.
• Iron oxide, Magnesium oxide, and Copper oxide are oxides of metals.
• These oxides are  and will turn red litmus to blue.
• Meanwhile, the sulphur oxide is non-metallic oxide and hence acidic oxide. 
• So, sulphur dioxide will turn blue litmus red.
• The correct option is Sulphur dioxide.

Concept:

Resources

Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs provided,

1. it is technologically accessible,
2. economically feasible
3. culturally acceptable

can be termed as ‘Resource’. 

Exhaustible and Inexhaustible Resource

• The resources which get exhausted over time and are not available for use for their consumption are called Exhaustible resources. 
• Examples of exhaustible resources are forests, wildlife, minerals, coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.
• Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum will not be available for reuse after their combustion and they take millions of years to form.
• Wildlife once extinguished will not be available.
• Inexhaustible resources can be renewed or reproduced by physical, chemical or mechanical processes. 
• They are present in unlimited quantity in nature and are not likely to be exhausted by humans.
• Examples of such resources are sunlight, water, soil, etc.
• Water is available in plenty of amounts and is recycled by nature. Sunlight is always available to us.

Conclusion:

Among the given options,

• Exhaustible resources are Petroleum, Minerals, wildlife, and natural gas.
• Inexhaustible resources are sunlight, soil, and water.

'Minerals and wildlife' is the only set with exhaustible resources hence it is the correct option.

Explanation:

• Endemic species are those species of plants and animals which are found exclusively in a particular area or specific habitat.
• They are not naturally found anywhere else. A particular type of animal or plant may be endemic to a zone, a state or a country.
• The destruction of their habitat, increasing population and introduction of new species may affect the natural habitat of endemic species and endanger their existence.
• Examples - Sal and wild mango are endemic flora of the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve while Bison, Indian giant squirrel and flying squirrel are endemic fauna of this area.
• Thereby, from the above points, it is clear that the only true statement about the endemic species among the given options is ''They are found exclusively in specific habitat''.

Additional Information 

Some of the important Endemic species of India are:

• Asiatic Lion in Gir Forest.
• Nilgiri Tahr in Nilgiri Hills.
• Sangai Deer in Loktak Lake.
• Purple Frog in the Western Ghats.
• Kashmir Stag in Kashmir Valley.
• Lion Tailed Macaque in the Western Ghats.
• Pygmy Hog in Assam.
• Malabar Civet in the Western Ghats.

Concept:

Cell

• The cell is the basic structure or building block of all living beings.
• On basis of a number of cells, organisms are divided into unicellular and multicellular organisms.
• The cell consists of various cell organelles or components which help it to survive by performing certain life processes.
• The basic components of a cell are the cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.
• The entire content of the cell is termed Protoplasm.
• The cytoplasm and nucleus are enclosed within the cell membrane.

The nucleus of the Cell

• The nucleus is the special structure located generally at the center of the cell.
• The nuclear membrane separates the cytoplasm from the nucleus.
• The nucleus contains a central part called nucleolus and chromosomes.
• Chromosomes and nucleolus coexist in the nucleus. Chromosomes are not present in the nucleolus.

Chromosomes and Genes

• Chromosomes carry genes and help in the inheritance or transfer of characters from the parents to their children.
• The chromosomes can be seen only when the cell divides.
• The credit for the discovery of chromosomes goes to Strasburger as he first described the chromosome structure seen in the nucleus during cell division.
• Usually, chromosomes are rod-shaped, elongated, or dot-like in shape with sizes varying from 0.5 to 32 micrometer.
• In humans, 23pairs of chromosomes are found i.e. 46 in numbers.

Conclusion:

• Chromosomes and genes are related to the inheritance of characters.
• So, the correct option is Chromosomes and genes.

Additional Information

• The cell membrane is also known as the plasma membrane. 
• It is a porous structure that allows the exit and entry of certain materials according to its requirement.
• This is the major function of the cell membrane.
• The cytoplasm is between the cell and the nucleus. 
• Cell organelles like mitochondria, Golgi bodies, ribosomes, etc. are present in the cytoplasm.
• Mitochondria is called the powerhouse of cells and is responsible for cellular respiration.
• Plastids are double-membrane organelles found in the plant cell. They contain pigments that help the plant in photosynthesis.

Concept:

• Cells are the structural & functional unit of life.
• Based on the absence or presence of membrane-bound nuclei, cells can be divided into two types - Prokaryotic cells & Eukaryotic cells.
• Eukaryotic cells - The eukaryotic cells are characterised by the presence of a membrane-bound nucleus.
• Besides the nucleus, the eukaryotic cells have other membrane-bound distinct structures called organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the Golgi complex, lysosomes, mitochondria, microbodies and vacuoles.
• Eukaryotic cells are further classified into two types - Animal cells and plant cells.

Explanation:

• Plant and animal cells are different as the former possess cell walls, plastids and a large central vacuole which are absent in animal cells.
• On the other hand, animal cells have centrioles which are absent in almost all plant cells.

Below is the table to compare animal & plant cells.

Hence, the combination of components of an animal cell is the Cell membrane, chromosome, ribosome, mitochondria.

The sets of correct combination are (B), (C) and (D)

Key Points

Justification for combination - (B)

• Ovaries are the primary female sex organs that produce the female gamete (ovum) and several steroid hormones (ovarian hormones).
• The ovaries are located on each side of the lower abdomen.
• The ovaries contain thousands of immature eggs (ovum). On reaching puberty, some of these start maturing.
• One egg is produced every month by one of the ovaries. This process is called Ovulation.
• The produced egg is then carried from the ovary to the womb through a thin oviduct or fallopian tube.
• The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag-like structure known as the uterus.
• Thereby the correct order is Ovulation → Egg → Oviduct → Uterus.

​Justification for combination - (C)

• The formation of germ cells or sperms takes place in the testes.
• The sperms formed are delivered through the vas deferens which unites with a tube coming from the urinary bladder.
• The urethra thus forms a common passage for both the sperms and urine.
• The urethra originates from the urinary bladder and extends through the penis to its external opening called the urethral meatus.
• Thereby, the correct order is Sperm → testis → sperm duct → penis.

Justification for combination - (D)

• If the egg is not fertilised the uterus lining slowly breaks and comes out through the vagina as blood and mucous, this is called menstruation.
• Thereby, the correct order is Menstruation → egg → oviduct → uterus

Key Points

Metamorphosis

• The transformation of the larva into an adult through drastic changes is called metamorphosis.
• The change is drastic as larva or tadpole looks different from the adult frogs.
• Metamorphosis of tadpoles requires the thyroxine hormone.
• Thyroxine production requires the presence of iodine in water.
• If there is no iodine in the water in which the tadpole is growing, it will never become an adult.

So, the correct option is iodine. 

​

Additional Information

The life cycle of Frog:

• Eggs: This is an egg mass laid by a frog. Each of those black dots is made up of a bunch of cells that will eventually grow into a tadpole.
• EarlyTadpole: Within a few days, the eggs develop into tadpoles. Tadpoles live completely underwater.
• Late Tadpole: After the hind legs have started to form, a pair of front legs will begin to develop and the tail will start to disappear. You might also notice that the tadpole has started to form a frog-like face.
• Young frog: When the tadpole reaches the froglet stage, it is almost a full adult. At this point, the tadpole’s gills have disappeared, and its lungs have

enlarged.

• Adult: This is a fully grown frog. As you have just read, frogs go through a lot to get to this phase.

Science education should enable the learner to know the facts and principles of science and its applications, consistent with the stage of cognitive development.

Important Points

• The main objectives of the science curriculum up to the secondary level is to make learners ‘scientifically literate” as science is a compulsory component of the curriculum up to secondary level. Focus should be on “developing awareness among the learners about the interface of science, technology and society, sensitizing them, especially to the issues of environment and health, and enabling them to acquire practical knowledge and skills to enter the world of work.” (NCF-2005).
• Emphasis is more on acquiring process skills so that learners can deal with the ever-changing and expanding world of science. Keeping these key points in mind, the science curriculum at different levels has been organized.
• As a science teacher, you will agree that scientific concepts are learnt better if learners explore them through activities and experiments. Focus to encourage students and to develop inquiring minds and curiosity about science and nature. Learners should be allowed to explore science in their everyday experiences. You should engage learners (preferably in groups) in meaningful investigations -particularly of the problems they perceive to be significant.

Additional Information

• As a science teacher, you should encourage discussions with the teacher and peers. You can ask your learners to gather information from newspapers, knowledgeable persons in the neighbourhood, and easily available sources and discuss them in class with peers and teachers.
• Roleplay, skits, cooperative learning strategies should be adopted to ensure larger participation and sharing of learning outcomes. It is advised that biographical narratives of scientists and inventors can be used. You should keep in mind that efforts should be continued for the development of the process skills of science.
• It is suggested that at the secondary stage, you should engage your learners in learning science as a composite discipline. As a science teacher at this level, you should provide them with the opportunity to engage in activities and analysis on issues surrounding the environment and health.
• As a secondary stage, systematic experimentation is suggested as a tool to discover/verify theoretical principles and work on locally significant projects involving science and technology. Concepts, principles and laws of science should be introduced at this level with an emphasis on comprehension and not on mere formal definitions. At this stage, those concepts, which are beyond direct experience, should also be introduced and learners should make understand that all scientific phenomena are not directly observable; science also relies on inference and interpretation.
• You should use experimentation as an important tool to discover/verify theoretical principles at this stage. At this level, you should organize co-curricular activities like some small group projects on local issues and use a problem-solving approach.

 Hence, we can conclude that acquiring technological skills is not the objective of teaching Science at the upper primary stage.

National Curriculum Framework (NCF) is one of four National Curriculum Framework published n 1975, 1988,2000 and 2005 by the National Council of Education Research and Training NCERT in India. It serves as a guideline for syllabus, textbooks, and teaching practices for the school in India. 

Aim of teaching Science at the upper primary stage according to NCF :

• At the upper primary stage, the student gets their first exposure to science, it must be chosen to make sense of everyday experiences to cultivate scientific thinking.
• Learning science aims to learn the facts and principles of science and its application, with the stage of cognitive development.
• To nurture the natural curiosity, aesthetic sense, and creativity in science and technology.
• Constructivism is an approach to teaching and learning based on the premise that learning is the result of "mental construction." In other words, students learn by fitting new information together with what they already know. Constructivists believe that learning is affected by the context in which an idea is taught as well as by students' beliefs and attitudes. The teacher must encourage and give chance to students to devise their own thinking strategies.
• To form a developmental and historical perspective of science
• To relate to and appreciate global and local issues at the interface of technology, science, and society
• To obtain the theoretical knowledge and as well as practical skills to enter the professional field
• To imbibe certain values – honesty, cooperation, integrity, preservation of the environment, and concern for life – and cultivate critical thinking

Additional Information

Constructivism is based on the maxim that the learner constructs his understanding by reflection on his experiences.  According to constructivist epistemology, knowledge cannot be transferred intact from the teacher to the learner. Different in terms of personality, intelligence, motivation, curiosity, experiences, approach, background, support system, and so on. Therefore, every learner cannot be benefitted from the same method.

Essential factors of constructivist pedagogy are as follows:

• An authentic and real-world environment is necessary for learning.
• Learning should involve social negotiation and mediation
• Content and skills should be understood within the framework of learners‘ prior knowledge
• Content and skills should be made relevant to the learner
• Students should be assessed formatively, serving to help them acquire further learning experiences.
• Students should be encouraged to become self-regulatory, self-mediated, and self-aware of learning
• The teacher should serve primarily as a facilitator of learning, not an instructor
• The teacher should provide for and encourage multiple perspectives and representations of content.

Hence, we can conclude that National Curriculum Framework (NCF) strongly recommends that Science education at the upper primary stage should follow a constructivist approach for teaching and learning the subject.

Science involves the process of finding the truth by testing and investigating with evidence gathered from the surroundings. It is also referred to as an accumulated and systematized way of learning.

• The science curriculum refers to the overall subject matter of science to be taught in a specific period of time in a particular class. It includes all the co-curricular and recreational activities that are to be conducted in a science classroom.

Key Points 

According to the NCF-2005 (National Curriculum Framework), the following are the basic criteria of validity of a science curriculum:

So, it is clear that the ‘Cognitive validity’ of Science curriculum at the upper primary stage requires that it should be age-appropriate and within the reach of students understanding level.

Key Points

• Scientific temperament refers to an individual's attitude of logical and rational thinking.
• Scientific temper is a way of thinking and acting that uses a method, including observing physical reality, questioning, testing, hypothesizing, analyzing, and communicating – using logic.
• Jawaharlal Nehru was one of the first persons to use and advocate this term, in his book The Discovery of India.
• "A society with a scientific temper is always on the path of development," said Prime Minister Narendra Modi.

Important Points

There are several personality attributes of a person having a scientific temper.

• Seeking Evidence, Rational Thinking, Open-Mindedness reflect the personality attribute of a person having a scientific temper.
• It is important to avoid bias of any kind because it threatens scientific ideals such as objectivity, rationality, and transparency.
• Science relies on evidence, and researchers need to ensure that data collect is based on real facts and situations. It is necessary to support scientific theory to use evidence when apply to a practical problem.
• Rational thinking means to think using logic or facts. Science is based on logic and facts. This is the habit of looking for natural causes and natural events.
• A scientific approach person is open-minded willing to change his mind in the face of reliable evidence and respects another’s the point of view. It is a quality when a person is willing to try new things or to hear and consider new ideas.

Hence, it can be concluded that Biased opinion does not reflect the personality attribute of a person having a scientific temper.

Science helps to develop the requisite theoretical knowledge and practical technical skills to enter the world of work that will help the students in further forming their careers in the field of science.

Key PointsScience is an important subject for students to enhance their ability, thinking, helps to solve several daily life-related problems.

• At the upper primary stage, children get their first exposure to science, scientific concepts should be taught at this stage to make sense of everyday experience.
• At this stage, the child should be engaged in learning the principles of science through familiar experiences, working with hands to design simple technological units and modules.
• The children should be encouraged to perform research and experiments on their own so that they can get real concrete experiences that will enhance their conceptual learning of science.
• The science textbooks of NCERT at the upper primary stage include a large number of daily life-related questions that have been left unanswered to encourage the children to explore in order to think more critically and approach subjects in a more interdisciplinary way where one topic is being taught by reflecting on to different attributes of a concept. It is to develop conceptual understanding of students in-depth and in multi-dimensions.
• For example, the children when in science taught about the "water cycle" then it is also necessary to connect it with its social factors in social studies such as conservation of water in desert areas, rainwater harvesting, and so on.
• A child can seek answers to explore different resources that help students to develop practical approaches, critical thinking skills, and also it helps students to develop and explore new things around the world.​

Therefore, it is concluded that the NCERT textbooks of science at the upper primary level include a large number of daily life-related questions that have been left unanswered so that students can seek the answer to these questions by exploring different resources.​

Hint

• ​It is impossible for the children to send these questions to the scientists to get the answer but it will be more relevant than they explore and find their answers by themselves.
• It is not mandatory for a teacher to use these questions for the purpose of assessment because assessment is done to assess the acquired knowledge and skills of children but these questions will test their higher-order thinking skills (HOTS).
• Also, these questions should not be used as home assignments, because the teacher should give those questions as home assignments that will help the children recapitulate the classroom learning.