CTET (Maths & Science) Official Paper-II Sept 2015 (English-Hindi-Sanskrit) (Previous Year Paper)

The growth and development of an individual is greatly affected by heredity and environment as well as the interaction between heredity and environment. However, there are certain issues and controversies related to this phenomena.

The above-mentioned question essentially highlights the nature-nurture debate as:

• The nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest issues in psychology. The debate centers on the relative contributions of genetic inheritance and environmental factors to human development.
• The term ‘nature’ stands for what comes to children through genetic influences and heredity, i.e. it denotes the influence of factors inherent in the child himself from the time he is conceived.
• On the other hand, the term ‘nurture’ stands for the influence of the environment on child development, i.e. all the contextual factors that influence who we are, including our perceptions of early childhood, our social relationships, and the society around us.
• In other words, the controversy on nature versus nurture concerns whether human behaviour is influenced by the environment or by genes of an individual.
• Heredity and environment both play a significant role in the development of children. Any individual trait is the 'result' of both genetics and the environment. Heredity determines the probable biological limits, whereas the environment determines the level up to which the development is possible.

Hence, it could be concluded that the above-mentioned question essentially highlights the nature-nurture debate.

Abstract thinking is the ability to think about objects, principles, and ideas that are not physically present. Abstract thinking is a great way to generate new ideas and gain new insights during any problem-solving process.

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development:

• Jean Piaget observed his children and their process of making sense of the world around them and developed a model of how the mind processes new information encountered.
• According to him, cognitive structures are the basic mental pattern people use to process any information.
• Jean Piaget argued that children develop abstract reasoning skills as part of their last stage of development, known as the formal operational stage.
• He explained that children progress through four stages and in the same order.

The Four Stages of Cognitive Development:

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that the development of the capacity for abstract scientific thinking is a characteristic of the formal operational stage.

Lawrence Kohlberg, an American psychologist, has propounded the 'Theory of Moral Development'. He has made a systematic study of moral development in his theory that is categorized in 3 levels and 6 stages.

Key Points

From the above-mentioned information, it could be interpreted that the child would fall in the 'instrumental purpose orientation' stage of Kohlberg's moral reasoning as in this stage of moral development:

• moral reasoning is based on reciprocity.
• moral reasoning of the child is controlled externally.
• child's morality and behaviour are influenced by rewards and benefits.
• child believes that wrong things may be done if there is an advantage for me.
• child believes that an act is moral if similar acts occur in return(i.e. satisfies own needs).

Hence, it could be concluded that the child would fall in the 'instrumental purpose orientation' stage of Kohlberg's moral reasoning.

Additional Information

NOTE: Refer to the table to be familiar with all the levels of Kohlberg's theory.

John Dewey, an American philosopher has proposed the concept of 'Progressive Education' which emphasizes that learning takes place only through 'hands-on' approach so the students must interact with their environment to adapt and learn.

Progressive education: 

• emphasizes to enhance skills and understanding of the learners by engaging with the contents and experiences.
• promotes 'learning by doing' to make children self-reliant and productive to use their knowledge and talents effectively.
• ensures the active participation of students by working in a group and applying practical knowledge to complete an activity.

Important Points

Feature of Progressive Education:

• Education for society and democracy.
• Collaborative and cooperative learning.
• Learning as opposed to rote knowledge.
• Flexible time-table and seating arrangement.
• Emphasis on lifelong learning and social skills.
• Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units.
• Emphasis on problem solving and critical thinking.
• De-emphasize textbooks, emphasize multiple resources.

Hence, it could be concluded that progressive education lays a strong emphasis on problem-solving and critical thinking.

Questions refer to the problem or difficulty that needs to be solved by thinking and recalling the concept.

• It leads to the cognitive development of students by stimulating their thinking skills and imagination power.
• Questions encouraging students to voice their individual opinions on issues and reflections while giving reasons for the same promote analytical and critical thinking of learners.

Important Points

Analytical and critical thinking are higher cognitive functions that make learners able:

• to approach an issue with an open-ended mind.
• to look at any issues from different points of view.
• to understand how issues are related to their own lives.
• to make logical connections between ideas by thinking rationally.
• to increase their own insight into the functioning of several things.
• to assess information and draw conclusions from the given raw data.
• to perceive any issues effectively to come up with the best possible inference.

 Hence , it ould be concluded that questions encouraging students to voice their individual opinions on issues and reflections while giving reasons for the same, promote analytic and critical thinking.

• Development: It can be defined as the changes in the structure, thought, or behaviour of a person that occurs as a function of both biological and environmental influences.
• Learning: It is a comprehensive process that refers to a change in behavior, knowledge, and skill as a result of practice and experience.

Development and learning are inter-related and inter-dependent and contribute to each other.

• Development is a product of maturity and learning.
• Learning and development are inter-related in a complex manner.
• Maturity is more or less automatic, unfolding biological potential which is an irreversible sequence and entails biological changes.
• Such changes are relatively independent of environmental factors as long as environmental factors remain normal.
• There is a more or less permanent change in human behaviour from the individual's experience in the environment.
• Learning occurs across the entire life span, which differs from maturity.
• However, learning depends on the process of maturing i.e. individual readiness (mental and physical) for certain activities.

Hence, we conclude that development and learning are interrelated in a complex manner.

Development refers to an increase in structure for better and enhanced functioning of organs. It is a wide, complex and continuous process, thus there are some principles that need to be followed for a better understanding of the concept.

Key Points

Principles of development include:

• Development is modifiable.
• Development is life-long process.
• Development is a continuous process.
• Development is not uniform in all stages
• Development rate varies person to person.
• Development is sequential and predictable.
• Development proceeds from general to specific.
• Development is influenced by heredity and environment.

Hence, it could be included that development is governed and determined by culture alone is not a principle of development**.** 

Hint 

Development is not governed and determined by culture alone as development is a product of both heredity and environment.

A child-centered classroom is one that gives primacy to children's experiences and needs and provides ample opportunities for the children to foster their strategy of learning to perform a task or classroom activities.

Key Points

A key feature of a child-centered classroom is that the students with the teacher's guidance are made responsible for constructing their own understanding as in child-centered classroom:

• the active participation and involvement of children play a very vital role in learning and shaping the personality of a child.
• teachers facilitate students as a facilitator by providing with proper environment and materials to make them learn at their own pace.
• students take leadership in the classroom, present their work, facilitate groups, and are assessed for process, group work, and product.
• students work in flexible, cooperative groupings to solve problems, express their ideas freely, and develop naturally towards their fullest potential.

Hence, it could be concluded that in a child-centered classroom the students with the teacher's guidance are made responsible for constructing their own understanding.

Intelligence refers to the global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment. Intelligence provides an understanding of how people adapt their behavior according to the environment they live in. Intelligence is the mental capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with her/his environment.

Key Points

Definitions of Intelligence:

• According to Binet, ‘Intelligence means the capacity to judge well, to reason well, and to comprehend well.’
• According to Terman, ‘Intelligence means the ability to think in terms of abstract ideas.’

Howard Gardener proposed Multi-dimensional or 'Multiple Intelligence Theory'. This theory helps in understanding how cultures shape the potential of the human using Intelligence as a multi-dimensional set of complex abilities. Intelligence is multi-dimensional and it has several aspects to it.

The following diagram will provide a complete idea of Howard Gardener's 8 types of Intelligence:-

NOTE: Intelligence has several aspects, so other options are not appropriate for intelligence.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that Intelligence is multi-dimensional having several aspects to it.

Gender refers to the socially and culturally constructed system that attributes meaning to what it means to be a male or a female in a particular society.

Gender bias leads to differential learning experiences, even though the girls and boys of a class sit in the same classroom and attended by the same teacher.

• Differential treatment of boys and girls based on expectations due to cultural attitudes.
• It is the belief when someone prioritizes one gender more than the other one.
• It is a preference or prejudice toward one gender over the other for example preferring boys over girls during an activity.

Examples of Gender:-

• Girls being given lesser opportunities to participate in school and classroom events
• Applying gender stereotypes like femininity norms among girls to behave quiet, being neat, calm, etc. and masculine norms among boys to be loud, bold, strong, etc.
• Stereotypical expressions of male and female characters in textbook content.
• Assigning work differentially to boys and girls​.

Hence, it becomes clear that Gender bias refers to the differential treatment of boys and girls based on expectations due to cultural attitudes.

First-generation school-goers children refer to the children who are the first in their family to go to school or whose parents have completed formal education till the primary level.

In the above-mentioned situation, an upper primary school teacher should most likely to provide scaffolding and other kinds of support to first-generation school-goers children during classroom activities and for homework as:

• they are the first one in their generation to go to school thus blindly rely on schools and tuitions.
• their home environment doesn't expose them to self-study and they suffer from the lack of self-reflection.
• their parents are illiterate or have basic education till primary level thus they don't get parental support in study.

Hence, it could be concluded that providing scaffolding and other kinds of support during classroom activities and for homework will be the appropriate strategy in the above-mentioned situation.

NOTE: Scaffolding refers to a process through which required assistance is given to children according to their individual needs.

A school is a place designed to provide an adequate learning environment for an effective teaching-learning process. It a miniature society where children learn by interacting with their environment. lt plays a vital role in ensuring the all-round development of children.

Key Points

In case, when children of the same age vary greatly in appearance, aptitude amongst other things, school ensures that each child gets opportunities to develop as per her potential as it is a child-centered social institution where school children:

• occupy the central position.
• enjoy maximum autonomy in the learning process.
• develop the ability to assimilate the concepts efficiently.
• perform a task or classroom activities at their own pace.
• avail ample opportunities to foster their own strategy of learning.
• inculcate the informal cues about social roles through interaction.

Hence, it could be concluded that in the above-mentioned situation school ensures that each child gets opportunities to develop as per her potential.

Teachers are the most important resources in educational settings. They are the implementer of education and key figures for any changes required in the educational field.

Key Points

A teacher's most important role in an inclusive classroom is to ensure that every child gets an opportunity to realize their potential as an inclusive classroom is a part of inclusive education which:

• includes all children in the education system, regardless of their differences and disabilities.
• provides a provision to include disabled children along with normal children in classroom environment.
• accommodates all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic, or other conditions.
• advocates to provide education as per learners' age irrespective of their physical disabilities and mental disabilities.
• values the diversity, each child brings to the classroom and facilitates all with equal opportunities to learn and grow.

Basic Principles of an inclusive classroom:

• Well constructed educational plan.
• Use of multilingualism as a resource.
• Use of specific pedagogical strategies.
• Equity and equal opportunities for all.
• Sensitization towards individual differences.

 Hence, it could be concluded that a teacher's most important role in an inclusive classroom is to ensure that every child gets an opportunity to rea lize their potential.

Effective student learning: The primary focus of teachers is on effective student learning. The ultimate achievement of students is dependent on the effectiveness of the teaching-learning process. Hence, there is a need to focus on the quality as well as the quantity of teaching and learning which takes place. There is evidence to prove that students' learning time has positive correlations with their learning outcomes.

• The teacher's background expertise in the subject content, training background, personality behavior with students, etc. does contribute to effective learning and ultimately effective schooling.
• A teacher should bring desirable and constructive changes in students through instruction, example, and influence.
• The teacher makes changes in the concept to remove the border or repetition of concepts. If the teacher does so, the teacher will give the opportunity to learn to express their own understanding of the concept.
• Make changes in the concept bring new and creative ideas to the existing concept.
• While making changes in the concept, the teacher should incorporate the ideas of the learner in the existing concept, It will enhance their creative thinking and also motivate the learner to express their ideas without any hesitation.
• The children have their own ways of grasping and understanding the concept, so it will be fruitful for the teacher to allow the learner to express their own understanding of the concepts.

Hence, we can conclude that by giving children an opportunity to express their own understanding of the concepts, the teacher can help children in the class to make changes in their concepts.

A certificate is given to children when they read a specific number of books. It will encourage or motivate the learner to developing reading habits but this will leads to extrinsic motivation which can make a problem and deviate the learner from enhancing his/her reading skills and grammar skills.  

• In long run, this strategy will not work since this might lead to children reading only for getting the certificates for reading books. This shows the extrinsic motivation which can hinder in developing reading skills. For reading, the child needs intrinsic motivation instead of extrinsic motivation.
• Reading books will not distract children from completing their homework. It is a kind of leisure activity which a child can do in free time and this will also help the child in developing the reading skills.
• The reason behind giving certificates is to boost the morale of the learner, so he/she can receive intrinsic motivation to do grateful tasks.

Hence, we can conclude that A certificate is given to children when they read a specific number of books. In the long run, this strategy might not work since this might lead to children reading only for getting certificates.

Teachers are the most important resources in educational settings. They are the implementer of education and key figures for any changes required in the educational field. Their patience and perseverance significantly impact a student's success in the classroom.

Role of a teacher in a class is to:

• provide authentic learning situations.
• facilitate independent thinking in students.
• nurture learner's curiosity in the learning process.
• understand the diverse learning needs of every student.
• enhance learners' skills and understanding of the concept.
• teach in an interesting manner to make learning enjoyable.

Hence, it could be concluded that the role of a teacher in a class is to provide authentic learning situations and facilitate independent thinking in students.

Errors:

• When a learner can’t master a topic, he/she is vulnerable to make errors. Errors are nothing but incorrectness made by a child during learning.
• It also takes place due to the mismatch in previously assimilated and the newly accommodated knowledge.

Important Points

Children's errors are a window into how they think:

• Learning from mistakes and errors is a crucial and important part of learning new concepts.
• Committing errors in learning to show the thinking ability and capacity of a child.
• Errors are very helpful in developing critical and creative thinking of the students.
• It is like a window into how the learner pounder on the errors and learns from the errors.
• The teachers should not deny the learner to committing errors, if the teacher does, he/she deteriorate the thinking capacity of a child.
• Imitating others while learning will also barrier to developing critical thinking.

Hence, we can conclude that the statement 'children's errors are a window into how they think' is most appropriate about children's making errors.

Assessment is a process of collecting, receiving, and using data for the purpose of improvement in the learning process. It assesses both scholastic and co-scholastic aspects of a child's growth.

Key PointsAssessment is an integral part of the teaching-learning process because assessment:

• makes reliable decisions about educational planning.
• helps the teacher to understand children's learning
• serves as a feedback for students as well as the teachers.
• determines the effectiveness of the learning process or program.
• lays emphasis on thought process and de-emphasize memorization.

Hence, it could be concluded that assessment is an integral part of teaching-learning process because assessment helps the teacher to understand children's learning and serves as a feedback for her own teaching.

Additional Information

There are Two Types of Assessment-

1. Formative assessment  -  During the course (Assessment for learning)
2. Summative assessment  -  After the course (Assessment of learning)

NCF(National Curriculum Framework) 2005 is one of the four NCF published in India by NCERT. It seeks to provide a framework for the betterment of educational purposes and experiences.

According to NCF 2005, there are many factors contributing to quality education such as quality of teachers, curriculum, infrastructural facilities, quality of teaching, etc. It seeks to reform the curriculum and to bring learning experiences in and outside the classroom. 

Against the above-mentioned backdrop recommended by the NCF 2005, the primary role of the teacher includes:

• facilitating children’s learning in a manner that helps children to construct knowledge.
• considering learners as active participants in their learning and not as recipients of knowledge.
• giving plenty of opportunities to children to share their own understanding and knowledge.
• encouraging learners to reflect, analyze, and to interpret in the process of knowledge construction.
• creating fear-free atmosphere, addressing diversity and inclusion, maintaining equity in the education.

Hence, it could be concluded that against the above-mentioned backdrop, the primary role of the teacher should be giving plenty of opportunities to children to share their own understanding and knowledge.

Teachers play the most crucial role in moulding the behaviour of learners. This shaping of behaviour is achieved through planning and dedication. The benefits of teaching are maximized when teachers act as a facilitator for the students.

Role of a Teacher to Encourage Children: The role of the teachers is considered to view learners as active participants in their learning and not as recipients of knowledge.

• A teacher functions as a learner, counselor, manager, assessor, and innovator.
• Teachers need to motivate the child to put in effort in their studies.
• The role of the teachers is considered to view learners as active participants in their learning and not as recipients of knowledge.
• Teacher's interactive role in the teaching-learning process mainly emphasizes the active involvement of all students for meaningful learning.
• Teacher support is also seen as a necessary component of developmentally appropriate practice.

NOTE: According to NCF 2005, the role of a teacher has to be facilitative because the teacher encourages the learners to reflect, analyze and interpret in the process of knowledge construction, and creating a fear-free atmosphere, addressing diversity and inclusion, equity and quality in the school education.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that to encourage children to put in efforts in their studies, teachers need to motivate the child.

• Emotion is a mental state associated with fear, anger, love, etc. It is associated with a feeling of pleasure and displeasure. Every emotion is followed by psychological changes like a rapid heartbeat.
• Cognition is the process of acquiring knowledge through experiences and senses. Cognition describes how mental processes i.e. learning, remembering, problem-solving, and thinking develop from birth until adulthood.
• The term motivation is derived from the Latin word 'movere' which means 'to move'. It is a complex set of psychological forces. Motivation is something that moves a person into action and inspires him to continue in the course of action already initiated.

Important Points

Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge and skills and a change in an individual’s behaviour as a result of some experience.

• If the learning motivation is high, student learning outcomes are high as well and vice versa.
• In order for a goal to be motivational, it must be specific in terms of its level and time frame.
• The relationship between cognition and emotion has fascinated important thinkers within the intellectual tradition. Physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development in a child is the development of an integrated and holistic fashion.
• Cognition is closely intertwined with emotions and language. Mind states are powerful determinants of one’s current judgments and decision making, that often effect once performance outcome in a task both in social and non-social context.
• Emotions or emotional approach is a psychological construct that involves the use of emotional processing and emotional expression in response to a different situation.
• Emotions are experienced as positive feelings, negative feelings, undesired reactions to any stressful situation, these often impact decision making i.e. cognition.
• The Emotional Approach involves the conscious use of emotional expression and processing to better deal with stressful situations.

Hence, we conclude that Emotions are inextricably intertwined with motivation and learning.

Multiple-choice questions are highly reliable and valid questions that are used to measure educational achievement, intelligence, etc.

Multiple Choice Questions assess the child's ability to recognize the correct answer as it consists of such questions which:

• require sharp memory to recognize answers from given alternative answers.
• allow the testee to choose one answer from a limited list of possible answers.
• require one-word answer thus minimize the subjective inference and judgment.
• apt for definite answers which are represented as a single word, digit, or symbol.

Hence, it could be concluded that multiple Choice Questions assess the child's ability to recognize the correct answer.

Additional Information:

Characteristics of Multiple Choice Questions:

• Easy in construction.
• Apt for a definite answer.
• Reduces cost and time
• Allows for guessing factor.
• Reliable and valid content.

Socialization is the process through which communities transact or educate their members about the norms and values of society to be socially acceptable.

Key Points

Socialization is a process by which an individual becomes a member of society through a mechanism of interaction. Its purpose is to prepare individuals for future roles.​

Process of socialization includes:

• Transmission of manners and culture.
• Acquisition of skills, values, and beliefs.
• Learning the customs and norms of a culture.
• Adaptation of social behaviour and principles.
• Internalization of attitudes and customs of society.

Hence, it could be concluded that the process of socialization does not include 'genetic transmission'.

Additional Information

There are two main types of socialization:

• Primary socialization: Takes place early in life. Eg- family.
• Secondary socialization: Takes place throughout one's life. Eg- peer groups.

Jean Piaget, a swiss psychologist, is famous for his work on child development. He made a systematic study of cognitive development in his theory that is categorized in four stages.

Piaget used 'Schemas' for 'mental structures which are the building blocks of thinking' as according to Piaget:

• Schemas are mental representations of how information is organized and interpreted.
• schemas refer to a small packet of information that is used to organized and store information.
• Schemas are specific psychological structures, constructed in organized ways to make sense of experience.

Hence, it could be concluded that Piaget used 'Schemas' for 'mental structures which are the building blocks of thinking'.

Additional Information

Other key Concepts of Piaget Theory:

• Accommodation: It is the modification of an existing schema to suit the new experience.
• Assimilation: It is the addition of a new concept or experience into an already existing schema.
• Equilibration: It refers to the process to find a balance between existing schemas and new information.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Learning:

• Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who believed that social interactions play a key role in development. According to him, learning occurs when children interact with people and the environment.
• He explains this with the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which refers to a range of tasks that a child can achieve only with assistance from a more skilled adult or peer called the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). Adult assistance is provided wherever necessary which is called Scaffolding.
• Vygotsky embedded in this theory, the concept of 'private speech' which is a kind of speech directed to self with no communicative function. Children use private speech to guide their actions by speaking themselves.

Private Speech:

• It refers to the speech produced aloud by young children which seems to be addressed either to the self or to others, which sometimes cannot be easily conceived by a listener.
• It has a major role in the augmentation of the self and self-consciousness.
• This phenomenon starts in the early years of life and proceeds to the end of adolescence and even later.
• It is the main aspect in the development of self and subjectivity.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that children speak to themselves to guide their actions.

Learning disability refers to the neurological disorder that causes cognitive impairment.

• It is a variable state which can be addressed by appropriate comprehensible inputs.
• Dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, etc are the example of learning disability.

Important Points

Children with learning disabilities have confusion between letters and alphabets that look alike as 'Dyslexia' is the most common learning disability which results in reverse or mirror images of the letters and alphabet thus makes learners:

• unable to read, interpret, and understand letters and words.
• confuse with the same shapes and sounds of the alphabet.
• bewilder in identifying and relating speech sounds with letters and words.

Hint

• Learning disability can present in children with average and above-average IQ which makes the struggle in a particular area where they need remedial educational help.

Hence, it could be concluded that children with learning disabilities have confusion between letters and alphabets that look alike.

Creativity is the phenomenon whereby imaginative and original ideas are turned into reality. It is a cognitive ability to produce something novel by offering a fresh perspective.

Creativity refers to the ability to identify or prepare original and divergent solutions to problems as creativity is related to the concept of 'divergent thinking' which refers to:

• a way of solving problems by more than one approach.
• an act of working with open-ended questions using creativity and ingenuity.
• a process which includes brainstorming, imagination, out of the box thinking in it.
• the ability possesses by the people who are creative, persistent, and imaginative.

Hence, it could be concluded that creativity refers to the ability to identify or prepare original and divergent solutions to problems.

Additional Information

Characteristics of creative children:

• Perceive relation between impossible things.
• Think quickly and solve problems in a novel way.
• Convert imaginative and original ideas into reality.
• Try new things and risk failure in executing innovative ideas.
• Use divergent and out of the box thinking in different situations.

In India, boys are supposed to go and work while girls are supposed to take care of household chores and other responsibilities regarding the home. There is a stereotype that certain activities are only meant to be done by girls or not by the boys and vice versa.

In the above-mentioned phenomenon, the teacher should give homework that connects the learning at school to the children's lives at home as:

• it will make learning alive by connecting it with real-life situations.
• it will help learners in gaining concrete experiences related to homework.
• it will bridge the gap between the theoretical and practical aspects of learning.
• it will make learning easy for learners through direct contact with real situations.

Hence, it could be concluded that in the above-mentioned phenomenon, the teacher should give homework that connects the learning at school to the children's lives at home.

NOTE: Homework refers to a piece of work assigned to students as a part of study to do at home. It is given by the teacher at the end of their period t make students revised that particular topic for better academic outcomes.

Effective classroom ensures effective teaching as it refers to an environment that is free of distraction and disruption. In effective classrooms, teachers present a strong case for learner-centered education. 

• In an effective classroom, teachers advocate a philosophy of teaching in which students are given a far more important role in curriculum decisions than has traditionally been the case.

Key Points

In an effective classroom, the children look up to the teacher for guidance and support to facilitate their learning as in effective classrooms teachers:

• work according to learners' interests to achieve their fullest potential.
• give primacy to children's understanding, requirements, experiences, needs, etc.
• focus on how well the students have understood a particular topic, and motivate them to learn.
• promote problem-solving, reasoning skills, and create a learning environment to foster the development of children.
• encourage children to think logically and provide ample opportunities to children to make them learn at their own pace.

Hence, it could be concluded that in an effective classroom, the children look up to the teacher for guidance and support to facilitate their learning.

Learning is a comprehensive process which refers to a change in behavior, knowledge, and skills as a result of practice and experience. It refers to the modification of behavioral pattern as it modifies the behavior and personality of an individual.

Learning takes place in the best way when authentic knowledge is provided in an integrated or sequential manner as it helps learners in making logical connections across different topics.

Presenting disconnected chunks of knowledge would make it difficult for learners to gain conceptual understanding  as it will not let learners:

• acquire any sound knowledge.
• gain a better understanding of the concept.
• connect subject matter to their previous knowledge.
• make the necessary connections among pieces of information.

Hence, it could be concluded that presenting disconnected chunks of knowledge would make it difficult for learners to gain conceptual understanding.

Concept used:

HCF or the Highest Common Factor of two or more numbers is the greatest factor that divides the numbers. For example, 2 is the HCF of 4 and 6

Calculation:

a = 3129 × 5128 × 722

b = 3128 × 5129 × 721

c = 3127 × 5129 × 723 and

d = 3127 × 5128 × 724

The highest common factor we can take from a, b, c, and d is 3127 × 5128 × 721

Given:

We can find the cube root of -2300 and the cube root 529.

Calculations:

Since they are multiplied, if we rearrange them and bring them under one sign we get:

∛-2300 × ∛5290 = ∛-23 × 23 × 23 × 10 × 10 × 10 = - 230

Concept used:

a⁰ = 1

Calculation:

(2^a)^bc/(5^b)^ac   = ((2²)⁰/(5³)⁰ 

= 1 x 1 = 1

Calculation:

$4+\frac {44}{10}+\frac {404}{100}+\frac {444}{1000}+\frac {4}{10,000}$

Rewriting the above question in decimal to get

4 + 4.4 + 4.04 + 0.444 + 0.0004

⇒ 12. 8844

Concept used:

If the difference of the sum of alternative digits of a number is divisible by 11, then that number is divisible by 11 completely.

Calculation:

Sum of digits at even places = y + 0 + 1 = 1 + y

Sum of digits at odd places = 9 + 8 + 7 = 24

And their difference = 24 – 1 – y = 23 – y

Now, either 23 – y = 0 or a number is divisible by 11.

If we take y = 1 then, it is divisible by 11

From our options, only option 1 (1) can make this happen. 23 – 1 = 22 which is divisible by 11.

(14.96 × 1010) - (3.84 × 108) 

Taking 10⁸ common

10⁸(14.96 × 10² - 3.84)

⇒ 10⁸(1496 - 3.84)

⇒ 1492.16 × 10⁸

⇒ 1.49216 × 10¹¹

Additional Information The steps to write the standard form of a number are as follows:

Step 1: Write the first number from the given number.

Step 2: Add the decimal point after the first number.

Step 3: Now, count the number of digits after the first number from the given number and write it in the power of 10.

Ex. The standard form of 149216 is 1.49216 × 10⁵

Mean = Sum of all the observation/Total number of observations

Mean = (6 + 3 + 9 + 5 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 6 + 5 + 1 + 3)/11 = 44/11 = 4

Mode = 3 (∵ Most repeated number)

The median is the middle number in a data set when the numbers are listed in either ascending or descending order. 

Median = middle value of (1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5, 6, 6, 9) = 3

∴ Their sum = 4 + 3 + 3 = 10.

Formula used:

Probability P(A) = the number of favorable outcomes/total number of outcomes

Concept used:

Prime number:- The number which is divisible by only one and itself.

Ex:- 2, 3, 5, 7 etc

2 is the only even prime number

1 is neither prime nor composite

3 is the smallest odd prime number

7 is the largest one-digit prime number

Calculation:

Total number of slips = 15 – 4 + 1 = 11 + 1 = 12

The total prime numbers from 4 to 15 are 5, 7, 11, 13 ie 4

So, the total prime number between 4 to 15 = 4

∴ The probability of getting a prime number = 4/12 = 1/3

Given:

In the first 3 years Amount = Rs. 4818

In the first 6 years Amount = Rs. 7227

Formula used:

Amount = Principal × [(1 + r/100)ⁿ]

Calculation:

Let the sum be P

For the first 3 years,

Amount = Principal × [(1 + r/100)n]

⇒ 4818 = P × [(1 + r/100)³]      ----(1)

For the first 6 years, 

Amount = Principal × [(1 + r/100)n]

⇒ 7227 = P × [(1 + r/100)6]      ----(2)

Dividing (2) by (1) we get

7227/4818 = [(1 + r/100)3]  

⇒ [(1 + r/100)3] = 3/2      ----(3)

Putting value of eq (3) in eq (1)

4818 = P × (3/2)

⇒ P = (4818 × 2)/3

⇒ P = 3212

∴ The sum is Rs 3212

Alternate Method

In the 2^nd 3 years i.e. 3 years to 6 years, Amount = Rs. 7227 

7227 = 4818(1 + r/100)³        ---- (i)

4818 = principal × (1 + r/100)³ ---- (ii)

Dividing (i) and (ii) to get

7227/4818 = 4818/A

∴ Principal = (4818 × 4818)/7227 = 3212

Using Unitary method,

Weight of 18 sheets of paper = 50 gm

1 gm = 18/50 sheet

$3\frac3 4$ = 3 kg + 750 gm = 3750 gm

⇒ 15/4 KG has (18/50) x 3750 = 1350 sheets

(3x-2)/3 + (2x+3)/2 = x + 7/6

⇒ [2(3x-2) + 3(2x+3)]/6 = (6x+7)/6

⇒ 6x - 4 + 6x +9 = 6x +7

⇒ 12x + 5 = 6x +7

⇒ 6x =2

⇒ x = 1/3

∴ (5x - 2)/4 = [(5/3) - 2]/4 = -1/12

4x ² + 12xy - 8x +9y ² -12y = (ax)² + abxy - 4ax + abxy + (by)² -4by

Comparing them to get a² = 4, b² = 9 and

a² + b² = 4 + 9 = 13

(5x + 2) and (2x2 - 3x + 5)

Coefficient of x² will be obtained by multiplying 5x to (-3x) to get -15x² and 2 to (2x²) to get 4x²

and net coefficient of x² = -15 + 4 = -11

And the Coefficient of x is obtained by multiplying 5x by 5 to get 25x and 2 by -3x to get -6x.

And the net coefficient of x = 25 - 6 = 19.

Sum of the coefficients of x² and x = -11 + 19 = 8

Formula used:

The volume of the cuboid = Length × breadth × height

The volume of the cube = Side³

The number of cubes = Volume of the cuboid/The volume of the cube

Calculation:

Total volume to rectangular box = 15 × 12.5 × 7.5

Volume of 1 box = 2.5 × 2.5 × 2.5

Number of cubes that can fit = (15 × 12.5 × 7.5)/(2.5 × 2.5 × 2.5) = 90

∴ The number of the cubes is 90

Formula used:

Area of trapezium = (1/2) × [Sum of parallel sides] × h

Calculation:

Two parallel sides are AB and DC and non-parallel sides are AD and BC

Perimeter of trapezium ABCD = 58 cm

sum of non-parallel sides (AD + BC) = 20 cm

Perimeter of trapezium - sum of non-parallel sides (AD + BC) = sum of parallel sides(AB + DC)

⇒ 58 - 20 = AB + DC = 38 cm

(1/2) × [Sum of parallel sides] × h = 152 cm²

⇒ (1/2) × 38 × h = 152

⇒ h = 152/19 = 8 cm = distance between parallel sides

Formula used:

Exterior angle = 180 - interior angle

Number of sides = 360/exterior angle

Calculation:

Exterior Angle = 180 - 156 = 24 

Using the formula that relates the exterior angles and the number of sides

Number of sides = 360/exterior angle

⇒ 360/24 = 15

Concept used:

There are n lines of symmetry for a regular polygon with 'n' sides.

For example:-

For a triangle the sum of any two sides should be greater than the third side.

Using this rule,

1.) 4.5

⇒ if third side is 4.5 cm, then 6.5 + 4.5 > 10   correct. But is 4.5 the smallest possible value.

Let’s check more.

2.) 2.8

⇒ 2.8 + 6.5 = 9.3 < 10. Not a triangle

3.)  3.5

⇒ 6.5 + 3.5 = 10 = 10. Not possible

4.)  4

⇒ 4 + 6.5 = 10.5 >10. Correct and since 4 < 4.5 this is the smallest possible number among the options and hence it is the right answer.

In mathematics learning at the early school level, students commit several errors which are broadly of five types:

• Conceptual Error: This is the error which is made by student at the initial stage of solving a problem. For example, error related to sign convention.
• Process/Procedural skills errors (P) are committed when the child identified an appropriate operation, or sequence of operations, but did not know the procedures necessary to carry out these operations accurately. For example, while adding 77 and 33, a child writes 100 as his solution instead of 110.
• Reading errors (R) is committed if the child could not read a keyword or symbol in the written problem to the extent that this prevented him/her from proceeding further along an appropriate problem-solving path
• Comprehension errors (C) is committed when the child had been able to read all the words in the question, but had not grasped the overall meaning of the words and, therefore, was unable to proceed further along an appropriate problem-solving path.
• Transformation errors (T) is committed when the child had understood what the questions wanted him/her to find out but was unable to identify the operation, or sequence of operations needed to solve the problem.
• Encoding errors (E) are committed when the child correctly worked out the solution to a problem, but could not express this solution in an acceptable written form

Hence, we conclude that the above statement is of conceptual error.

Data Handling is the process of ensuring that research data is stored, archived, or disposed of in a safe and secure manner during and after the conclusion of a research project.

Data handling should be suitably introduced as tools to understand the process of representing and interpreting day-to-day data. In Data handling, students collect information and draw meaningful results in their daily life.

'Data Handling' at the upper primary stage focuses on data collection, organization, and interpretation as it is a method of: 

• collecting systematic and reliable information.
• presenting gathered information systematically.
• analyzing data to reach a relevant conclusion.

Hence, it could be concluded that 'Data Handling' at the upper primary stage focuses on data collection, organization, and interpretation.

Mathematics is the study of numbers, shape, quantity, and patterns. Teaching methods of mathematics include problem-solving, lecture, inductive, deductive, analytic, synthetic, and heuristic or Discovery Method. The teacher adopts any method according to the needs and interests of students.

Problem Solving Strategy in Mathematics: In a mathematics class, students at the primary level enjoy learning, solving problems, develop mathematical curiosity, and become confident in using mathematics to analyze and solve problems.

• Problem-solving is a learner-centred approach that emphasizes learner's active involvement in the learning process. In this approach, teachers create a problematic situation for students and then assist them in perceiving, defining, and stating the problems in a fear-free classroom environment.
• An effective problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to find a solution. Different strategies have different action plans associated with them For example, a well-known problem-solving strategy is the trial and error principle.
• Solving problems in a backward manner and drawing is also part of problem-solving strategy in mathematics.

NOTE: Learning should never facilitate the rote method. Mathematics always discourages rote learning and makes the whole process better by including hands-on-experiences.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that Rote learning is not a problem-solving strategy in mathematics.

'Jean Piaget', a swiss psychologist, is famous for his work on child development. He made a systematic study of cognitive development in his theory that is categorized in four stages.​

Jean Piaget observed his children and their process of making sense of the world around them and developed a model of how the mind processes new information encountered.

Jean Piaget argued that when the child is at formal operational stage, it is appropriate to introduce 'Ratio and Proportion' as in this stage:

• children's mental capabilities are developed to the maximum level.
• children become capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning
• children are capable of creating logical combinations and verifying hypotheses.
• children develop abstract thinking and understand the structure of mathematical problems.
• children gain the ability to reason proportionally and to work in probabilities and possibilities.
• children can segregate the variable, eliminates contradictions, and combines variables in a logical way.

    Hence, it could be concluded that when the child is at formal operational stage, it is appropriate to introduce 'Ratio and Proportion'.

Additional Information

 Refer to the diagram for conceptual understanding of the characteristics of other stages of Piaget's theory: ​

From the above-mentioned information, it could be interpreted that this problem is 'Interdisciplinary in nature' as the interdisciplinary or unified approach to knowledge helps to integrate knowledge from different disciplines by using a real process of synthesis.

Interdisciplinary Approach is a learner-centred approach to Knowledge which states that:

• when a concept or issue of discipline is learnt in relation to other disciplines, the concept or issue is learnt meaningfully.
• knowledge is a single entity and tries to create a holistic knowledge by integrating knowledge from different disciplines.
• one discipline isn’t completely isolated from other disciplines and there is the thematic relationship among different disciplines.
• knowledge cannot be divided like watertight compartments and there exists proper linkage among different aspects of knowledge.
• Eg: Here this problem is interdisciplinary in nature as this geographical concept includes the problems of mathematics as well.

Hence, it could be concluded that the above-given problem is 'Interdisciplinary in nature'.

In a mathematics class, students at the primary level enjoy learning, solving problems, develop mathematical curiosity, and become confident in using mathematics to analyze and solve problems. 

• Mathematics is an active subject where the child needs to think on their feet actively. Visualization, Transposition, Generalisation, and Estimation are the skills that are promoted by mathematics at the upper primary stage.

Key Points

These can be understood briefly as follows:

• Visualization: On observing a mathematical problem first thing is to visualize in mind what methods or approaches one should take to arrive at a solution quickly and smoothly. It is often used when solving word problems in mathematics.
• Transposition: While solving algebraic equations one often needs to transfer values from one side to another. It is mathematically termed as transporting values from RHS to LHS or vice versa as per requirement.
• Generalization: To apply some general rules or formulae to find the solution.
• Estimation: Getting an estimated solution while solving a mathematical problem like 72.13 × 5.

 5 + 40 =? While solving the above problem a student will think like 72.13 × 5 (i.e. 70 × 5) =350 + 40 so the estimated value of the solution will be around 400. It is also referred to as the prediction of future projection observing the current pattern or statistics.

Hint

Memorization is the term linked to the rote method which is negated in subject like mathematics.

• Memorization is a passive process and can be done where you know prior events and then memorize the answers accordingly.
• But this method cannot opt-in a situation where you don’t know exactly what the question will ask.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that 'memorization' is not a Mathematical process.

The National Council for Educational Research and Training (NCERT) published a document called the National Curriculum Framework (NCF). NCF 2005 has been translated into 22 languages and influenced the syllabi in 17 states.

According to National Curriculum Framework-2005: 

• The main goal of Mathematics education in school is the mathematization of the child’s thought process.
• Children should learn to think about any situation using the language of Mathematics.
• The aim of teaching mathematics is to develop the child to think and reason mathematically, to pursue assumptions to their logical conclusions, and to handle abstractions.
• The school Mathematics curriculum should help the children learn to enjoy Mathematics.
• Mathematics takes place in a situation where mathematics is a part of children's life experience.
• Mathematics subject to be learned in order to perform daily life activities in a better way.
• Constructing the Mathematics curriculum we need to consider those topics Mathematics or themes, which would help children to succeed in their everyday life.
• The curriculum of mathematics should be introduced by connecting it to real-life situations and through its use in solving various life problems.

NOTE: According to NCF 2005, given all other options are not appropriate in context of mathematics.

Hence, it becomes clear that according to NCF 2005, mathematics takes place in a situation where mathematics is a part of children's life experience.

Co-curricular activities like debate and discussions are those activities that are usually organized in the classroom to provide opportunities for students to develop their special talents and to creatively express themselves through various forms.

• Debates are a great way to exchange ideas. They can help you improve your knowledge and your reasoning skills.
• Debates always help to develop essential critical thinking skills which help the learner to look at any issues from different angles.

Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy is a hierarchical organization of cognitive objectives. Bloom classifies learning objectives into three domains, cognitive, affective, and sensory domain.

Levels of Bloom's Cognitive Domain:

The given topic for debate, "Hindu-Arabic numerals are more powerful than Roman Numerals." In this topic, students will do analysis and try to find how Hindu-Arabic numerals are more powerful than Roman Numerals. 

NOTE: Formative assessment is employed by teachers during the teaching-learning process. It is conducted more than once and the main objective is to improve teaching and enhance learning.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that the objective of that formative assessment is to assess the 'Analysis' level of students.

Mathematics is a branch of science which deals with counting, calculating, and studying numbers, shapes, and structures. Effective Mathematics teaching should aim to promote students’ confidence in mathematics, curiosity, freedom, and belief in doing mathematics.

In a mathematics class, students enjoy learning, solving problems, develop mathematical curiosity, and become confident in using mathematics to analyze and solve problems.

Mathematics Classroom Emphasise on:- According to National Curriculum Framework-2005, the main goal of Mathematics education in school is the mathematisation of the child’s thought process.

• Mathematics relies on logic, reasoning, problem-solving, creativity, and a mathematical way of thinking.
• In a Mathematics classroom, the emphasis is placed on mathematical content, process, and reasoning.
• Mathematical reasoning is an ability to provide a justification for a mathematical procedure. It also involves the ability to think logically and systematically.
• Mathematical reasoning plays an important role, both in solving problems and in conveying ideas when learning mathematics.
• It enables children to arrive at solutions/judgements/conclusions after manipulating the facts involved in the problems.
• Mathematical reasoning involves two processes, namely: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that in a Mathematics classroom, the emphasis is placed on mathematical content, process and reasoning.

Inculcation of Values among Students: Apart from home, schools are an important place where children learn values naturally through activities and their daily normal interactions with their peers. And next to the parents, the teachers have an important and effective role in the inculcation of values amongst children. The teacher must cultivate in the child the quality of sincerity of purpose in whatever the child undertakes. 

The scenario has given in the question showing that the teacher wants to promote honesty through this problem. The explanation of the problem is given below:

The total discount offered on products before or after discount rates is interchanged by the shopkeeper mistakenly.

Total discount before mistake = 20% discount on M.P of shirt + 12% discount on M.P of sweater

= 20% of 200 + 12% of 300.

= 0.20 × 200 + 0.12 × 300 = 40+36

= Rs. 76

Total Market price =  M.P of shirt +  M.P of  sweater = 200 + 300 = 500

Total selling price = Total Market price - Total discount before mistake

= 500 - 76 

= Rs. 424

Total discount after mistake = 12% discount on shirt + 10% discount on sweater

= 12% of 200 + 20% of 300

= 0.12 × 200 + 20 × 300 = 24+60

= Rs. 84

Total Market price =  M.P of shirt +  M.P of  sweater = 200 + 300 = 500

Total selling price = Total Market price - Total discount after mistake

= 500 - 84

= Rs. 416

Clearing shopkeer was selling items at less price than its selling price. On getting the bill, Hamida noticed the mistake and paid the actual amount to the shopkeeper which is 424.

Hence, we can conclude that by doing this, the teacher is inculcating honesty values among Hamida and all the students by this hypothetical problem.

NOTE: 

• Co-operation emphasizes the value of cooperation and compromises. Present a model of cooperation and helping behavior. Teach the art of compromise.
• Compassionate emphasizes the value of sympathy and Helping children to develop empathy. Encourage role-playing. Help children understand how other people feel.

To find the smallest and greatest fraction, we need to find the LCM and then multiply each term with the LCM.

LCM of denominators 7, 9, 10 and 8 = 2520

(6/7) × 2520 = 2160

(8/9) × 2520 = 2240

(9/10) × 2520 = 2268

(7/8) × 2520 = 2205

Greatest number - smallest number = 2268 - 2160 = 108

To get the fraction value of the same, we will this time divide 108 with the LCM

∴ Difference = 108/2520 = 3/70

Rearranging the series to get

S = (1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 .... + 49) + (– 2 – 4 – 6 – 8 – 10 ... – 50)

Now we get two Arithmetic progression with common difference of 2.

Using the formula for sum of A.P.

S = n/2 × (a + l) where a is first term and l is last term

n = 25 terms in each A.P

⇒ S = (25/2) × (1 + 49) – (25/2) × (2 + 50) (∵ - sign as 2^nd AP has all terms in negative)

= 25(50)/2 – 25(52)/2

= 25 × 25 – 25 × 26 = 25(-1) = -25

 Now the additive inverse (same number with an opposite sign) is – (– 25) = 25

Learning is a process of continual adaptation to the environment and assimilation and accommodation of new information and knowledge to fit in with pre-existing knowledge structures. It is a process by which behavior is either modified or changed through experience or training. 

Important Points

In the above-mentioned situation, learning could be made more meaningful by asking students to interview people in their colony about water consumption and carry out 'Water Audit' as this activity will help the students: 

• to reach a conclusion that is drawn from evidence and reasoning.
• to observe, examine, and scrutinizing the process of water consumption.
• to draw inferences from collected data after an analytical and experimental study.
• to combine information and make connections among them to come up with a new idea.

Hence, it could be concluded that while teaching the topic 'Save Water' learning could be made more meaningful by asking students to interview people in their colony about water consumption and carry out 'Water Audit'.

A teacher before beginning to teach 'digestion' to class VI students provides them with the outline diagram of a human body and asks them to draw all parts, through which they think the food would travel from the mouth when they eat. Here, the teacher wants to investigate students' prior ideas related to the human body and digestion so that future teaching-learning sessions can be accordingly planned.

Questioning Skills: Questions are an aid in the learning process and hence questioning skills is one of the important teaching skills required to be developed to conduct a classroom session successfully by a teacher. These questions serve many purposes:

• It is very common for teachers to ask questions in the classroom.
• One of them is to test students’ knowledge at different stages of teaching.
• In classroom teaching, questions are used by the teacher to find out whether students have understood what was taught or to investigate their prior knowledge.
• Questions are also put to arouse their curiosity and to prepare them for the learning task.
• Purpose of asking a question to planned teaching-learning sessions in the future according to learning level of students.
• Teachers should ask questions that are related to the content being taught in the class. The questions not related to the content hardly serve any purpose. Rather, they break the continuity of the lesson and distract the student’s attention and impede the process of learning the content.

Hence, we can conclude from the above information teacher's purpose of asking this question to investigate students' prior ideas related to the human body and digestion so that future teaching-learning sessions can be accordingly planned.

In Science class, class discussions are important to learning in all disciplines because it helps students process information rather than simply receive it. In effective classroom discussions, we ask students to offer their ideas, waiting for students to think must trump the rush to finish. 

For an effective discussion in class VII on the topic, "Why smoke rises up?" a science teacher should:

• Focuses attention on student-centred learning where the teacher encourages the to indulge in self-learning techniques.
• Encourage students to ask questions and put their points of view.
• Provide a common platform to all the learners.
• Allow all the learners to participate in the discussion.
• Promote active learning by association and mutual co-operation of a group of peers to gain quality experiences.
• Acknowledge learners' responses to sustain their interest.
• Employs minimum effort and resources on teaching and motivates the learner to actively construct knowledge.
• Summarise and assess the learner's ideas at the end of the discussion.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that discouraging questions during the discussion is not the criterion for effective discussion in class.

• Acid: The substances that taste sour contains acids. The chemical nature of such substances is acidic. Ex- lemon, curd, HCl, H₂SO₄ etc.
• Base: The substances which are bitter in taste and feel soapy on touching are known as bases. The nature of such substances is said to be basic. Ex- Soap, NaOH, lime water (Ca(OH)₂) etc.

Since, we cannot taste every substance to know its chemical nature so,

A special type of substances is used to test whether a substance is acidic or basic. These substances are known as indicators. 

Indicators: The indicators change their colour when added to a solution containing an acidic or a basic substance.

Some natural indicators are -

Household Indicators-

• According to the question, if we add dill HCl (acidic) in Turmeric juice. It will remain yellow.
• And in Phenolphathalein It will be colourless.

Hence, it becomes clear that 'A' would remain yellow while those of 'B' would remain colourless.

• Acid: The substances that taste sour contains acids. The chemical nature of such substances is acidic. Ex- lemon, curd, HCl, H2SO4, etc.
• Base: The substances which are bitter in taste and feel soapy on touching are known as bases. The nature of such substances is said to be basic. Ex- Soap, NaOH, lime water (Ca(OH)2), etc.

Chemical Properties of Base:

• Bases when dissolves in water give a soapy touch as they produce hydroxide (OH^-1) ions in solution.
• They can turn red litmus paper to blue.
• When base reacts with acid they produce salts and water. This reaction is termed as a neutralization reaction.
• Acid + Base →  Salt + water.
• Some amphoteric metals (Be, Al, Zn, Sn, Pb) can react with acid and base both to produce hydrogen gas (H₂).

So,

• When the Base reacts with Alumium It will produce Hydrogen gas (H₂).
• $2;NaOH + 2;Al + 2;H_2O \rightarrow 2;NaAlO_2 + 3;H_2$
• Hydrogen gas has a property to burn with a pop sound.

Hence, the pop sound indicates the presence of Hydrogen gas.

Explanation:

States of matter

• Matter exists in nature in different forms, the three basic states of matter are Solid, Liquid and Gas.
• Apart from these three, there are two more states of matter exist which we do not see in our everyday life. They are Plasma & Bose-Einstein condensate.

​Properties of Solid -

• In solids, the particles are closely packed and the gaps between the particles are tiny and hence it is tough to compress them.
• Solid has a fixed shape and volume.

Properties of Liquid -

• In a liquid, particles are less tightly packed as compared to solids and less difficult to compress as compare to solid because particles have less space between them to move but more than the that of solid.
• Liquids take the shape of the container in which they are kept.

Properties of Gas -

• In gases, particles are far apart from each other, the force of attraction between the particles is negligible and they can move freely.
• The gaseous state has the highest compressibility as compared to solids and liquids.
• Gases have neither a fixed volume nor a fixed shape.

When one state of the matter changes to another. The distance between its other particles changes.

Hence, Solid (Highly packed molecules) → Liquid (Less closely packed molecules) → Gas (Very very less closely packed).

⇒ When matter changes from liquid phase to solid phase the distance between particles changes.

Explanation:

Fuel:  The sources of energy for domestic and industrial purposes are mainly wood, charcoal, petrol, kerosene, etc. These substances are called fuels.

• A good fuel is one which is readily available, cheap, burns easily in the air at a moderate rate, and produces a large amount of heat.
• The efficiency of the fuel is measured by its calorific value
• Calorific Value: The amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is called its calorific value. The calorific value of a fuel is expressed in a unit called kilojoule per kg (kJ/kg).
• Given the table shows the calorific value of some fuels:

Hence, the highest calorific value among the options is Hydrogen

Explanation:

Microorganism: A microorganism is a living thing that is too small to be seen with the naked eye.

• Microorganisms are classified into four major groups. These groups are bacteria, fungi, protozoa and some algae.
• The effect of microorganisms in our daily lives are so much, some are beneficial for the human beings but some of the microorganisms are very harmful to the living and in extreme cases may lead to death.

Friendly microorganism:

• Curd contains several microorganisms. Of these, the bacterium, Lactobacillus promotes the formation of curd. It multiplies in milk and converts it into curd.
• Bacteria and yeast are also helpful for fermentation of rice.
• Penicillin also contain microorganism that acts as antibiotics and help us to fight from diseases.
• Some bacteria are able to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere to enrich the soil with nitrogen and increase its fertility. The Nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and Rhizobium.

Harmful microorganism:

Disease-causing microorganisms are called pathogens.

The correct match are -

• Lactobacillus → Curd
• Protozoan → Malaria
• Rhizobium → Nitrogen Fixation
• Virus → AIDS

Photosynthesis: It is the process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize nutrients from carbon dioxide and water. In this process, plants use the chlorophyll, carbon dioxide, water, sunlight and release oxygen. 

Photosynthesis is important due to two reasons:

• It is the primary source of all food on earth.
• It is also responsible for the release of oxygen into the atmosphere.

Here, the statement that 'irrespective of colour, all leaves carry out photosynthesis' is correct as:

• all colored leaves contain chlorophyll that enables plants to absorb the energy they need to build tissues.
• large amount of red, brown, pink, and violet pigment mask the green color of chlorophyll in these leaves.
• the pigment is a molecule that has a particular color and can absorb light at different wavelengths, depending on the color.

Hence, it could be concluded that the statement that 'irrespective of color, all leaves carry out photosynthesis' is correct.

The correct answer is Ladyfinger has seeds, thus it is a fruit.

Key Points

• True fruit is a ripened ovary. There is a dual effect of fertilization on the ovary. After fertilization ovule is changed to seed and ovary changed to fruit.
• Fruit can be defined as part of the plant which is the plant's seed-bearing part.
• It develops from the ovary of a flowering plant. Tomato, Ladyfinger are fruits, not vegetables.
• The vegetable can be root, stems, leaves. Real vegetables are carrot, radish as they are leaves or roots or stems.
• So, the ladyfinger has seeds and the green part covered the seed so in a combination it becomes a fruit.
• Fruit may be categorized according to different use viz. vegetables, fruits.

The correct answer is Adrenaline.

• The Adrenal gland in our body produces the hormone called Adrenaline.
• Adrenaline is also known as the ‘fight or flight hormone’ and helps the body adjust to stress in times of fear, worry, embarrassment, etc.

Key Points

A cartoon depicting the functions of the Adrenaline hormone

Additional Information

• Insulin is a hormone secreted by the Pancreas.
• It helps in maintaining the blood glucose level by stimulating the absorption of insulin by cells.
• Thyroxine is a hormone secreted by the Thyroid gland.
• Its function is to maintain the basal metabolic rate of the body and regulate carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism.
• Estrogen is a female steroid hormone secreted by the Ovaries, along with progesterone.
• It controls the stimulation of growth in females, the development of female secondary characteristics like mammary glands, and female sexual behaviour.

Different parts of plants are considered as food like roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruit, seeds, etc.

• Plants root as food: We can eat some roots of the plants like carrot, reddish, beetroot, sweet potato, turnip, etc.
• Plants stem as food: Some plants store their food in their stem (modified or underground). Ex- Onion, potato, ginger, garlic, sugarcane, etc.
• Plants leaves as food: The leafy vegetables can be used as food like spinach, cabbage, etc.
• Plants flowers as food: Flowers of some plants can be used as a fruit. Ex- Banana plant, pumpkin plant, etc.
• Plants fruit: Some plants store their food in the form of fruit. Ex- apple, guava, grapes mango, etc.
• Plants seeds: Some plants store their food in their seeds we can eat their seeds as food like wheat, rice, groundnut, pulses, etc.

Hence, the correct match for this question is -

Root → Carrot

Stem → Sugarcane

Seed → Groundnut

Fruit → Apple

Illness/Diseases: It is a state of experience by the body when one or more of the control systems of the body are not functioning normally.  

• Communicable disease: The diseases which are infectious or transmissible from a body to body through biological agents in humans and animals. Ex- Influenza, Ebola, Covid-19, etc.
• Non-communicable disease: The disease that is not transmissible directly from one person to another through biological agents, Ex- Astama, Diabetes, etc.

Some Common Virus Borne Diseases are:-

1. Small-pox
2. Common flu
3. Mumps and measles
4. Polio
5. Chickenpox
6. Rabies
7. Ebola and Hanta fever
8. Herpes
9. Hepatitis

Some Common Bacterial Diseases:-

1. Bacteria.
2. Cholera.
3. Leprosy.
4. Tuberculosis.
5. Plague

Hence, Measles, Chickenpox, Hepatitis-A are the diseases caused by virus.

Ecosystem: All organisms such as plants, animals, microorganisms, and human beings as well as the physical surroundings interact with each other and maintain a balance in nature. All the interacting organisms in an area together with the non-living constituents of the environment form an ecosystem.

Autotrophs are organisms that can produce their own food, using materials from inorganic sources by using basic energy sources such as sunlight.

• Plants are the main example of autotrophs, using photosynthesis.
• Some autotrophs, such as green plants and algae, are phototrophs, they convert electromagnetic energy from sunlight into chemical energy in the form of glucose. So, Spinach, Tomato, Banana are also examples of autotrophs.

Mode of Nutrition:

Autotropic: The mode of nutrition in which organisms make food themselves from simple substances is called autotrophic (auto = self; trophos = nourishment) nutrition. Therefore, plants are called autotrophs. Ex- Plants, Tress, algae, etc.

Heterotrophic: Animals and most other organisms take in ready-made food prepared by the plants. They are called heterotrophs (heteros = other).

• Holozoic: Animals who take in solid food and breakdown it inside their body like animals, amoeba, etc. comes under the holozoic mode of nutrition.
• Parasitic: Parasites live inside or outside the other organism (host) and get their nutrition from the host. Ex - Ticks, Cuscuta (dodder), mosquito, etc.
• Saprophytic: In this mode of nutrition the organisms take in nutrients in solution form from dead and decaying matter is called saprotrophic nutrition. Ex- Fungi grows on pickles, leather, etc.

Hence, Algae, Spinach, Tomato, Banana represents a group of autotrophs.

The digestive system includes 5 steps, They are in order as follows::

1. Ingestion

2. Digestion

3. Absorption

4. Assimilation

5) Egestion

• Ingestion: It is the process of taking food into the body by the animal.
• Digestion: It is the process in which food containing larger molecules is converted or break down into small water-soluble molecules.
• Absorption: It is the process in which digested food goes into the bloodstream.
• Assimilation: It is the process in which absorbed food is taken up by the body cells for their growth and energy.
• Egestion: It is the process in which undigested is discharged as faeces.

CONCEPT:

• Some liquids are good conductors of electricity and some are poor conductors.
• Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of acids, bases and salts.
• The passage of an electric current through a conducting liquid causes chemical reactions. The resulting effects are called chemical effects of currents.

EXPLANATION:

These conduct electricity in their aqueous medium (dissolve in water).

• Vinegar is the common name of acetic acid and breaks into their ions in the aqueous medium.
• Lime juice is made of citric acid and it breaks into their ions in the aqueous medium.
• Saltwater is also broken into their ions in the aqueous medium.
• Distilled water is free of salts and is a poor conductor of electricity.

Hence, it becomes clear that Distilled water is not a conductor of electricity.

EXPLANATION:

• The one with the larger refractive index is an optically denser medium than the other.
• The other medium of lower refractive index is optically rarer.
• The speed of light is higher in a rarer medium than in a denser medium.
• Thus, a ray of light traveling from a rarer medium to a denser medium slows down and bends towards the normal. When it travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it speeds up and bends away from the normal.

EXPLANATION:

• Atmospheric pressure: Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere of Earth (or that of another planet).
• All gases in the atmosphere exert pressure on each other, the earth and the objects on earth including humans.
• The reason we are not crushed under the weight of the atmosphere is that the pressure inside our bodies is also equal to the atmospheric pressure and cancels the pressure from outside.

The atmospheric pressure is maximum on the surface of the earth.

CONCEPT:

• Archimedes’ principle: When a body is immersed fully or partially in a fluid, it experiences an upward force that is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it.
• All objects experience a force of buoyancy when they are immersed in a fluid.
• Objects having a density less than that of the liquid in which they are immersed, float on the surface of the liquid. If the density of the object is more than the density of the liquid in which it is immersed then it sinks in the liquid.

EXPLANATION:

• When the iron block is dropped in the vessel filled with water, it displaces some water from the vessel. The weight of the displaced liquid is less than the iron block, so the iron block sink to the bottom of the vessel.

Important Points

• Archimedes’ principle has many applications. It is used in designing ships and submarines. Lactometers, which are used to determine the purity of a sample of milk and hydrometers used for determining the density of liquids, are based on this principle.

CONCEPT:

• The loudness of a sound depends on its amplitude. When the amplitude of vibration is large, the sound produced is loud. When the amplitude is small, the sound produced is feeble.
• The frequency of vibration is higher we say that the sound is shrill and has a higher pitch. If the frequency of vibration is lower, we say that the sound has a lower pitch.

EXPLANATION:

• A drum vibrates with a low frequency. Therefore, it produces a low-pitched sound.
• A whistle has a high frequency and therefore, produces a sound of a higher pitch.
• A bird makes a high-pitched sound whereas a lion makes a low-pitched roar. However, the roar of a lion is very loud while the sound of the bird is quite feeble.
• The voice of a woman has a higher frequency and is shriller than that of a man.

Our Solar System consists of the Sun and 8 planets:

1. Mercury (nearest to the sun)
2. Venus (Evening star, hottest planet)
3. Earth (Only living planet, blue planet)
4. Mars (the red planet)
5. Jupiter (largest planet in the solar system)
6. Saturn (a planet with rings)
7. Uranus (coldest planet)
8. Neptune (farthest to the sun)

Important Points

• All Planets in our solar system rotates counterclockwise i.e. West to East except for Venus and Uranus.
• Two planets Venus and Uranus are rotating from east to west in our solar system.
• Venus and Uranus are rotating in the opposite direction (clockwise) to the Sun, this is also known as a retrograde rotation.

The correct answer is Urea.

• When our cells perform their functions, certain waste products are released. These are toxic and hence need to be removed from the body.

• The process of removal of wastes produced in the cells of the living organisms is called excretion. The parts involved in excretion from the excretory system.

• Human excretory system: A mechanism to filter the blood is required and done by the blood capillaries in the kidneys. When the blood reaches the two kidneys, it contains both useful and harmful substances. The useful substances are absorbed back into the blood. The wastes dissolved in water are removed as urine.

• Aquatic animals like fishes, excrete cell waste as ammonia which directly dissolves in water.

• The major excretory product in humans is urea.

Important Points

• An adult human being normally passes about 1–1.8 L of urine in 24 hours. The urine consists of 95% water, 2.5% urea, and 2.5% other waste products.

The correct answer is B and C.

• Heating and Beating can destroy the magnetic properties of a bar magnet. Hence, (B and C) is correct.

Key Points

• When a magnet is strongly heated or hammered, the kinetic energy inside the molecules increases which disrupts the molecular alignment inside the magnet. The molecules adopt the closed chain arrangement, and the magnet gets demagnetized.
• Sealing a magnet does not affect its magnetic property. It still attracts iron.
• If a bar magnet is cut into two pieces, instead of getting destroyed, two new magnets are formed each with their respective North Poles and South Poles. Hence, cutting does not destroy the magnetic properties of a bar magnet.

Additional Information

Heating and Beating a magnet

In the above-mentioned situation, the science teacher best advised to react by presenting counter examples and arrange materials of different shapes, sizes, and weights for the child to investigate as one can learn a skill in an effective way by doing or practicing that specific skill.

Key Points 

Here, countering examples and experiencing the consequences of one's own actions will help learners in:

• retaining information and concepts for a longer period.
• enhancing skills and better understanding of the concept.
• nurturing their curiosity and interest in the learning process.
• gaining concrete experience by actively engaging with content.
• assimilating practical knowledge by applying theoretical knowledge.

Hence, it could be concluded that the science teacher best advised to react by presenting counter examples and arrange materials of different shapes, sizes, and weights for the child to investigate.

Discovery learning refers to an approach which:

• emphasizes the active involvement of learners.
• promotes the use of critical and imaginative thinking.
• raises problems before students to activate their thinking power.
• enables students to acquire knowledge by discovering the facts themselves.

Important Points

Here, encouraging students to investigate factors affecting germination through experimentation will give the students, the best opportunity of 'discovery learning' as learning by doing and experiencing the consequences of one's own actions helps students in:

• retaining information and concepts for a longer period.
• enhancing skills and better understanding of the concept.
• nurturing their curiosity and interest in the learning process.
• gaining concrete experience by actively engaging with content.
• assimilating practical knowledge by applying theoretical knowledge.

Hence, it could be concluded that encouraging students to investigate factors affecting germination through experimentation will give the students, the best opportunity of 'discovery learning'.

The correct answer is Only statement A is an observation.

• When a lighted candle is covered with a jar, the flame of the candle extinguishes after some time. Hence statement A is an observation.
• Oxygen present in the air is indeed required to keep the candle burning, and in the absence of the same, the candle stops burning after some time. Hence, statements B and C are inferences here.
• Therefore, option 1 is correct which states that "Only A is an observation."

Important Points

• A chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give off heat and light is called combustion.
• Oxygen (in the air) is essential for combustion.

Questions refer to a problem or difficulty that needs to be solved by thinking and recalling the concept. There are different types of questions and the 'open-ended' question is one of them.

Key Points

'Open-ended' question does not inspire a brief or single-worded response. These kinds of questions also have an inclination to be additional impartial and least prominent. These are difficult to answer and more difficult to analyze. 

Here, What would happen if force of friction ceased to exist? would be an 'open-ended' question as this question: 

• requires an answer with a proper explanation.
• promotes divergent thinking, creativity, and ingenuity.
• can't be answered in yes or no and discourages one-word answers.
• give chances to answer an unrestricted amount of conceivable responses.
• inspires the respondents to deliver the information containing their worries and ideas.

Hence, it could be concluded that 'What would happen if force of friction ceased to exist?' would be an 'open-ended' question.

Additional Information

Close-ended questions are the questions that:

• allow a learner to choose one answer from a limited list of possible answers.
• require one-word answer thus minimize the subjective inference and judgment.

Science refers to the study of structure and behaviour of the physical and natural things through observation and experimentation. Law and theories are the major concepts in science.

Key Points

Let's Understand in brief:

• Laws in science:
• These are generalized descriptions of observable phenomena.
• It relies primarily on observation and summarizes a set of observations about natural phenomenon.
• Theories in science:
• These are explanations for the observable phenomena.
• It relies heavily on inferences and explains why the phenomenon exists or what causes it.

Hence, it could be concluded that the statement 'Laws are generalized descriptions of the relationships among observable phenomena and theories are explanations for the observable phenomena' is true about the 'laws' and 'theories' in science.

In the field of education, teachers use different kinds of methods for reliable data collection related to the students and the observation schedule is one of them.

Key Points

In the above-mentioned situation, observation schedule would be the most appropriate tool to assess the students on different process skills as it is a qualitative assessment tool in which teachers:

• observe students' behaviour such as bodily gestures, facial expressions, etc.
• observe students while asking, drawing, discussing and behaving individually as well as in groups.
• establish friendly relationships with students to observe them effectively to get realistic information.
• don't let the students realise that they are under observation that's why students act naturally which leads to qualitative observation.

 Hence, it could be concluded that observation schedule would be the most appropriate tool to assess the students on different process skills.

Additional Information 

Science aims at enabling students to develop their communication skills to be able to understand scientific information, such as data, ideas, arguments, and investigations, and communicate it using appropriate scientific language in a variety of communication modes.

• Science education cultivates students' curiosity about the world and enhances scientific thinking.
• This will prepare students to participate in public discourse in science-related issues and enable them to become life-long learners in science and technology.

Key Points

Aims of Science Education at the Upper Primary Level:

• Providing practical knowledge of the subject matter content.
• Relating science education to the everyday experiences of learners.
• Providing the latest knowledge to develop scientific knowledge scientific appreciation and scientific temper among the students.
• Nurturing the curiosity and cultivation of scientific temper.
• Inculcating values in learners.
• Encouraging them to learn about nature to develop the love for nature and to try to conserve natural resources and prevent pollution.
• Developing the scientific attitude and using it for the development works to have open-mindedness for objective decision making and critical thinking.
• Students should be aware of the global dimension of science, as a universal activity with consequences for our lives and subject to social, economic, political, environmental, cultural, and ethical factors.
• Students should be able to understand how science and technology are interdependent and assist each other in the development of knowledge and technological applications.

NOTE: Presenting facts of science to the learners and encourage rote memorization is not the aim of science education.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that presenting facts of science to the learners should not be an aim of science education at the upper primary level.

The correct answer is option 4), i.e. 'By overcoming anger'.

The following is mentioned in the passage: 

"We can live in harmony with others only when we overcome anger and make room for peace."

• Therefore, a person can get peace of mind when he/she overcomes anger.
• Hence, option 4) is the answer.