CTET Paper 2 Social Studies September 2016 (English-Hindi-Sanskrit) (Previous Year Paper)

Scaffolding is a technique to provide the right kind of support in the right amount at right time to increase the child’s competence. Scaffolding is a form of facilitation that facilitates learning.

• Scaffolding can be a pre-planned activity being applied when needed. It aims to transfer responsibility for learning from the facilitator to the learner.
• It suggests that students learn through contact with more capable members of society. The more capable member organizes activities so that the students participate in real activities at their own level of capability. The system of support is called a scaffold.
• Scaffolding allows students to perform tasks that would normally be slightly beyond their ability without assistance and guidance from the teacher. Scaffolding is an important characteristic of constructivist teaching and learning.
• Providing a half-solved example, pre-teach vocabulary, use of visual aids is some example of scaffolding.

NOTE: The other statements are examples of positive and negative motivation.

Hence, we can conclude that providing a half-solved example is a good example of 'scaffolding (learning of a problem-solving task till the student can do it by herself).

'Learning styles' represent those characteristics which determine and characterize a person's preferred approach to learning and its use in problem-solving. Different learners display different preferences in terms of their learning styles.

• Learning styles are relatively more stable, though the same learner may resort to the use of a different learning style in a particular situation. Learners may have their preferred cognitive style, the learning strategies or problem-solving strategies they use are situation and task-dependent
• Learning styles are thus relatively well-established response patterns in individuals compounded by one's learning and problem-solving processes.
• Variety of task and test based on learner’s needs and local conditions is an essential component of child-centered learning. To provide need-based experience to each child a teacher requires a variety of teaching-learning materials.
• For example, Individual Worksheets, Differentiated seatwork, Differentiated Home Assignments, Individual Learning Plan are some required tasks and tests.

Thus, it is clear that if your class has learners with different learning styles to assess them, you would give them a variety of tasks and tests.

When teachers provide instruction on concepts in various subjects, they are teaching students who already have some pre-instructional knowledge about the topic. Student knowledge, however, can be erroneous, illogical, or misinformed. These erroneous understandings are termed alternative conceptions or wrong concepts. 

Purpose of Alternative Conceptions:

• These concepts are a normal part of the learning process.
• Through this process, the teacher recognizes that children are capable of thinking and their thinking is different from that of adults.
• They naturally form ideas from our everyday experience, but not all the ideas we develop are correct concerning the most current evidence and scholarship in a given discipline.
• This helps the students to interpret new experiences through these erroneous understandings for being able to correctly grasp new information.
• The teacher used instructional strategies to be effective in achieving conceptual change and helping students leave their alternative conceptions.

Hence, we can conclude that nowadays there is a tendency to refer to 'wrong concepts' of children as 'alternative conceptions'. This could be attributed to the recognition that children are capable of thinking and their thinking is different from that of adults.

A teacher is not merely a disseminator of knowledge, rather plays a variety of roles. The teacher has to play diverse roles like a planner, facilitator, co-creator of knowledge, leader in the classroom and outside the classroom, manager, counselor, and apart from that, a true human being. Following are some roles of a teacher in a middle school classroom- 

• motivate learners to frame their own question about various observations,
• ask learners to interpret a situation in their own way and identify the probable solution of a problem with scaffolding by teachers,
• encourage learners to work in a group and also become an active member of the group,
• keep learners active and motivate them to observe, react and reflect continuously,
• help learners in evolving new knowledge using their previous knowledge through discussions, debates, inquiry, or experimentation.
• Trust Building, Diagnosing Institutional Conditions, Dealing with Processes, and Work Management are some other roles of teachers.
• using teaching aids to make learning effective and constructive.
• promote positive values like a feeling of cooperation, courtesy among students.
• Encouraging multiple perspectives and focusing on the multi-dimensional perspectives of learners.

​Hence, we can conclude that providing opportunities for discussion is one of the teacher's roles in a middle classroom.

Motivation is defined as the reason, incentive, enthusiasm, or interest that causes a specific action or certain behaviour. Motivation is an important element of self-understanding and learning.

It is simply the reason for an action and that which gives purpose and direction to behaviour. There are two primary types of motivation namely, intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. 

Key Points

• Intrinsic Motivation: There is a high relationship between the activity to the goal. In such a situation, we say, the person is intrinsically motivated. Cognitivism holds the view that curiosity, interest, or a sense of accomplishment are sources of motivation that are intrinsic (internal) rather than responding to external forces.
• An intrinsically motivated activity will always be rewarded due to the direct relationship between the activity and the goal. This secures a continuous motivation to do the activity.
• The element of joy experienced in doing the activity actually sustains the activity. The pursuit of our hobbies which give us pleasure are also examples of intrinsic motivation.
• Intrinsic motivation remains constant due to the high relationship between the activity and the goal.
• An intrinsically motivated person will work on a solution to a problem because the challenge of finding a solution provides a sense of pleasure. In neither case does the person work on the task because there is some reward involved, such as a prize, a payment, or in the case of students, a grade.
• Set challenges, Interest, and Purpose are some methods to increase intrinsic motivation.

Hint

• Extrinsic motivation refers to a behaviour that is guided by earning rewards or avoiding punishment.
• External awards lead to temporary motivation.

​Hence, we can conclude that learning is effective only when the students have intrinsic motivation - a desire to learn from inside.

Learning begins at infancy and continues throughout life. Learning is a complex mix of intelligence, motivation, psychological factor. It is a process of continual adaptation to the environment and assimilation and accommodation of new information and knowledge to fit in with pre-existing knowledge structures. 

• Learning may be understood as essentially an active process which allows the individual to interact with the environment and gain enrichment of experience. It can also be defined as improvement in behavior, in that with time we usually become more proficient at whatever it is that we are learning.
• Learning must take serious account of social interaction and physical activity. Learning is intimately connected to desires, feelings, beliefs, identities, memberships, and social interactions.
• Previous learning of a related skill benefits the learner in subsequent learning. Students' prior knowledge influences their learning.
• A person's intentions to learn are engaged and the meaning of learning is configured through the process of becoming a full participant in a socio-cultural practice. This social process includes. indeed it subsumes the learning of knowledgeable skills. Learning, both outside and inside the school. advances through collaborative social interaction and the social construction of knowledge. It has been pointed out that throughout most of their lives people Learn and work collaboratively.
• Learning and Acquisition both terms are different. The acquisition is subconscious while learning is conscious and deliberate.

Hence, we can conclude that it is clear that learning is facilitated by social actions.

Learning in primary school:

• Children learn in different ways – some learn by seeing, some by hearing, some by reading, some by doing.
• And at this stage, children still learn through play. Plenty of unstructured, free play helps balance formal lessons at school. It also gives children a chance to unwind after the routines and rules of school.
• Children also learn by using objects in many different ways. When your child is experimenting, exploring and creating with a range of materials, they learn about problem-solving in situations where there are no set or ‘right’ answers.
• Children aren’t born with social skills – they have to learn them, just like they have to learn to read and write. Giving your child chances to play with other children is a great way for them to develop skills for getting on with others.
• Your child’s community connections can offer valuable learning experiences too. For example, visiting the local shops, parks, playgrounds and libraries or walking around your neighbourhood helps your child understand how communities work. As you and your child explore your community together, you can talk to your child about interesting things that you see or share things that you know make dialogue with them.
• If your family speaks a language other than English at home, this can be a great way for your child to grow up as a bilingual learner. Learning more than one language doesn’t harm or hold back children’s development. In fact, being a bilingual child can have a lot of advantages – for example, better reading and writing skills.
• When you know how your child learns best, you can help your child with all areas of learning. For example, if your child seems to learn best by seeing and doing but needs to write a story for school, they could make a comic strip to organise their ideas.

Important Points

Tips for learning at primary school:

Here are some practical tips for helping your primary school-age child learn:

• Show an interest in what your child is doing and learning by talking about school.
• Play rhyming games, letter games, and shape and number games with your child, and practise taking turns in games and activities.
• Use simple language, and play with words and word meanings – for example, you could clap out the syllables of words or play word association games.
• Keep reading to your child even when your child can read by themselves.
• Let your child hear and see plenty of new words in books, on TV or in general conversation, and talk about what the words mean.
• Make sure your child has time for  free, unstructured play.
• Help your child discover what they’re good at by encouraging your child to try plenty of different activities that involve dialogue with doing.

Development refers to an increase in structure for better and enhanced functioning of organs. The rate and speed of development may vary in individual cases but the sequence of development patterns is almost the same in all children.

Characteristics of Development

• Development describes the growth of humans throughout the lifespan, from conception to death. The student seeks to understand and explain how and why people change throughout life. This includes all aspects of human growth, including physical, emotional, intellectual, social, perceptual, and personality development, among others.
• Development is a life-long process that covers the entire spectrum of human life and occurs at a different rate among different individuals. There is a difference in the starting point and also in the rate of development of two different human beings. Each individual (child) is unique and develops in his/her own way. Thus the development is an individual process.
• Developmental changes do not always go forward in a straight line. While the development of different physical and mental traits is continuous, it is never uniform.
• Each individual continuously changes in his/ her own way, even when some appearance and behavior traits seem to remain constant.
• The levels of biological, psychological, and intellectual growth and integration may differ from person to person, yet there are no individuals whose bodily functions, mental abilities, or personality organization lack unification at any phase of development.

Hence, we can conclude that development occurs at a different rate among different individuals.

Childhood is this age span ranging from birth to puberty. The three stages of childhood are- 

• Early Childhood  (The Preschool Years) (2-6 years)
• Middle Childhood (The School Years) (6 to age 11)
• Later Childhood (11-14 years of age)

Important Points

Middle Childhood- The period extends from age 6 to age 11 years. During this time, the growth rate is slow but steady.

Characteristics of Middle Childhood: 

• During middle childhood, children learn the values of their societies. Thus, the primary developmental task of middle childhood could be called integration, both in tams of development within the individual and of the individual within the social context.
• Physical development during middle childhood is less dramatic than in early childhood or adolescence. Growth is slow and steady until the onset of puberty when individuals begin to develop at a much quicker pace.
• Middle childhood is a time when children gain enthusiasm for learning and work, for achievement becomes a motivating factor at this stage.
• Middle childhood is also a time when children develop competence in intentional and social relationships. Children have a growing pea orientation, yet they are strongly influenced by their family.
• Social skills are learned through peer and family relationships. provide a necessary foundation for the challenges of adolescence. Best friends are important at this age.
• Middle childhood is a joyful time of increased independence, and developing interests, such as sports. art, or music. There is more pressure on schools to recognize problems in eight-to eleven-year-olds and to teach children the social and life skills that will help them continue to develop into healthy adolescents.

Note: Infancy stage starts from 0-2 years

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that Middle childhood is the period from 6 years to 11 years.

Some of the factors which might contribute to individual growth and development may include genetic makeup, constitutional factors such as health and energy, the environment of the home and school, etc.

Important Points

Environmental factors do play any role in shaping an individual since the growth of each individual is determined by his genetic makeup.

Key Points

Both genetic and environmental factors influence human growth and development. Every child acquires his genetic potential for a particular adult size and shape from his parents and realizes this potential when the environment supports the genetic model that regulates development.

• However, the ability of environmental influences to alter genetic potential depends on several factors including the time at which they occur; the strength, duration, and frequency of their occurrence, and the age and gender of the child.
• Growth is a product of continuous and complex interaction of heredity and environment. A considerable proportion of the mean differences in body size between the populations being observed are due to the effects of environmental conditions. Some of the differences between individuals within populations are also due to differences in environment.
• When environmental conditions improve the size of the child also improves. Many environmental factors influence the rate of growth but most of them hinge upon the level of nutrition besides infections from disease, socio-economic level, and family size, urbanization, climate, and seasonal effects, and psychosocial stress.

Hence, we can conclude that  the above statement is not correct since there have been several types of research to prove that environment can have a major influence on development.

Socialization is a process through which a human infant begins to acquire the necessary skills to perform as a functioning member of society. 

• The Process of socialization is the social development of the individual. It simply refers to acquire the socially approved ways of behavior, approved social roles, and developing social attitudes.
• It is the process of learning to become a member of society. It includes formal and informal education. Socialization is done by parents, teachers, peers, neighbors, educational and religious institutions.
• It refers to the process which transforms a quite helpless human infant into a self-aware, knowledgeable person who is skilled in the ways of their society’s culture.

Key Points

The different types of socialization are-

• Primary Socialization- Primary socialization is the most important feature in the process of socialization. It happens during infancy and childhood. The primary stage basically takes shape during infancy and childhood where basic knowledge and language or behavior are taught. This phase of socialization usually takes place within the family. During this phase, infants learn a language and certain basic socialization behavior forms of the family and the society in which she/he lives.
• Secondary Socialization- Secondary socialization occurs once the infant passes into the childhood phase and continues into maturity. During this phase more than the family, some other agents of socialization like the school and friends’ group begin to play a role in socializing the child. Different kinds of social interaction through these different agents of socialization help the child to learn the moral standards, customs, and principles of their society and culture.

Hence, we can conclude that socialization is a process through which a human infant begins to acquire the necessary skills to perform as a functioning member of society.

Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget was the most well-known and influential theorist for cognitive development. Piaget was interested in how children reacted to their environments. 

Key Points

The factors which Piaget considered essential for cognitive development are:-​

• Assimilation-It refers to the process by which new objects and events are grasped or incorporated within the scope of existing schemes or structures.
• Accommodation- It is the process through which the existing schemes or structure is modified to meet the resistance to straightforward grasping or assimilation of a new object or event.
• Biological maturity:-The basis of Piaget's classification of cognitive development is maturation. This acts as a biological base for cognitive development. Jackson says that some degree of maturation interacting with experience is necessary for movement into the next stage of cognitive development.
• Physical experience:-It is accepted that there can be no knowledge development without relating objects. within the environment. An individual acquires knowledge not by passively copying objects in the environment but by acting upon them. For example, when the child learns from the perceptual properties of objects, by noting their weight, color of the harness, it is physical experience or first-hand information.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that according to Piaget, experience with the physical world plays an important role in influencing development.

Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, has made a systematic study of cognitive development in his theory that is categorized into four stages. 

Key Points

The pre-operational stage (2 to 7 years)- The pre-operational child progresses in the abilities that had emerged towards the end of the sensory-motor stage. Thus we have with us the pre-operational child who is now capable of representing reality mentally and who also understands that objects, in reality, can be represented by words.​

• The child knows by this stage that the objects which are physically absent do exist.
• This stage begins around age two and lasts until approximately age seven. During this stage, the child learns to use the symbols of language.
• This is the ability to make one thing - a word or an object stand for something other than itself.
• Ability of goal-oriented behaviour: being able to carry out a sequence of motor movements directed towards achieving something.
• At the end of the sensorimotor stage, the child develops the ability of goal-oriented behaviour.

Important Points

The limitations of the pre-operational child are:

• Pre-operational thinking tends to be egocentric.
• Pre-operational thinking tends to focus on only one aspect or dimension of a problem at a time.
• Pre-operational thinking tends to involve ‘transductive reasoning’.
• The pre-operational child cannot understand relational terms.
• The child at this stage is not able to understand how things operate. internally or how things relate to one another.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that the cognitive ability that comes in the pre-operational period is the ability of goal-oriented behaviour.

Additional Information

• The ability to take others' perspectives develops in the concrete operational stage.
• Hypothetico-deductive thinking develops in the formal operational stage.
• The ability for abstract thinking develops in the formal operational stage.

Together with the development of cognition and social skills, children develop along the dimension of moral values and reasoning. They learn the rules for right and wrong and understand other laws and rules. Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg’s theories are two popular theories of Moral Development.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development: 

• Extending the idea of moral development proposed by Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg worked throughout his life to develop a complete theory of moral development.
• Using storytelling techniques, he conducted many studies on children. The stories of his studies usually revolve around some kind of moral dilemma.
• At the end of every story, he used to ask some questions from his participants (children) and analyzed their answers for underlining reasoning. Based on his studies, he proposed that moral development consists of six stages and these six stages can be further grouped into three levels. These three levels are as follows:
• Level-I: Pre-conventional Level- At this level, the child is not responsive to cultural rules and labels of good and bad, right or wrong but interprets these labels in terms of physical or hedonistic consequences of actions or in terms of physical powers of those who communicate the rules and labels. This level is further subdivided into two stages.
• Stage-I: The Punishment and Obedience Orientation- The physical consequences of an action determine whether the action is good or bad regardless of human value or the meaning of these consequences. Avoidance of punishment and deference to power are valued in their own right, not in terms of respect for the underlying moral order.
• Stage-2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation- Right action consists of that which instrumentally satisfies one's own needs and occasionally the needs of others. Human reactions are considered those of market place. Elements of fairness, reciprocity and equal sharing are present but they are always interpreted. Reciprocity is a matter of “you scratch my back and I will scratch yours”. There is no consideration of loyalty, gratitude, or justice.
• Level-II: Conventional Level- At this level maintaining the expectations of the individual, family, group, or nation is perceived of value in its own right regardless of the immediate and obvious consequences. The attitude is not only of personal expectations and social order but of loyalty to it of actively maintaining, supporting, and justifying the order and of identifying oneself with persons or groups involved in it. The following two stages constitute this level.

1. Stage 3: Good boy - Nice Girl Orientation- Good behaviour is that which pleases or helps others and is approved by them. Behaviour at this stage is frequently judged by intentions - "he means well", becomes important for the first time. One earns approval by being good to others.
2. Stage 4: The Law and Order Orientation- There is an orientation towards authority, fixed rules, and the maintenance of social order. Right behaviour consists of doing one's duty, showing respect for established or law authority, and maintaining given social order for its own sake.

• Level III: Post-conventional, autonomous or principled level- At this level, there is a clear effort to define moral values and principles that have validity and application apart from the authority of the groups or persons. This level also has two stages.

1. Stage 5: The Social Contract, Legalistic Orientation- At this stage right actions tend to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society. Apart from what is constitutional and democratically agreed upon the right is a matter of personal values. The result is based upon a legal point of view but with an emphasis on the possibility of changing the law in terms of consideration of social utility (rather than freezing it in terms of stage law and order).
2. Stage 6: The Universal Ethical Principle Orientation- Right is defined by the decision of the conscience in accordance with self-chosen ethical principles appealing to logical comprehensiveness, universality, and consistency. These are universal principles of justice, the reciprocity, and quality of human rights, and respect for the dignity of human beings as individual persons.

From the above, we can conclude that in the Good boy and good girl orientation, one earns approval by being nice.

Vygotsky believed that children are active seekers of knowledge, but he felt, it was a collaborative effort of the child and the socio-cultural environment.

Key Points Vygotsky's sociocultural theory:

• According to him, infants are endowed with basic perceptual, attention, and memory processes which are common to other animals as well. These develop naturally in the first two years of life.
• However, once the child has acquired language skills and has become capable of mental representation, his ability to participate in social dialogue surrounding culturally important tasks is enhanced.
• This leads to the development of the ability of the child to converse with himself in a manner similar to conversing with others.
• As a result, the child's basic mental capacities are transformed into uniquely human higher cognitive processes.
• According to Vygotsky, children use private speech for self-guidance and self-direction.
• With age, however**, private speech becomes transformed into silent inner speech or verbal thought**.
• The origin of private speech is traced to social interaction between the child and more mature members of society.
• Vygotsky felt that through joint activities with more mature members of society, children come to master activities and think in ways that have meaning in their culture.

From the above, it is clear that the concept of 'private speech' of children as proposed by Vygotsky illustrates that children use speech to guide their own actions.

Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist and a contemporary of Jean Piaget proposed a theory of cognitive development known as ‘Socio-Cultural Theory’. Vygotsky believes that social and cultural (language, customs, and practices, family, work, etc.) processes are important in the process of development. They say that children continuously learn in everyday engagements with peers and adults. And thinking and knowledge developed in this process of learning. This view of development is known as a socio-cultural perspective or social constructivism.

Vygotsky's Theory:

• The interdependence of the individual's internal processes and the external social processes in learning and development is the main focus of Vygotsky's theoretical framework.
• Child's social situations of development influence qualitatively their perception, experience, appropriation, internalization understanding, and memory of interaction in and with their environment.
• Vygotsky considered this interdependence "as a process that is characterized by a unity of material and mental aspects, a unity of the social and the personal".
• According to Vygotsky**, learning cannot be separated from its social context**.
• Vygotsky argued that "the child is a part of the social situation, and the relation of the child to the environment and the environment to the child occurs through the experience and activity of the child himself; the forces of the environment acquire a controlling significance because the child experiences them" (Vygotsky, 1998,p.294)
• Key Principles:
• Society and the culture of the children play a vital role in the development of their cognition.
• The sign system or the language of the society works as a tool in gaining knowledge.
• Inputs from others and especially from more knowledgeable people and adults have the capacity to affect the development of cognition.

From the above, we can say that according to Vygotsky, learning cannot be separated from its social context.

John Dewey, an American philosopher has proposed the concept of 'Progressive Education' which emphasizes that learning takes place only through 'hands-on' approach so the students must interact with their environment to adapt and learn.

Progressive education:

• It is based on the belief that education should primarily serve the needs of children and focus on understanding, action and experience rather than rote knowledge and memorization.
• A free and democratic atmosphere should be provided in the classroom for the proper development of an individual.
• Democratic climate provides the child with maximum opportunities for interaction with other children in the class, with the teacher and with a variety of teaching-learning material.
• A democratic atmosphere in the class encourages the students to actively participate in the learning process.

Important Points

Progressive education entails that the classroom is democratic and there is space given to children for understanding as ​it: 

• emphasizes to enhance skills and understanding of the learners by engaging with the contents and experiences.
• promotes 'learning by doing' to make children self-reliant and productive to use their knowledge and talents effectively.
• ensures the active participation of students by working in a group and applying practical knowledge to complete an activity.

Thus, from-above-mentioned points, it is clear that progressive education entails that the classroom is democratic and there is space given to children for understanding.

Intelligence involves a number of abilities together. It is the ability to understand the incoming information and make sense out of it. It is the ability to acquire new skills and use the existing knowledge to complete a task or deal with a situation. Intelligence includes the capacity to understand novel stimuli, learning a language, and communicate with others, being aware of the environment, have the ability to reason, plan, and solve problems creatively. 

Key Points Howard Gardner Multi-Dimensional Intelligence

• Howard Gardener refuted the classic view of intelligence as a capacity for logical reasoning.
• He proposed that there is not one form of intelligence but a certain number of intelligences work together.
• According to him, intelligence is the “ability to solve problems or fashion products that are of consequence in a particular cultural setting or community” (1993).
• Initially, he proposed eight distinct types of intelligence namely, naturalist, spatial, musical, logical-reasoning, interpersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, and intra-personal.
• Linguistic Intelligence
• This intelligence includes the ability to effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically, and as a means to remember information.
• Writers, poets, lawyers, and speakers are among those that Howard Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence.
• This area has to do with words, spoken or written.
• People with high verbal-linguistic intelligence display a facility with words and languages.
• They are typically good at reading, writing, telling stories, and memorizing words along with dates.
• They tend to learn best by reading, taking notes, listening to lectures, and discussing and debate.
• Those with verbal-linguistic intelligence learn foreign languages very easily as they have high verbal memory and recall, and an ability to understand and manipulate syntax and structure.
• Careers that suit those with this intelligence include writers, lawyers, policemen, philosophers, journalists, politicians, poets, and teachers.

From the above, sensitivity to the meaning and order of words and the varied uses of language illustrates a person with linguistic intelligence.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Learning:

• Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who believed that social interactions play a key role in development.
• According to Lev Vygotsky, language development changes the nature of human thought.
• According to him, learning occurs when children interact with people and the environment.
• His greatest contribution was the emphasis on the role of sociocultural influences in our development.
• He asserted that the cognitive development of children is enhanced through social interaction with other people, particularly those who are more skilled.
• He explains this with the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which refers to a range of tasks that a child can achieve only with assistance from a more skilled adult or peer called the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). Adult assistance is provided wherever necessary which is called scaffolding.

Thus, language has an influence on our thought processes.

Gender Stereotyping refers to the relatively fixed and overgeneralized attitudes and behaviours that are considered normal and appropriate for a person in a particular culture based on his or her biological sex. For example, believing that certain acts are meant for boys only and certain things are for girls only. Note that:

• Gender stereotyping can limit the development of the natural talents and abilities of girls and boys, women and men, as well as their educational and professional experiences and life opportunities in general.
• Stereotypes about women result from deeply ingrained attitudes, values, norms, and prejudices against women.
• To avoid the situation of gender stereotype, a family should start involving boys into household chores that were mainly concerned with girls traditionally which gave rise to gender biasing and stereotyping.
• Therefore, "to bridge the gap of gender stereotypes, girls should be asked to help in works outside the home too as well as boys to help inside the home".

Hence, we conclude that the above statement shows gender stereotype.

Individual difference: Every child is unique and different from others. It should be kept in mind that learners possess different abilities, personalities, and belong to different backgrounds. So, the stimulus needs of every learner will be different. 

Key Points The following are its characteristics.

• It stands for those differences which in their totality distinguish one individual from another.
• Everyone has different Learning Style, Aptitude, Attitude, Personality, and Emotional Intelligence, motor abilities, social atmosphere,  etc
• Children vary in their cognitive, affective & psychomotor styles and hence they differ in their thinking, reasoning, expressing, performing, etc.

Hence, we can conclude that both statements are true regarding individual differences in the classroom.

Assessment is integral to the teaching-learning process which helps in facilitating student learning and improving instruction. It is a process of collecting relevant information on student learning.

• The continuous assessment focuses on informal and a combination of both formative and summative.
• It refers to all-around development including both scholastic and co-scholastic aspects of a child's development.

Paper-pencil tests: The formal paper-pencil tests do not provide all information about the student. 

• Tests of paper and pencil assessment types are customarily used to assess cognitive objectives.
• There are important instructional objectives that cannot be appropriately assessed by paper and pencil tests.
• These paper and pencil tests have failed to promote and measure higher-level thinking and problem-solving skills.
• The current educational practice relies heavily on paper and pencil tests as the sole criterion for measuring educational effectiveness. Assessment leads to decision making.
• There are important instructional objectives that cannot be appropriately assessed by the paper-and-pencil test. It involves objectives associated with the subject matter process. or product.
• Paper-pencil tests assess only that which is memorized or that which is of cognitive origin.

Hence, we can conclude from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that assessment by only paper-pencil tests limits assessment.

Inclusive Education means education for all children in school. It refers to the inclusion of all children in the education system, regardless of their differences and disabilities.

• Hearing impairment refers to hearing loss that prevents a person from totally receiving sounds through the ear. If the loss is mild, the person has difficulty hearing faint or distant speech.

Key Points

If a teacher has a 'hearing impaired' child in her middle school class. She needs to make the child sit at a place from where she can see the teacher's lips and facial expressions clearly. 

Strategies for teaching Hearing Impaired child

• It is not possible to establish enough special schools to accommodate every hearing impaired\child. The other alternative is to use the already existing infrastructure in the general stream and integrate the hearing impaired children into the mainstream of education.
• Generally, hearing impaired children are as intelligent as children with normal hearing. Given timely help, these children can get successfully integrated into the educational system.
• Children with hearing impairment find it difficult to have focussed listening for every word which is spoken. Children with hearing impairment find it difficult to have focussed listening for every word which is spoken.
• Children are often comfortable with signs, and to facilitate them to understand the message, one may use signs freely. Once the child has understood the word or sentence, you may not need to use signs. Do encourage your child to speak words. You may repeat the word.

We can conclude that teacher can make the child sit at a place from where she can see the teacher's lips and facial expressions clearly.

The disadvantaged child is one who is from a socially and economically backward section of the community, who cannot profit from school because of deprivation of one sort or another. Such children show cumulative academic deficits, a high dropout rate, and a progressive decline in intellectual functioning. 

Key Points

The interventions for children belonging to socially and economically backward section have to be based on the intensive micro-planning that address the needs of every child. Some of the suggestions for the inclusion of backward children in school are:

• Establishing norms of behaviour within the school for teachers, school staff, and students.
• Timely detection of the forms of discrimination practised in a particular context by either teachers or school staff or students. This is not an easy task as many forms of discrimination have become part of accepted behaviour, go unnoticed, and unchallenged by the majority.
• The teacher is a key figure in the school to ensure inclusion. But his/her role in this process has been largely neglected so far.
• A teacher should adapt different pedagogy as per the needs of every child in the classroom.
• Sensitization of teachers from the stage of pre-service training onwards, developing special modules for use in teacher education and training programs.
• Co-curricular activities, such as sports, music, and drama which tend to break social barriers among children need to be encouraged.
• They have remained a hugely neglected area and would be an important strategy for increasing the interaction of children as well as allowing children from varied backgrounds to exhibit their talents and get recognition.

Hence, we can conclude that a teacher can effectively respond to the needs of the children from 'disadvantaged sections' of society by adapting her pedagogy to the needs of every child in the classroom.

Learning disability refers to a neurological disorder that causes cognitive impairment. Dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, etc are the most common learning disability.

Important Points

Learning disability:

• Learning disability is intrinsic and due to central nervous system dysfunction.
• It is a variable state which can be addressed by appropriate comprehensible input.
• It can't be attributed to cultural deprivation as it can present in children of any culture.
• It can't be attributed to educational deprivation as it can also present in children with average or above-average IQ.

Key Points

The characteristics of the learning disabled children are:

• Learning disabled children are normal in intellectual functioning.
• Learning disabled children face problem in a few area of learning, not in all.
• Learning disability mainly lies in their way of learning and in their perceptual systems.
• Learning disabled children show problems in sustaining attention, got easily distracted and have a poor fine-gross motor skills.
• Learning disabled children are often several years behind their peers in reading, fluency and spelling, letter, number, etc.

Hence, it is clear that children with learning disability struggle with some aspects of learning.

​ 

Some Disabilities in Brief:

Creative expression provides the richest opportunities for individual expression and growth. The child must be free of teacher control and direction to accomplish this.

Creative thinking aims at novelty in the first instance rather than truth. Because it aims at novelty, it necessarily has to be different from the conventional modes of thinking. Hence, creative thinking is labeled in psychology as divergent thinking. 

Some of the ways to promote creative thinking or divergent thinking are- 

• to ask students to raise questions instead of requiring them to answer questions we pose,
• to ask students to observe the everyday world around them and raise questions about it,
• to ask them to identify suitable problems. where they can apply their knowledge and think of different ways to solve a problem.
• to adopt the discovery model of teaching wherever this is possible, offering successive clues to the answer,
• to orient them to lateral thinking.

Hence, we can conclude that teachers can encourage children to think creatively by asking them to think of different ways to solve a problem.

Philosophical Perspectives of children with special needs

Inclusion is a philosophy or concept that aims at fostering mutual respect among people and their different ways of life. The institution changes its philosophy, its curriculum, its structure to accommodate the different needs of the individuals.

• Inclusion does not stem from the rhetoric of tolerance, or of celebrating unity in diversity, of seeing commonalities among individuals. It does not see the individual separate from her or his political, social-economic, religious, gendered, and disabled background.
• Every student has a right to be educated among normal students in a normal setting without any discrimination.
• In the inclusive classroom, each student gets access to knowledge, skills and information, which improve available choices to all children and we do not necessarily limit ourselves to knowledge domain, but rather include the affective domain, and the attitudinal domain as well.
• The individual in an inclusive institution is not “existing in a vacuum”, but is in a sociocultural context. Inclusive schools or setups facilitate an environment where everyone works together creatively so that each student participates, learns, and benefits.
• Inclusive schools see diversity as the reality as they accommodate students from different ethnic groups, language groups, cultures, family situations, and social and economic backgrounds with different interests and purposes for learning and different abilities and styles of learning.
• The fundamental principle of the inclusive school is that all children should learn together, where possible and that ordinary schools must recognize and respond to the diverse needs of their students, while also having a continuum of support and services to match these needs.

Hence, we can conclude that children with special needs have the right to inclusive education and study in regular schools.

The learner-centred approach of teaching puts learners in the centre and gives primacy to children's experiences and needs.

It strongly believes that when children are given the freedom to work at their own pace, they develop the ability to assimilate the concepts efficiently.

Important Points

Characteristics of the learner-centred approach:

• It stresses the importance of enquiry, observation and investigation.
• It takes into account learner's capabilities, capacities and learning styles.
• It uses methods like experiential learning, problem-solving, concept mapping and creative writing.
• It emphasizes to provide ample opportunities to the children to foster their own strategy of learning to perform a task.
• In this method, teachers facilitate students as a facilitator by providing with proper environment and materials to learn at their own pace.
• Students work in flexible, cooperative groupings to solve problems and analyze texts to demonstrate an understanding of a task.

Hence, it could be concluded that learner-centred approach means methods where learners own initiative and efforts are involved in learning.

Additional Information

Conditioning is the process of modifying one’s behavior with the help of some preparation or training. Behaviourism theory is an idea which states that learning takes place owing to conditioning. There are two types of conditioning:

• Classical conditioning
• Operant conditioning.

Important Points 

• ​Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a given response. On the other hand, Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the correct response is reinforced and becomes more likely to occur. In operant conditioning, the rewarding of the desired response is known as reinforcement.
• Classical conditioning gets its name from the fact that it is the kind of learning situation that existed in the early "classical" experiments of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Classical Conditioning is also sometimes called respondent conditioning.
• Operant conditioning is a process through which organisms learn to repeat behaviors that produce positive outcomes or avoid or escape from the negative outcomes. It occurs when we make conscious choices.
• Skinner defined reinforcement as any operation or action that increases the rate of response.
• In operant conditioning, the behavior is controlled by the central nervous system while in classical conditioning the behavior is controlled by the automatic nervous system two principles of operant conditioning are called shaping and chaining.
• Shaping is a process of learning a new behavior in which successively closer approximation of the desired behavior is reinforced, that is the organism will be rewarded for each small step towards targeted behavior.
• Any complex behavior or skill is the chain of many steps. The process of chaining involves breaking a task into small steps and then teaching these steps in sequence or chain.
• In chaining, only the targeted behavior is rewarded, i.e., once the trainee accomplishes the last step he will be rewarded.

NOTE:

• Imitation is one of the important methods based on social learning theory, which could be applied in learning many skills.
• Rote Memorization leads to temporary learning and does not makes learning effective.

Hence, we can conclude that Conditioning is central to learning.

Children's knowledge often involves systematic errors and misconceptions. Constructivism alone accounts for their formation. The formation of personal constructs, misconceptions, and errors will become obvious to you. 

Constructivist theory is compatible with the interactional and cultural emphasis of theorists like Vygotsky and Piaget. 

• According to the great psychologist Piaget's theory that learning and cognitive development in terms of structures like individual schema and mental processes like organization and adaptation (assimilation and accommodation).
• The learner with the help of these structures and processes constructs knowledge himself/herself. So the learner through active is alone in this process of knowledge construction.
• In the words of Piaget (1980) himself " Education, for most people, means trying to lead the child to resemble the typical adult of his society (whereas) for me, education means making creators, even if there aren't many of them, even if one's creations are limited by comparison with those of others."
• Social constructivism regards knowledge as a social construct and prioritizes the social aspects of learning and cognitive development. Some of these social aspects are language, culture, everyday practices, material objects, interpersonal interaction, peer interaction, tools, and symbols.

Hence, we can conclude that In a constructivist classroom as envisioned by Piaget and Vygotsky, learning is constructed by the students themselves who play an active role.

Social sciences are the body of knowledge that is concerned with human affairs in the spectrum of broad socio-cultural system. Social sciences constitute an important component of the high school/higher education curriculum. The different social science subjects like history, political science, anthropology, philosophy, economics, etc. have independent status in high school/university education.

Key Points

Nature of Social Sciences:

• Social sciences deal with different aspects of human society and interpersonal relationships among people in society. This happens because social sciences deal with society and social issues like marriage, Caste, family etc. of which most people are aware.
• Social science studies are well planned, systematic and based on specialized knowledge of its different components.
• Study of Social Science said to be ‘scientific’ because we need to understand that while scientific facts are universal i.e., they remain applicable in different societies and in different periods of time, social facts are relevant within specific social contexts i.e., they often vary from one society to another.
• Social science is defined as a body of comprises systematically acquired and verified knowledge of facts and truths of all systematised knowledge (subjects, disciplines) that show the operations of general laws and others appropriate to them.

Thus from above-mentioned points, it is clear that the study of Social Science is ‘scientific’ because it comprises Systematically acquired verified knowledge.

Data are a systematic record of values taken by a variable or a number of variables on a particular point of time or over different points of time. Data may be quantitative or qualitative in nature. Generally, data are presented by the means of Tables, Charts and Diagrams.

Key Points

Pie diagrams:

• A pie diagram is a circle whose area is divided proportionately among the different components by straight lines drawn from the centre to the circumference.
• When statistical data are given for a number of categories (as employed, underemployed and unemployed) and we are interested in their comparison in a manner that reveals the contribution of each category to the total, pie diagrams are very useful in effectively displaying the data.
• In a pie diagram, it is necessary to express the value of each category as a percentage of the total.
• Since the circle represents the total and to represent each category in that circle, we have to multiply the percentage of each category by 3.6 degrees, so that sum of each category becomes 360 degrees.

Thus from above-mentioned points, it is clear that if you have to depict the proportion of time a rural worker spends as employed, underemployed and unemployed in a year, you would select Pie diagram diagrammatic representations.

Additional Information

• Line diagrams are the most common methods of presenting statistical data. Data presentation in the form of line diagrams is mostly used in business and commerce. Mostly, the time series data are represented by line diagrams.
• Bar Diagrams: Bar diagram consists of a group of equally spaced rectangular bars, one for each category (or class) of given statistical data. The rectangular bars are differentiated by different shades or colours.
• Flow Chart: It is a graphical representation of the steps of any programme.

Social Science as a discipline has the unique capability of being able to look at both developmental and normative issues of society. It includes disciplines of History, Geography, Political Science, Economics, and Sociology.

Assessment is an important technique for assessing student performance in Social Sciences because Social Sciences include varieties of activities related to community and society, art and culture, democracy and values, economics and demography, etc.

Key Points

Assessing students through art in Social Science subjects-

• Art provides opportunities to express creativity, personal interpretation of concepts, and imagination during the transaction of the curriculum.
• In any class, students differ in their environmental, cultural, social, economic, and psychological experiences; students showcase these experiences in various forms of art – drama, visual art, theatre, folk art, music, dance, etc.
• Art provides you with an opportunity to disagree and these disagreements are celebrated. Artwork provides nourishing grounds to intuition, uncertainty, and creativity and to search for new ideas.
• Creative writing is a type of art that helps students to explore and express their understanding of the world around them. As a process, creative writing forces the learner not only to think and express ideas but also to question dogmatic principles and find creative solutions. In schools, creative writing is often associated with language arts, but if teachers wish they can also use creative writing in their science lessons to create science fiction.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that art in Social Science subjects provides an opportunity for personal interpretation of concepts.

Measurement is the process of observing and recording the observations that are collected as part of a research effort and the process of assigning numbers to objects or observations. 

Key Points

Data can be classified as either Primary or secondary data.

• Secondary Sources-
• The Secondary data, are those which have already been collected by some other agency (projects on ‘global warming’ we weather data collected from the meteorological office) and which have already been processed. Secondary data may be available in the form of published or unpublished sources.
• Secondary data are data that have been collected for another purpose and where we will use a statistical method (graphical representation with the primary data.
• This means that after performing statistical operations on primary data the results become known as secondary data. Research, where one gathers this kind of data, is referred to as desk research.
• The source for gathering secondary data, for example, data from a book.

Thus from above-mentioned points, it is clear that a graphical representation of unanalyzed weather data collected from the meteorological office on ‘global warming’ is based on secondary. 

Important Points

• Graphical Presentation-
• In this case, statistical information is presented in the form of graphs and charts.
• Facts and figures are gathered first, and then, they are depicted in graphs and charts for presentation.

Hint

• Primary Data- 
• Primary data means original data that have been collected specially for the purpose in mind. Research, where one gathers this kind of data, is referred to as field research. Tools used for gathering primary data, for example, a questionnaire, an interview schedule etc.
• Interviews with elders living in an area on changes in the weather are the primary source of data collection.

There are other types of assessment followed as the effective means to improve students’ learning and assessment by themselves, without the direct involvement of the teacher in the assessment process. 

Key Points

Self-Assessment:

• Self-assessment is the ability of a person to accurately evaluate or assess his/her performance, and his/her strengths and weaknesses.
• Mature self-assessment recognizes that evaluation concerns the performance and not the person.
• When an assessment is made, the judgement is not of whether the performance of a person was ‘good’ or ‘bad’. Rather it is, of the performance of a task, whether it was ‘good’ or ‘poor’.
• To emphasise this point, self-assessment might be renamed “self-performance assessment”.
• Self-assessment is a participative process in which the learners are involved.
• This exercise motivates the learners to complete the study programmes of their choice. In fact, it calls for different tool or mechanism of assessment.
• The learners assess themselves by comparing their answers with the sample answers given at the end of the unit. Learners gain confidence and help themselves while learning.

Thus from above-mentioned points, it is clear that if a teacher provides some criteria to students and asks them to assess their projects on those bases, the assessment measures has been adopted by the teacher is Self-assessment.

The National Curriculum Framework for School Education, 2005 discussed the need for the social science curriculum to be comprehensive but not loaded with information. The present National Focus Group (NFG) recognizes the efforts made in the past to create an ideal social studies curriculum.  To ensure that the curricular recommendations are adequately translated into textbooks, the NFG has also highlighted the main issues to be addressed in order to make the social sciences an intellectually and professionally valuable subject of study. recommendations are given for the subject of social science in 2005.

Key Points

NEED OF TEACHING THE SOCIAL SCIENCES AS A SUBJECT:

Studying the social sciences is vital for many reasons. It enables children

• To understand the society in which they live - to learn how society is structured, managed, and governed, and also about the forces seeking to transform and redirect society in various ways.
• To appreciate the values enshrined in the Indian Constitution such as justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity and the unity and integrity of the nation, and the building of a socialist, secular, and democratic society.
• To grow up as active, responsible, and reflective members of society.
• To learn to respect differences of opinion, lifestyle, and cultural practices.
• To question and examine received ideas, institutions, and practices. to acquire pleasure in reading, by providing them with enjoyable reading material.
• To undertake activities that will help them develop social and life skills and make them understand that these skills are important for social interaction.

Important Points

• The NFG suggests a change in nomenclature, from Civics to Social and Political Science. ‘Civics’ appeared in the Indian school curriculum during the colonial period against the background of increasing ‘disloyalty’ among Indians towards the Raj.
• By contrast, ‘political science’ suggests the dynamism of a process that produces structures of dominance and their contestations by social forces.
• Political science treats civil society as the sphere that produces sensitive, interrogative, deliberative, and transformative citizens.

Hence, we can conclude that Social and Political Science is the nomenclature change suggested by the National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005 for Civics

The NCF 2005 envisions the study of social sciences to enable children to:

• Understand the society in which they live.
• Learn how society is structured, managed, and governed.
• Understand forces seeking to transform and redirect society in various ways.
• Appreciate values enshrined in the Indian Constitution.
• Grow up as active, responsible, and reflective members of society.
• Learn to respect differences of opinion, lifestyle, and cultural practices.
• Develop an understanding of the earth as the habitat of humankind and other forms of life.

Important Points

The objectives of teaching social sciences at various stages as detailed in the NCF at the upper primary stage are: 

• Develop skills of observation, identification, and classification.
• Develop in the child a holistic understanding of the environment with an emphasis on the interrelationship of the natural and the social environments.
• Sensitize the child to social issues and develop in him/ her respect for difference and diversity cooperate with it.
• Develop an understanding of the earth as the habitat of humankind and other forms of life.
• Initiate the learner into a study of her/his own region, state, and country in the global context.
• Initiate the learner into a study of India’s past, with references to contemporary developments in other parts of the world.
• Introduce the learner to the functioning of social and political institutions and processes of the country.

​Hence, the Social Science class gives transparent knowledge about society and reduces competition.

CCE identified two areas i.e. scholastic and co-scholastic under CCE wherein it divides each one into formative and summative assessments. Under the scholastic area, the curricular areas are to be assessed using different tools such as writing, oral, project, portfolio, etc. to identify the hard spots and help children in overcoming them.

Key Points

• Under Formative Assessment (FA), the document mentions, assessing children‟s progress formally and informally continuously during teaching-learning and to help the teacher understand the extent of students‟ learning. The teacher also uses remedial teaching to improve his/her own teaching process.
• Summative Assessment (SA) is conducted after each semester using a paper-pencil written test based on the question paper including questions (objective, short answer, long answer) that require skill-based answers. 
• It comes at the end of the term, course, or program of teaching. Annual examinations and half-yearly examinations in schools, and public examinations are examples of such evaluation.
• The purpose of this kind of evaluation is to grade, rank, classify, compare, and promote the pupils. It is also used for certification.
• Summative evaluation can form part of an impact evaluation, or be carried out in conjunction with a qualitative or process evaluation to provide complementary evidence.

Hence, we can conclude that summative assessment undergoes at the end of the term.

Case study in psychology refers to the use of a descriptive research approach to obtain an in-depth analysis of a person, group, or phenomenon. A variety of techniques may be employed including personal interviews, direct-observation, psychometric tests, and archival records. If a teacher wants to teach the Chapter, ‘The Cold Desert—Ladakh’ in Class VII. The most appropriate to teach this topic is Case study method because it is easily adaptable. The case study approach is based on reality. Some of these studies have been conducted in the school environment, which have mostly centred on behavioural problems of children. Observation, interviews, psychological tests and inventories have been used for collecting relevant data about the case or cases. Case study provides a systematic and scientific way of perceiving or examining events, collect data, analyse information, and prepare a report.

Types of case study:

• Illustrative Case Studies: These are primarily descriptive studies. They typically utilise one or two instances of an event to show what a situation is like. Illustrative case studies serve primarily to make the unfamiliar familiar and to give readers a common language about the topic in question.
• Exploratory (or pilot) Case Studies: This type of case studies performed before implementing a large scale investigation. Their basic function is to help identify questions and select types of measurement before the main investigation. The primary pitfall of this type of study is that initial findings may seem convincing enough to be released prematurely as conclusions.
• Cumulative Case Studies: These serve to aggregate information from several sites collected at different times. The idea behind these studies is the collection of past studies will allow for greater generalisation without additional cost or time being expended on new, possibly repetitive studies.
• Critical Instance Case Studies: These examine one or more sites for either the purpose of examining a situation of unique interest with little to no interest in generalisability, or to call into question or challenge a highly generalised or universal assertion. This method is useful for answering cause and effect questions.

Confusion Point: Some may get confuse 'Why not survey method?' So, it should be noted that it is not viable to go to Ladakh and do survey if you live in Rajasthan (let's say).

Hence, we conclude that the case study method is the best method for the above situation.

Source Method: It is the method in which original sources are used to explain information, along with events. For example, while teaching History, a teacher can show them pictures/clips of historical places. Advantages of source method:

• Develops vividness and connects with reality
• Satisfies curiosity of child
• Original source are always effective in the teaching-learning process.
• Helps in research exercises
• Promotes research
• Makes classroom process interesting

Disadvantages:

• Too complex and technical
• Sources are not always readily available
• It requires teachers to be tech-savvy
• Its set-up may be time-consuming
• It can be expensive.

Hence, we conclude that the source method is most relevant for the teaching of historical facts/historiography at the upper primary level.

National Curriculum Framework, 2005, is a complete document to rejuvenate Indian School as well as Teacher Education. The guiding principles of NCF, 2005, focuses on connecting knowledge to life outside the school, ensuring that learning shifted away from rote methods, enriching the curriculum so that it goes beyond textbooks, and making examination more flexible and integrating them with classroom life. As per ​National Curriculum Framework, 2005:

• Learning should be made an enjoyable activity.
• The curriculum structure and school should be designed to make school a satisfactory place for students to feel secure and valued.
• The curriculum should focus on the holistic development of the individual and enhance physical and mental development of the child.
• The five basic principles of National Curriculum Framework 2005 are as follows:
• Connecting knowledge to life outside school
• Ensuring that students do not just learn mechanically, without thinking
• Enriching the curriculum so that it goes beyond textbooks
• Integrating exams with classroom life to make them more flexible
• Nurturing an identity of prime importance informed by caring concerns within the country’s democratic polity
• According to NCF, 2005, the role of a teacher has to be facilitative.
• NCF 2005 emphasizes on the constructivist approach of learning as it focuses on the active participation of learner through engaging activities.
• According to NCF 2005, errors are important because they provide an insight into the child’s thinking and help to identify solutions.

Hence, the National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005 recommends that children’s school education must be linked with ​the outside school environment

Bar diagram

• Bar graphs are the pictorial representation of data (generally grouped), in the form of vertical or horizontal rectangular bars, where the length of bars are proportional to the measure of data. They are also known as bar charts.
• The data can be arranged in a tabular form using tally marks.
• Bar diagrams are suited best for showing rainfall or the production of commodities.
• In a bar graph, bars of uniform width is drawn horizontally or vertically with equal spacing between them. Length of each bar gives the required information.

Different types of bar graphs

• Vertical Bar Graphs: When the grouped data are represented vertically in a graph or chart with the help of bars, where the bars denote the measure of data, such graphs are called vertical bar graphs.
• Horizontal Bar Graph: When the grouped data are represented horizontally in a chart with the help of bars, then such graphs are called horizontal bar graphs
• Grouped Bar Graph: It is used to represent the discrete value for more than one object that shares the same category
• Stacked Bar Graph: It divides the aggregate into different parts.

Hence, we conclude that rainfall is best represented by bar diagram.

Democratic institution” refers to an institution where decisions are made by majority vote. For instance, legislative bodies, electoral boards, executive bodies, and institutions, etc. Democratic functioning in the higher education system and believing each individual worthy of attention.

Important Points

To develop an understanding of democratic institutions, the teacher should:

• Give example shows of realities along with ideal situations that boost everyday learning situations can suddenly and unexpectedly open up to provide opportunities for learning about democracy, which was not originally intended or planned. To make use of such opportunities,
• the teacher must be given certain discretionary powers to decide on the spot whether and in what way to make use of the situation;
• the curricular framework or syllabus must allow sufficient freedom and flexibility; and
• the school must be prepared to accept and welcome such open learning situations and to promote contact with, and the inclusion of, outside groups and organizations.

Hence, we can conclude from the above points that To develop an understanding of democratic institutions provide examples of realities along with the ideal situation is the most appropriate curricular approach.

Aryabhata was the first of the major mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy.

Aryabhatiyam:

• The work in Aryabhatiyam is so extensive and detailed that it was years ahead of any work of the time.
• The entire script was written in Sanskrit and hence reads like a poetic verse rather than a practical manual.
• There are exactly 123 stanzas in the book and without a tutor, the book would seem ambiguous.
• The book is divided into four sections– Gitikapada, Ganitapada, Kalakriyapada, and the Golapada, each covering various fields.
• Gitikapada dealt with time, especially large units of time.
• Ganitapada covered mathematics of measurement, arithmetic, and geometric progression.
• Kalakriyapada told how one could determine the positions of the planet for any given day.
• Golapada dealt with the earth’s shape and its celestial presence.

Hence, the correct answer is Sanskrit.

Additional Information

• Aryabhatta derives the revolutions of the sun, the moon, and of the earth as well. He also derives square and cube roots with precision.
• He also explained why the moonshine and said it was because of the sunlight bouncing from it and that it had no illuminating property to it.
• He was truly a mathematical pioneer.

Gautama Buddha, popularly known as the Buddha was a Sramaṇa who lived in ancient India (c. 5^th to 4^th century BCE). He is regarded as the founder of the world religion of Buddhism.

Sarnath:

• On this holy site of Sarnath, a monastic tradition flourished based on the teachings of Lord Buddha for more than 1500 years.
• After Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya in 528 BC, he came to Sarnath after five weeks and gave his first sermon which is known as Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta.
• The ‘Wheel of Law’ was set in motion here by Lord Buddha as a result making this place one of the holiest places of Buddhist pilgrimage and those who believe in the teachings of Buddha.
• In Sarnath, Buddha came across his five companions who had been leading extreme ascetic lives.
• These five men, also known as Pancavaggiya monks.
• He explained to them how extreme austerities confuse the mind and senses, and preached the Four Noble Truths and Eight-Fold Path.
• On hearing this, the five companions became Buddha’s first disciples.
• It was here that the Buddha Sangha or community was first formed.
• Sarnath Stupas is marked as the place where the Buddha preached his first message.

Hence, the correct answer is Sarnath.

The history of southern India covers a span of over four thousand years during which the region saw the rise and fall of a number of dynasties and empires. The period of the known history of the region begins with the Iron Age (1200 BCE to 24 BCE) period until the 15^th century CE.

• Sangam poems mention the 'muvendar'.
• This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas, who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago.
• The Pandya Dynasty:
• The Pandya is the earliest mention of the Tamil ruling chieftains.
• They first appeared in Greek writings in the fourth century B.C.E. and were said to have sent ambassadors to Roman emperors.
• They governed the most southern part of the Indian subcontinent and initially practised Jainism, but later became Hindus, specifically Shaivas.
• The Chola Dynasty:
• Chola rulers held the eastern coast of southern India and Sri Lanka, becoming prominent in the 10^th through 13^th centuries C.E.
• They were based in the Cauvery valley, in the cities of Tanjore (Thanjavur) and Uraiyur.
• They first appeared in non-Tamil records in the third century B.C.E., in stelae inscriptions from the Mauryan King Ashoka the Great, who held territory to the north of Tamilakam.
• Chola rulers used the symbol of a tiger as their royal emblem.
• The Chera Dynasty:
• The Chera chieftains governed the southwestern coast of Tamilakam, reaching their height in the ninth century C.E.
• The first rulers were mentioned in Sangam literature in the first century C.E.
• The city of Karur served as their capital.
• The Chera was known for their jewel and spice trade, and their royal emblem was the bow.
• The modern district of Kerala draws its name from the Chera Dynasty.

Hence, the correct answer is The Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pandyas.

The Rashtrapati Bhavan is the official residence of the President of India at the western end of Rajpath in New Delhi, India.

Key Points

• The Rampurwa bull, a finely polished stone sculpture.
• This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan.
• Rampuwa bull:
• The Rampurva Bull is noted for its delicately sculpted model demonstrating superior representation of soft flesh, sensitive nostrils, alert ears and strong legs.
• It is a mixture of Indian and Persian elements.
• Whereas the motifs on the base, atop the inverted lotus, the rosette, palmette, and the acanthus ornaments are not Indian features, the bull capital is a masterpiece of Indian craftsmanship.
• The Rampurva Bull sculpture is said to have a velvet touch.
• This was at the initiative of Dr. Rajendra Prasad and Pandit Nehru who took a keen interest in this priceless piece of history
• They decided that it would remain at the Rashtrapati Bhavan instead of being shifted to the newly constructed National Museum building which had come up at Janpath in the year 1960.

​Hence, the correct answer is The Mauryas.

The correct answer is Ramanuja

Medieval India saw the rise of the Bhakti and the Sufi movements and along with it, a big churn in the way people viewed God and religion.

• Many of the movements and saints who gained prominence in that era are still revered and have an effect on many people’s religious lives.
• For instance, a lasting effect of the movement is the importance of devotion to God (bhakti) as the way towards salvation.
• Many of the songs and hymns that were written in the medieval ages by these saints are popular to this day and sung regularly on festive and religious occasions.

Key Points

Ramanuja

• Born in 1017 in Sriperumbudur, Tamil Nadu.
• He propounded Vishishtadvaita (modified monism).
• He said that the ultimate reality is Brahman and that the soul and matter are his qualities.
• According to him, even after merging with Brahman, the Atman remains distinct.
• He expounded the grace of God as more important than knowledge.

Hence, the correct answer is Ramanuja.

Additional Information

• Shankara- 
• Propounded the Doctrine of Advaita (Monism).
• He wrote many commentaries on the Vedic canon (Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita) in Sanskrit.
• His major work is Brahmasutrabhasya (Bhashya or commentary on the Brahma Sutra).
• His most famous stotra is Bhajagovinda Stotra. He also composed the Nirvana Shatakam.
• Basavanna-
• Born in Vijaypura District, Karnataka in 1105.
• He was a social reformer also.
• He composed the Vachanas.
• He rejected superstitions and rituals and also advocated gender and class equality.
• He is considered to be the founder of the Lingayat sect.
• He developed a new devotional movement known as the Virashaivas.

An archive is a place where people can go to gather firsthand facts, data, and evidence from letters, reports, notes, memos, photographs, and other primary sources.

Key Points

Archive:

• Today all national and state governments have archives where they keep all their official records and transactions.
• In archives, the historical manuscripts and documents are kept.
• This information has been collected by individuals or by organizations.

Hence, the correct answer is historical manuscripts and documents are kept.

Additional Information

Keeping old documents and records is practised for a long time back.

• They have been found by archaeologists from the second and third centuries BC.
• These archives were made of clay.
• The Chinese, Greeks, and Romans practised the system of maintaining archives.
• However, these documents were lost because they were made on Papyrus which was perishable.
• The largest National Archives in the world are the French National Archives.

As people were brought together through the growth of towns, trade, and empires, new ideas began to develop. The idea that all living things pass through countless cycles of birth and rebirth performing good deeds and bad came to be widely accepted.

Key Points

Veerashaiva Movement:

• The Tamil Bhakti movement and temple worship came together to create the Virashaiva movement.
• The connection between the Tamil Bhakti movement and temple worship began in Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century.
• This in turn led to a reaction that is best represented in the Virashaiva movement initiated by Basavanna and his companions like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi.
• The Virashaivas argued strongly for the equality of all human beings and against Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women.
• Virashaiva tradition is derived from vachanas (literally, sayings) composed in Kannada by women and men who joined the movement.
• They were also against all forms of ritual and idol worship.

Hence, the correct answer is It argued against Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women.

The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years. The early Delhi Sultans did not favour the appointing of aristocrats and landed chieftains as governors.

Key Points

Bandagan:

• Iltutmish favoured their special slaves purchased for military service, called bandagan in Persian.
• They were carefully trained to man some of the most important political offices in the kingdom.
• Since they were totally dependent upon their master, the Sultan could trust and rely upon them.
• The Sultans were advised that a slave, whom one has brought up and promoted, must be looked after for it needs a whole lifetime and good luck to find a worthy and experienced slave.
• Wise men have said that a worthy and experienced slave is better than a son.
• The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued to use bandagan and also raised people of humble birth, who were often their clients, to high political positions.
• They were appointed as generals and governors. However, this also introduced an element of political instability.

Hence, the correct answer is option 1.

Additional Information

• Slaves and clients were loyal to their masters and patrons, but not to their heirs.
• New Sultans had their own servants. As a result the accession of a new monarch often saw conflict between the old and the new nobility.
• The patronage of these humble people by the Delhi Sultans also shocked many elites and the authors of Persian tawarikh criticized the Delhi Sultans for appointing the “low and base-born” to high offices.

The correct answer is Christopher Columbus.

• In the fifteenth century, European sailors undertook unprecedented explorations of sea routes. They were driven by the desire to find ways of reaching the Indian subcontinent and obtaining spices.

• Christopher Columbus, an Italian, decided to sail westwards across the Atlantic Ocean to find a route to India.
• He landed in the West Indies (which got their name because of this confusion) in 1492.
• He was followed by sailors and conquerors from Spain and Portugal, who occupied large parts of Central and South America, often destroying earlier settlements in the area.

Hence, the correct answer is Christopher Columbus.

Additional Information​

• Vasco da Gama:
• On 20^th May 1498, two years after he set sail from Lisbon, Portugal, Vasco da Gama arrived on the Western sea coast of India at Kozhikode (Calicut), Kerala.
• This was the first time that a European had arrived in India via the sea.
• Thus, Vasco da Gama is credited with the discovery of the sea route to India.
• However, a Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama became successful in discovering the sea route.
• It would be safe to say that he really did change the world – for better or for worse, the jury is still out.
• Xuanzang decided to go to learn the true teachings of Buddhists, collect Buddhist manuscripts to carry back to China and pay homage to the sacred places associated with Buddha. In 629 CE, Xuanzang decided to travel to India.
• In 399 CE, Faxian set out with nine others to locate sacred Buddhist texts. He visited India in the early fifth century.

• The rulers of Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram introduced the Malayalam language and script in their inscriptions.

Important Points

• The Cheras ruled over the Malabar coast who were also known as Keralaputra.
• The Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the 9^th century in present-day Kerala.
• The rulers and the people of the Chera kingdom used the Malayalam language.
• The scripts and inscriptions were written in the Malayalam language.
• The Chera kingdom was one of the earliest kingdoms to use regional language in their court.

Revolt of Songram sangma

• The revolt of Songram Sangma was one of the key revolts that took place in Assam in the year 1906 against the British.
• This revolt occurred because of the exploitation of the British that deprived the tribes of the forest rights that the tribes were used to.
• The tribal people who were dispersed inside the deep forests were forced by the British to move away and live in a small land where the British could control them better.
• Forests were a livelihood source for the tribal, and therefore the forest laws that were formulated by the British had a considerable effect on the tribal people’s lives.
• The British had pronounced all forests as state property and categorized certain forests as reserved and the tribal people were not permitted to hunt, cultivate, or collect fruits in these areas.

• The constitutional reforms of 1919 in India were to be followed by a period of ten years before fresh proposals for reforms could be considered.
• In 1927, however, the Conservative Government of Britain, faced with the prospect of electoral defeat at the hands of the Labour Party, appointed the Indian Statutory Commission, popularly known as the Simon Commission after its Chairman.
• It was an all-White commission and there were no Indians in the Simon commission to recommend whether India was ready for further constitutional progress and on which lines.
• The Simon Commission, which landed at Bombay on Feb 3, 1928, was greeted by black flags and slogans of “GoBack Simon” at every place.
• Hence, the correct answer is there was no Indians representative ​in the Simon commission.

• The Government of India Act 1919 introduced a Dyarchy system to govern the British provinces in India.
• Under this system, the provincial subjects were divided into two categories- Reserved and Transferred.
• The transferred subjects were to be administered by the governor with the aid of ministers responsible to the Legislative Council.
• Reserved subjects, on the other hand, were to be administered by the governor and his executive council without being responsible to the Legislative Council.
• Further, the Act made a provision for a review committee on its work after 10 years.
• The Act of 1919 failed to meet the aspirations of Indians for self-rule (dominion status).
• Although constitutional reforms were due in 1929, anticipating a change in government, the Indian Statutory Commission (Simon Commission) was appointed in 1927.​​

Potti Sreeramulu, the man who fasted onto death for the sake of statehood for Andhra was born on 16 March 1901.

• After independence, the modern state of Andhra Pradesh (along with Telangana) was divided between the Nizam’s Hyderabad State and the northern districts of Madras State.
• There was a growing demand for the formation of states on the basis of languages.
• Telugu-speaking people wanted a separate state but the C Rajagopalachari-led Madras State was not particularly sympathetic to this demand.
• This was especially because the city of Madras (now Chennai) was a contentious factor with both Telugu and Tamil populations staking a claim for it.
• Sreeramulu started a fast on 19 October 1952. The then prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru assured his support for the creation of Andhra Pradesh.
• Finally, he died on 15 December 1952 after about 58 days of commencing his fast. This resulted in widespread rioting and violence in many regions in Andhra.
• Protests continued for about four more days and on 29 December, Nehru announced his decision to form a separate Andhra state.

Thus, it is clear that Potti Sriramulu went on a hunger strike for Andhra Pradesh to protect the interest of Telugu speakers.

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad :

• A freedom fighter, journalist, educationist and Islamic scholar.
• He was widely respected and wrote extensively on concepts like universalism, nationalism, secularism, national integration and communal harmony.
• A staunch nationalist, he opposed the idea of Pakistan and rallied Muslims in India.
• He was the chief exponent of Wahdat-i-deen or the essential oneness of all religions, Azad played around with a variety of ideas on religion, state and civil society.
• He organized a national education system during his tenure as education minister. His focus was on free primary education for all.
• In 1992, Maulana Azad was awarded, posthumously, ‘Bharat Ratna’, India’s highest civilian honour for his invaluable contribution to the nation.
• He established a weekly Urdu journal in 1912 called Al-Hilal, in which he called upon India’s Muslims to unite and join with other Indians in a nonviolent campaign for independence.
• The Comrade was a weekly English-language newspaper that was published and edited by Maulana Mohammad Ali.
• He was the educationist behind setting up institutions like the Indian Institute of Technology (1951) and the University Grants Commission (1953).

Important Points

Secularism :

• Secularism for Maulana Azad rested on the principle of wahdat-e-din i.e. unity of religion on the one hand and disregarding the intermediaries the priestly class and institutionalization of religion.
• He captured the true essence of secularism and placed the highest stakes in education and development of the human mind and man’s consciousness about himself.
• As the education minister Azad desired that religious education be imparted along with secular education as the serious business of religious education cannot be left to the respective religious leadership of the communities as they tend to take a supremacist and communal stand.
• He desired that the common values of all religions should be taught to the students so that they do not develop prejudices against each other.

The Tropic of Cancer is currently positioned at approximately 23.4 degrees north of the Equator. The Tropic of Cancer passes through 16 countries and India is one of them. 

Key Points

• India is situated north of the equator between 8°4' north to 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' east to 97°25' east longitude.
• So the tropic of Cancer is passing from almost the central part of India.
• Tropic of Cancer passes through India, including 8 Indian states.
• Tropic of Cancer passes through 8 Indian states including Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, and Mizoram.

• The above map clearly shows that the tropic of cancer is passing almost halfway through India.

Thus option 4 is the correct answer.

The earth has two types of motions, namely rotation, and revolution. Rotation is the movement of the earth on its axis.

The concept of Earth Day:

• The axis of the earth which is an imaginary line makes an angle of 66½° with its orbital plane.
• The plane formed by the orbit is known as the orbital plane.
• The earth receives light from the sun.
• Due to the spherical shape of the earth, only half of it gets light from the sun at a time.
• The portion facing the sun experiences day while the other half away from the sun experiences night.
• The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.
• This circle does not coincide with the axis.
• The earth takes about 24 hours to complete one rotation around its axis.
• The period of rotation is known as ‘Earth Day'.
• This is the daily motion of the earth.

Hence, option 4 is the correct answer.

1. Earth Day: 22 April; Theme 2020: Climate Action
2. Earth Day: 22 April; Theme 2021: **Restore **Our Earth

Hence, option 2 is the correct answer.

Natural vegetation is generally classified into three broad categories as forest, grassland, and shrubs.

Classification of Forest:

here are two main divisions of the earth’s surface. The large landmasses are known as the continents and the huge water bodies are called the ocean basins.

Continents:

• There are seven major continents.
• These are separated by large water bodies, called oceans.
• These continents are – Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America, Australia, and Antarctica.
• The greater part of the landmass lies in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Most of the part of the southern hemisphere is constitute of water mass.
• Antarctica, South America, and Australia located in the southern hemisphere completely.

Continent Antarctica:

• Antarctica, completely in the Southern Hemisphere, is a huge continent.
• The South Pole lies almost at the center of this continent.
• As it is located in the South Polar Region, it is permanently covered with thick ice sheets.
• There are no permanent human settlements.
• Many countries have research stations in Antarctica.
• India also has research stations there.
• These are named Maitri and Dakshin Gangotri.

Hence, option 4 is the correct answer.

Ocean currents are streams of water flowing constantly on the ocean surface in definite directions. The ocean currents may be warm or cold.

Important features of Ocean currents:

• Generally, the warm ocean currents originate near the equator and move towards the poles.
• The cold currents carry water from polar or higher latitudes to tropical or lower latitudes.
• The Labrador Ocean current is a cold current while the Gulf Stream is a warm current.
• The ocean current influences the temperature conditions of the area.
• Warm currents bring about warm temperatures over the land surface.
• The areas where the warm and cold currents meet provide the best fishing grounds in the world.
• Seas around Japan and the eastern coast of North America are such examples.
• The areas where a warm and cold current meet also experience foggy weather making it difficult for navigation

Hence, option 2 is the correct answer.

Farming or Agriculture is the science, art, and practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities.

Transhumance:

• Transhumance is a type of pastoralism or nomadism, a seasonal movement of livestock between fixed summer and winter pastures.
• They migrate with their animals depending on the seasons.
• In montane regions, it implies movement between higher pastures in summer and lower valleys in winter.
• Herders have a permanent home, typically in valleys.
• Generally, only the herds travel, with a certain number of people necessary to tend them, while the main population stays at the base.
• In contrast, horizontal transhumance is more susceptible to being disrupted by climatic, economic, or political change.
• It is often important to pastoralist societies, as the dairy products of transhumance flocks and herds (milk, yogurt, butter, and cheese) may form much of the diet of such populations.​

Hence, option 3 is the correct answer.

The earth’s crust is made up of various types of rocks. Any natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust is called a rock. Rocks can be of different colors, sizes, and textures. There are three major types of rocks: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks.

Key Points

​

Chinook:

• Chinook is the warm and dry local wind blowing on the leeward side or eastern side of the Rockies (Prairies).
• Chinook is more common in winter and early spring from Colorado to British Columbia in Canada.
• The winds after descending through the eastern slopes of the Rockies have warmed adiabatically.
• So during the winter season with the arrival of chinook the temperature of the area rises by 4-22 degrees Celsius melting up of the ground snow.
• Therefore chinook is known as SNOW EATER.

• Prairies are enormous stretches of flat grassland with moderate temperatures, moderate rainfall, and few trees.
• When people talk about the prairie, they are usually referring to the golden, wheat-covered land in the middle of North America.
• The Great Plains, in the United States and Canada, has some of the world's most valuable prairies, which grow some of the world’s most important crops.
• The U.S. states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, and the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan make up the Great Plains.
• The prairies in North America formed as the Rocky Mountains grew taller and taller.
• They grew taller and taller because of plate tectonics, the process where a small number of plates on the Earth’s crust interact with each other.

The Savannas

• In general, savannas grow in tropical regions 8° to 20° from the Equator.
• Conditions are warm to hot in all seasons, but significant rainfall occurs for only a few months each year—about October to March in the Southern Hemisphere and April to September in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Mean annual precipitation is generally 80 to 150 cm.

The Pampas:

• It is also called the Pampa, vast plains extending westward across central Argentina from the Atlantic coast to the Andean foothills, bounded by the Gran Chaco (north) and Patagonia (south).
• The name comes from a Quechua word meaning “flat surface.”
• The Pampas have a gradual downward slope from northwest to southeast. Several smaller plains in other parts of South America, such as the desert of northern Chile, are also referred to by the term Pampas.

The Velds

• The temperate grasslands of South Africa are called the velds. Velds are rolling plateaus with varying heights ranging from 600 m to 1100 m.
• It is bound by the Drakensburg Mountains on the east. To its west lies the Kalahari desert.
• On the northeastern part, “high velds” are located that attain a height of more than 1600 m, in some places.

Fohn is similar to Chinook but it blows in Europe along the Northern Alps that causes warming in Switzerland making it "climatic oasis of Europe"

Santa Ana blows in the California region.

Loo is the hot dry local wind that blows in the summer season in Northern India.

The atmosphere around the earth:

• The atmosphere consists of different layers with varying densities and temperatures.
• The column of the atmosphere is divided into five different layers depending upon the temperature condition.
• They are troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.

Key Points

The thermosphere 

• It is located between 80 and 400 km above the mesopause.
• It contains electrically charged particles known as ions, and hence, it is also known as the ionosphere.
• Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer.
• The temperature here starts increasing with height.

Hence, option 1 is the correct answer.

Additional InformationThe troposphere

• It is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere.
• Its average height is 13 km and extends roughly to a height of 8 km near the poles and about 18 km at the equator.
• The thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat is transported to great heights by strong convectional currents.
• This layer contains dust particles and water vapor.
• All changes in climate and weather take place in this layer.
• The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 1°C for every 165m of height.
• This is the most important layer for all biological activity.

The stratosphere

• It is found above the tropopause and extends up to a height of 50 km.
• One important feature of the stratosphere is that it contains the ozone layer.
• This layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation and shields life on the earth from an intense, harmful form of energy.

The mesosphere

• It lies above the stratosphere, which extends up to a height of 80 km.
• In this layer, once again, the temperature starts decreasing with the increase in altitude and reaches up to minus 100°C at a height of 80 km.
• Meteors are burning up in the mesosphere. The meteors make it through the exosphere and thermosphere without much trouble because those layers don’t have much air. But when they hit the mesosphere, there are enough gases to cause friction and create heat.
• The upper limit of the mesosphere is known as mesopause.

​

Known as the ‘golden fibre’ jute is one of the longest and most used natural fibre for various textile applications.

Gold wrought:

• Jute is known as the golden fibre because of its yellowish-brown, shiny colour.
• It is a natural vegetable fibre produced from the plants of the genus Corchorus.
• It is used in manufacturing textiles and packing materials.
• Jute occupies an important place next to cotton in the amount produced and the variety of uses.
• Due to its inherent high tensile growth, low extensibility, moderate moisture retention and better breathability, jute is used extensively in agricultural bulk packaging.
• It helps in earning our country's valuable foreign currency through exports.

Hence, option 1 is the correct answer.

1. Silk is commonly known as the “Queen of Fabric**”. It is a very fine long smooth protein fibre.**
2. Cotton fibre is also known as cotton wool. Cotton fibre comes from cotton plants that are grown in the field by the farmers.
3. Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers composed of polyamides (repeating units linked by amide links). Nylon is a thermoplastic silky material, generally made from petroleum, that can be melt-processed into fibres, films, or shapes.

Population density: 

• Population density can be defined as the number of people per unit of area, usually quoted per square kilometer or square mile.
• So, population density is the number of individuals per unit geographic area, for example, number per square meter, per hectare, or per square kilometer.
• Population Density = Total population/ Total area
• In India, state-wise highest population density recorded in Bihar (1102 persons/ sq. km)
• The lowest density of population found in the state of Arunachal Pradesh (17 persons/ sq. km)
• The population density of an area can be one of the most important determining factors for business and marketing planning.
• Macao, Monaco, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Gibraltar are the five most densely populated.

Hence, option 2 is the correct answer.

1. The way In which People are spread across the earth's surface - Population distribution
2. The number of people living in a particular area - Total Population
3. The number of people living during a specific time - Census population

Key Points

• ​Quarrying is the process of removing rock, sand, gravel, or minerals from the ground in order to use them to produce materials for construction or other uses.
• Minerals that lie near the surface are simply dugout, by the process known as quarrying

The correct answer is Quarrying.

Additional Information

• Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid materials or ground.
• Open Cast Mining is the process under which minerals are mined near the earth's surface.
• Shaft mining is the process where miners dig straight down until they reach their desired depth.

Industry refers to economic activity that is concerned with the production of goods, extraction of minerals, or the provision of services. Industries can be classified on the basis of raw materials, size, and ownership.

Classification based on size:

• Size refers to the amount of capital invested, the number of people employed, and the volume of production.
• Based on the size, industries can be classified into small-scale and large-scale industries.
• Cottage or household industries are a type of small-scale industry where the products are manufactured by hand, by the artisans.
• Basket weaving, pottery, and other handicrafts are examples of cottage industry.
• Small scale industries use a lesser amount of capital and technology as compared to large scale industries that produce large volumes of products.
• Investment of capital is higher and the technology used is superior in large-scale industries.
• Silk weaving and food processing industries are small-scale industries.
• Production of automobiles and heavy machinery are large-scale industries.

Hence, option 3 is the correct answer.

When a country is ruled by Kings and Queens, when the right to rule a country is passed through a dynasty and not through elections, then it is called a monarchy.

Some facts about Monarchy: 

• The monarch (king or queen) has the power to make decisions and run the government.
• The monarch may have a small group of people to discuss matters with, but the final decision-making power remains with the monarch.
• Unlike in a democracy, kings and queens do not have to explain their actions or defend the decisions they make.
• The laws are framed by the Kings and Queens. People have no say in the formulation of laws.
• The Kings and Queens have no accountability. People do not have the power to remove Kings and Queens from power if they are dissatisfied with their administration.
• People do not have the right to condemn the Monarchy.
• People may face oppression if the ruler is a tyrant.
• In a Monarchy people are not considered equals.
• Monarchy was prevalent in Medieval and Ancient times and still continues in a few countries.
• Currently, there are different types of monarchies – absolute monarchy, semi-constitutional monarchy, constitutional monarchy, subnational monarchy, commonwealth realms.
• Currently, some of the examples of Monarchy are Middle East countries like the United Arab Emirate (UAE) and Saudi Arabia.

From the above, we can conclude that the statement 'In a monarchy, people can raise questions about the decisions taken by the monarch.' is not correct.

The correct answer is Kaveri.

Key Points

Krishna Raja Sagar Dam:

• The dam was built across the river Kaveri in 1924.
• It is the main source of water for the districts of Mysore.
• The water is used for irrigation in Mysore and Mandya, and it is the main source of drinking water for all of Mysore, Mandya, and almost the whole of Bengaluru city, the capital of Karnataka.
• ​The reservoir is also the main source of drinking water for all of Mysore city and almost the whole of Bangalore.
• The water released from this dam is further used as an important source of water in the state of Tamil Nadu.

Additional Information

• The Cauvery (also spelled as ‘Kaveri’), known as ‘Ponni’ in Tamil, is the fourth-largest river in south India.
• Originating in the Western Ghats at Talakaveri in Karnataka’s Kodagu district, it passes through Tamil Nadu.
• The river bisects the state into the north and south and finally reaches the Bay of Bengal at Poompuhar, also known as Kaveripoompattinam in Tamil Nadu.
• The Cauvery’s major tributaries, Kabini and Moyar, join it before it reaches the Stanley Reservoir at Mettur in Tamil Nadu’s Salem district.
• The river’s total length, from source to mouth, is 802 kilometers.

The Hindu Succession Amendment Act (2005) came into force in September 2005. The Government of India has issued a notification to this effect.

This Act has been passed to remove gender discriminatory provisions in the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 and gives the following rights to daughters under Section 6: 

• ​The daughter of coparcener (joint-heir) by birth becomes a coparcener by right in the same manner as the son.
• The daughter has the same rights in the coparcener property as she would have had if she had been a son.
• In the new law, sons, daughters and their mothers can get an equal share of the land.

Thus, it is clear that The Hindu Succession Amendment Act, 2005 provides an equal share in the deceased father’s property to wife, son(s) and daughter(s).

Additional Information

The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005:

• The Mitakshara school of Hindu law codified as the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 governed succession and inheritance of property
• The original act only recognised males as legal heirs.
• The law applied to everyone who is not a Muslim, Christian, Parsi or Jew by religion.
• Buddhists, Sikhs, Jains and followers of Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj are also considered Hindus for the purposes of this law.
• Section 6 of the Act was amended in 2005 to make a daughter of a coparcener also a coparcener by birth “in her own right in the same manner as the son”
• The law applies to ancestral property and to intestate succession in personal property — where succession happens as per law and not through a will.

India is a country of many diversities. We speak different languages, have various types of food, celebrate different festivals, practise different religions. 

India's diversity has always been recognised as a source of its strength. 

• In his book, The Discovery of India Jawaharlal Nehru says that Indian unity is not something imposed from the outside but rather, "It was something deeper and within its fold, the widest tolerance of belief and custom was practised and every variety acknowledged and even encouraged."
• It was Nehru, who coined the phrase, "unity in diversity" to describe the country.

Thus, we can conclude that Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru coined the phrase ‘Unity in Diversity' to describe the Indian Nation-State.

Janpad panchayat means local self-governing bodies at the taluka level(an administrative district for taxation purposes, typically comprising a number of villages).

• There are many talukas in each district.
• It is also called Panchayat Samiti.
• It is the intermediate or the middle tier of the Panchayati Raj System.
• These are named differently in different States.

Panchayat Samiti performs a number of functions.

• Some important functions are agriculture, land improvement, watershed development, social and farm forestry, and technical and vocational education.
• Besides, the Panchayat Samiti implements certain schemes and programs for which specific funds are allocated by the State government or Central government.
• It promotes and coordinates different development programs in its areas.
• It also has responsibilities like 
• provision of drinking water in the villages,
• development and repair of rural roads,
• framing of rules and regulations for the markets,
• provision of improved seeds and chemical fertilizers, pesticides, agricultural tools, and implements,
• promotion of cottage industries such as handlooms, handicrafts, traditional art, and artisans,
• the welfare of Scheduled Castes and Tribes and other backward classes, and
• promotion of the self-employment schemes in rural areas.

From the above, we can conclude that Janapad Panchayat does not help Zila Parishad to regulate money distribution among Gram Panchayats.

Additional Information

• Janapad Panchayat organization and functions also vary as these are determined by the Act passed by the concerned State.
• It coordinates all the activities of the Panchayats in a Block.
• A Panchayat Samiti is constituted by the following members: 
• All the Sarpanches (Mukhias) or Chairpersons of the Gram Panchayats within the block
• MPs, MLAs, and MLCs of that Block
• Some directly elected Members
• The elected Members of Zila Parishad from that Block
• Some Officers of that Block

Right to Information (RTI) Act is one of the most important acts which empowers ordinary citizens to question the government and its work.

• This Act has been widely used by citizens and media to uncover corruption, progress in government work, expenses related information, etc.
• All constitutional authorities, agencies, owned and controlled, also those organisations which are substantially financed by the government comes under the purview of the act. Thus, the limitation is not only to Central Governement.
• The act also mandates public authorities of union government or state government, to provide timely response to the citizens’ request for information.
• The act also imposes penalties if the authorities delay in responding to the citizen in the stipulated time.
• Application Procedure for requesting information:
• Apply in writing or through electronic means in English or Hindi or in the official language of the area, to the State Public Information Officer (PIO), specifying the particulars of the information sought for.
• Reason for seeking information are not required to be given;
• Pay fees as may be prescribed (if not belonging to the below poverty line category).

From the above, we can conclude that both statements A and B are false.

Additional Information

What type of information can be requested through RTI?

• The citizens can seek any information from the government authorities that the government can disclose to the parliament.
• Some information that can affect the sovereignty and the integrity of India is exempted from the purview of RTI.
• Information relating to internal security, relations with foreign countries, intellectual property rights (IPR), cabinet discussions are exempted from RTI.

Sultana’s dream is a feminist utopian novel written by Rokeya Hussain (also knows as Rokeya Begum) and was published in 1905 by The Indian Ladies Magazine.  

• The novel portrays a world in which women rule the world and men are subordinate beings. Women control all aspects and are aided by new technology such as flying cars and solar energy in order to help maintain their rule.
• The novel details the daily lives of these women, which consists of a two-hour workday, and goes on to display the advances made by women in a solely female-dominated society.
• The novel also explores a new religious aspect in that the religion practised is a modern concept of love and kindness, whereby purity is the most important factor of all.

Key Points

Some well-known facts about Rokeya Sakhawat Hussain:

• Begum has won many accolades for her work as well as a national day to her name, in Bangladesh (9 December).
• She has been an avid feminist and has also founded the 1916 Muslim Women’s Organization in her fight for women to gain access to education.
• She was also the founder of Calcutta's first Islamic girl's institution (1911), in her quest to make education equally accessible to females.
• Library Journal has described the short story as "An interesting and informative work for Asian studies and women's studies collections."
• Publisher's Weekly cited it for being "a window opened too briefly onto a world whose exoticism is overshadowed only by its oppressiveness.”

Additional Information

• Sayyid Mumtaz Ali Deobandi (27 September 1860 – 15 June 1935) was an Indian Sunni Muslim scholar and an advocate of women rights in the late nineteenth century.
• Pandita Ramabai Saraswati founded the Arya Mahila Samaj to serve the cause of women. She pleaded for improvement in the educational status of Indian women before the English Education Commission which was referred to Queen Victoria. This resulted in medical education for women which started in Lady Dufferin College.
• Rashsundari Devi is among the earliest woman writers in Bengali literature. Her autobiography Amar Jiban (My Life) is known as the first published autobiography in Bengali language.

Mahatma Jyotirao Phule, whom Ambedkar considered his guru, wrote Gulamgiri.

• It is one of the first critiques of the caste system.
• Written in Marathi, with an English preface, the text has been translated into English as Slavery.

• Mahatma Jotiba Phule’s Gulamgiri is considered one of the first tracts against the caste system.
• Published in 1885, it critiques the institution of caste through a 16-part essay and four poetic compositions, and it is written in the form of a dialogue between Jotiba, and a character he calls Dhondiba.
• The main thrust of Mahatma Phule’s text is an inversion of the racial theory of caste.
• According to this theory, a superior, foreign race invaded this land.
• They became what we know as Brahmins today.
• The lowly, indigenous people who were conquered became the Shudras.

Key Points

Some facts about Jyotirao Phule:

• Mahatma Phule was a prolific social activist and thinker, who pioneered women’s education in India, especially in Maharashtra.
• He was born on 11 April 1827 in Katgun, Satara District in Maharashtra.
• He belonged to the Mali caste of gardeners and his family was mostly illiterate.
• His family was well-off owing to success in the flower business.
• Phule attended the primary school where he learnt the basic 3 R’s.
• Phule completed his English schooling in 1847.

Appellate Courts are the part of the judicial system that is responsible for hearing appeals that have already been heard in a trial level or other lower court. 

• Appellate courts are present at the state and federal levels. These courts do not include a jury.
• In India, the appellate system provides people with the provision for appeal to a higher court against the decision of a lower court.
• It is a part of the judicial system which reviews the appeals of legal cases that have already been heard in lower courts.
• For example, Challenging the judgement of the lower court in the High court or Supreme court.
• In the Trial Courts, the lawyers present evidence and legal arguments to persuade the jury in a jury trial or the judge in a bench trial.
• In Appellate Courts, the lawyers simply argue legal and policy issues before the judge or a group of judges.

Hence, it becomes clear that the appellate system in India gives the provision for appeal to a higher court against the decision of a lower court.

The organ of government that primarily looks after the function of implementation and administration is called the executive.

Important Points

The second but most powerful organ of the government is the Executive.

• It is that organ that implements the laws passed by the legislature and the policies of the government.
• At the State level, the executive comprises the Governor and the Chief Minister and the Council of Ministers.

Thus, we can conclude that the executive organ of the State refers to a group of people responsible for implementing laws and running the government.

Additional Information

• The executive is often involved in the framing of policy.
• The executive branch is not just about presidents, prime ministers and ministers.
• It also extends to the administrative machinery (civil servants).
• While the heads of government and their ministers, saddled with the overall responsibility of government policy, are together known as the political executive, those responsible for the day to day administration are called the permanent executive.

The right to freedom guarantees freedom for citizens to live a life of dignity among other things. These are given in Articles 19, 20, 21A and 22 of the Indian Constitution.

Important Points

Article 22 deals with the protection against arrest and detention in certain cases. 

• This article is applicable to both citizens and non-citizens.
• This provision extends certain procedural safeguards for individuals in case of an arrest.
• It comes into the picture after a person has been arrested. It is not a fundamental right against detention and arrest.
• The idea behind this right is to prevent arbitrary arrests and detention.
• The article provides the following safeguards:
• Article 22(1) – Any person who is in custody has to be informed as to why he has been arrested. Further, he cannot be denied the right to consult an advocate.
• Article 22(2) – The arrested individual should be produced before a judicial magistrate within 24 hours of his arrest.
• Article 22(3) – No individual who has been arrested can be kept in custody for more than the period determined by the judicial magistrate.
• These safeguards are, however, not applicable to 
• Enemy aliens
• People arrested under preventive detention law

Hence, it is clear that Article 22 of the Constitution ensures the Right not to be ill-treated during arrest or while in custody.

Additional Information

• There are two types of detention: 
• Punitive
• Preventive
• Punitive detention is detention after a trial.
• Preventive detention is detention without trial.
• The idea behind this is to prevent an individual from committing a crime. This means that persons can be detained on grounds of suspicion.
• The rights of people arrested in this manner are governed by preventive detention laws.

The correct answer is Prime Minister of India.

Key Points

• In India, the leader of the ruling party in the Lok Sabha is usually the Prime Minister of India.
• The Leader of the House serves as the Parliamentary Chairperson of the majority party in the house.
• If the Prime Minister is not a member of the Lower House of Parliament, members can nominate another minister as the Leader of the House.

Additional Information

• Article 75 of the Indian Constitution mentions that a Prime Minister is one who is appointed by the President.
• Qualifications of Prime Minister:
• A citizen of India.
• A member of either Rajya Sabha or Lok Sabha
• He should have completed his 30 years if he is a member of the Rajya Sabha or can be 25 years of age if he is a member of the Lok Sabha
• The maximum strength of Lok Sabha - 552
• The present strength is 545.
• The maximum strength of the Rajya Sabha - 250

At the upper primary stage, the subject areas of the social sciences draws its content from history, geography, political science, and economics. The child may be introduced simultaneously to contemporary issues and problems. Also, emphasis needs to be given to issues like poverty, illiteracy, child and bonded labour, class, caste, gender, and environment. The objectives of teaching the social sciences at the upper primary stage are:

• To develop an understanding about the earth as the habitat of humankind and other forms of life.
• To initiate the learner into a study of her/ his own region, state, and country in the global context.
• To initiate the learner into a study of India’s past, with references to contemporary developments in other parts of the world.
• To introduce the learner to the functioning and dynamics of social and political institutions and processes of the country.
• It is a study of relations among people and their interdependence.
• It is a study of the past and its relation to the present.
• Children should be engaged in activities that would help them in promoting an understanding of the natural and social environment.

So, all the above points about the nature of social science is correct.

​‘Social and political life (SPL)’ is a new learning area of the social science curriculum at upper primary stage replacing the earlier learning area of ‘Civics’. NCF (2005) remarked that “Civics appeared in the Indian school curriculum in the colonial period against the background of increasing ‘disloyalty’ among Indians towards the Raj. Emphasis on obedience and loyalty were the key features of civics”.

Social and political life draws its leaning experiences mostly from political science, economics and sociology. Political science makes the child familiar with democratic processes and participation. Economics enable the child to be familiar with economic activities like production, consumption, distribution, exchange etc. Sociology makes the child be an important member of civic society, removing the barriers of caste, class, religion, etc.

• At the upper primary stage, the subject-area of Social Science drawing its content from history, geography, political science and economics will be introduced.
• Simultaneously, the child may be introduced to contemporary issues and problems.
• Contemporary issues may be looked at from multiple perspectives introducing the child to the social and economic problems of society.
• Emphasis needs to be given to issues like poverty, illiteracy, child and bonded labour, class, caste, gender and environment.
• Geography and Economics may together help in developing a proper perspective related to the issue concerning the environment, resources and development at different levels from local to global.
• Similarly, Indian history will be taught emphasizing the concepts of plurality and change.
• The child will be introduced to the formation and functioning of governments at the local, state and central level and the democratic processes of participation.

​Hence, we conclude that Social and Political Life textbooks at the upper primary level cover content is related to Economics.

History is the study of life in society in the past, in all its aspects, in relation to present developments and future hopes. It is the story of a man in time, an inquiry into the past based on evidence. Indeed, the evidence is the raw material of history teaching and learning. It is an inquiry into what happened in the past, when it happened, and how it happened. Note that:

• It is an inquiry into the inevitable changes in human affairs in the past and the ways these changes affect, influence, or determine the patterns of life in society.
• History is, or should be an attempt to re-think the past.
• Historical imagination makes learning effective.
• It helps students to keep learning in mind for a longer time.
• It provides an appropriate platform for students to live the historical incidences.
• By historical imagination, a student can think in a particular situation according to their mindset.
• The teacher will need to encourage students to ask some penetrating questions in order to recreate a realistic or accurate historical context while teaching in class.
• Students want to impose the present on the past. They can compare the present with the past and learn what to do in a situation.
• It is a perfect way to keep a check on students’ capability to reflect upon the incidents.

Hence, we conclude that historical imagination encourages the comparison of the present with the past.

Narration/Storytelling: It is a skill wherein the narrator communicates to the listeners through oral and non-verbal gestures. This withholds the attention of the listeners. In fact, it is an art in itself which aims at presenting to the students through the medium of speech that is clear, vivid, and interesting, with an ordered sequence of events in such a way that the students are able to reconstruct these happenings and they live in their imagination through experiences recounted. Note that:

• They can make students almost visualize the events and the personalities concerned.
• To keep the listener on track, the narrator asks simple questions in between, which require to be answered in one or two words.
• This method is suitable to teach social science especially History, at the elementary stage (for example, the Kalinga war, Dandi March, Quit India Movement, etc can be taught through this method).
• This would arouse the interest of children and provide them scope for imaginative understanding and thorough enjoyment.
• Storytelling can be relied upon by the teacher as the best companion for developing traits of character such as charity, piety, truthfulness, velour, etc. among students.
• Advantages: This method can create interest in the students and they start liking both the teacher and the subject. It can also support the development of imagination and inculcation of virtues, which are required for social living. Students learn more than what is given in the textbook.
• Limitations: The teacher plays a major role and if the story is not told in an interesting way, students may feel bored. It is also true that all topics cannot be taught through this method. The teacher has to collect more information than what is in the textbook and has highly to be skilled in narration for the success of the method.

Hence, we conclude that narration is important to link concepts to live realities.

The present National Focus Group (NFG) recognizes the efforts made in the past to create an ideal social studies curriculum. However, a lot of work remains to be done, particularly since in today’s neo-liberal India the subjects that comprise the social sciences are considered inadequate for securing employment. They felt the need to first discuss existing perceptions of the social sciences amongst the larger community, and then factor this into the proposed curricular framework. To ensure that the curricular recommendations are adequately translated into textbooks, the NFG has also highlighted the main issues to be addressed in order to make the social sciences an intellectually and professionally valuable subject of study.

• According to the report of the National Focus Group (2006), the popular perception of Social Science is that it is a non-utility subject.
• As a result, low self-esteem governs the classroom-transaction process with both teachers and students feeling uninterested in comprehending its contents.
• From the initial stages of schooling, it is often suggested to students that the natural sciences are superior to the social sciences, and are the domain of ‘bright’ students.
• Therefore, there is a need to emphasize that the social sciences are essential to provide social, cultural, and analytical skills required to adjust to an increasingly interdependent world, and to deal with political and economic realities.
• There is a widespread belief that social science merely transmits information and is too centered, on the text, which is required to be memorized for examinations.
• The content of these textbooks is considered to be unconnected to daily realities. In addition, social science is viewed as providing unnecessary details about the past.
• It is also felt that the examination paper rewards the memorization of these superfluous ‘facts’, with the children’s conceptual understanding being largely ignored.
• Any effort to address the information overload in the social sciences will simultaneously have to review the current examination system.
• There is a perception that not many desirable job options are open to students specializing in the social sciences.
• In addition, it is felt that the social sciences are bereft of the skills required to function in the real world.
• This produces the impression that the subject is redundant.
• It is important to reinstate the importance of the social sciences by not only highlighting their increasing relevance for jobs in the rapidly expanding service sector but also by pointing to their indispensability in laying the foundations of an analytical and creative mind.

Hence, we conclude that according to the National Focus Group (2006) the teaching of Social Science is losing popularity as ​it is considered a non-utilitarian subject

The term school-based assessment may be defined as an assessment that facilitates the attainment of competencies specified in terms of learning outcomes in a holistic manner during the teaching-learning process. It is embedded in the teaching and learning process within the broader educational philosophy of ‘"assessment for learning". It includes the assessment of school students by school teachers in the schools. 

Key Points

Salient features of School-based assessment

• Integrate teaching-learning and assessment
• It covers co-curricular, scholastic and non-scholastic aspects.
• Child-centred and activity-based pedagogy
• Focus on (learning-outcome based) competency development rather than content memorisation
• Broadening the scope of assessment by way of including selfassessment, peer-assessment besides teacher assessment
• Non-threatening, stress-free and enhanced participation/interaction
• Focus on the assessment of/and/as learning rather than an evaluation of achievement
• Reposing faith in the teacher and the system
• Enhancing self-confidence in children

Hence, we conclude that school-based assessment does not merely focus on the co-curricular aspect.

A teacher, which transacting social science class should show respect to each child and his/her family, along with providing a safe, comfortable and positive learning environment that is conducive to learning. A teacher must ensure the dignity of all students and conduct discussions with sensitivity while explaining any social science topic. 

Key Points

• In order to ensure that every child receives a high-quality education, schools must create healthy, respectful climates for learning where the fundamental dignity of students and all members of the school community is protected and nurtured
• The goal of maintaining dignity in the classroom is to promote a safe and supportive learning environment, free from harassment and discrimination.
• The professional educator has a primary obligation to treat students with dignity and conduct discussions with sensitivity. The professional educator promotes the health, safety, and well-being of students by establishing and maintaining appropriate verbal, physical, emotional, and social boundaries.
• A teacher should promote a positive school environment that is free from discrimination and harassment and every topic should be discussed with great sensitivity.
• He should maintain transparency along with establishing and maintaining an environment that promotes the emotional, intellectual, physical, and sexual safety of the class.
• A teacher should respect students by taking into account their age, gender, culture, setting, and socioeconomic context.
• He should communicate with students clearly, respectfully, and culturally sensitively**.**
• Thus, teachers and the education system need to treat all children with respect and dignity and there should be no Corporal Punishment.

Hence, we conclude that the teacher must ensure the dignity of all students and conduct discussions with sensitivity while transacting social science topics.