CTET Paper 2 Social Studies December 2018 (English-Hindi-Sanskrit) (Previous Year Paper)

Motor development in the human body does not occur haphazardly. It follows a definite sequence which may differ from individual to individual, due to the degree and timing of development.

Proximodistal Progression:  

• In this progression**, growth starts at the centre of the body and moves towards the peripheries or extremities.**
• It describes the direction of growth and development occurring from the centre to outward in an infant.
• For example, infants gain control first over their torso and arms and then their hands and  fingers.​

Important Points

Cephalocaudal Progression: 

• It tends to proceed along head-to-feet and centre-to-periphery. It starts, first from the head, and then develops the organs, which are below the head, towards feet.
• For example, infants gain control first over their heads and then their legs.

Hence, it becomes clear that the development from the central part of the body towards peripheries or extremities denotes the principles of proximodistal development.

Socialization is a process by which an individual becomes a member of society through a mechanism of interaction. Its purpose is to prepare individuals for future roles.

• Socialization is a life-long process that continues throughout life from birth to adulthood.
• A school is a place designed to provide an adequate learning environment for effective teaching-learning process.

School is a child-centered social institution where school children:-

• occupy the central position.
• enjoy maximum autonomy in the learning process.
• develop the ability to assimilate the concepts efficiently.
• perform a task or classroom activities at their own pace.
• avail ample opportunities to foster their strategy of learning.
• inculcate the informal cues about social roles through interaction.

Hence, it becomes clear that school is an institution of socialization of children where school children occupy the central position.

Teachers play the most crucial role in moulding the behaviour of learners. This shaping of behaviour is achieved through planning and dedication.

• Being a part of a teacher fraternity and choosing to dress like most of the others in the group, is just like exhibiting conformity.
• Conformity is a kind of social influence that refers to the act of acquiring changes in behaviour, attitude and beliefs to fit in with a group standard or being socially acceptable.

Hence, if you join a teacher fraternity and choose to dress like most of the others in your group, you are exhibiting conformity.

Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) observed his children and their process of making sense of the world around them and eventually developed a four-stage model of how the mind processes new information encountered. He explained that children progress through four stages and in the same order.

The Four Stages of Cognitive Development are:

• The Sensorimotor Stage (0 to 2yrs):  During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and by manipulating objects around them. E.g. the sucking reflex. The main achievement during this stage is object permanence - knowing that an object still exists, even if it is hidden.
• The Preoperational Stage (2 to 7):  During this stage, children develop memory and imagination. The main achievements are language acquisition and symbolic thought.
• The Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 12): The child can reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets. It is able to perform reversible mental operations.
• The Formal Operational Stage (12 to adulthood): During this stage, the adolescent can apply logic more abstractly as well as reason hypothetically.

Hence, we conclude that the concept of object permanence is attained during Piaget’s sensorimotor stage of development.

Individualized Education Program, commonly known as IEP,  the main purpose of IEP is to provide appropriate education and training to every child with a disability, including those with mental retardation.

• IEP is a written statement, planned from the perspective of 'Child-centred Education Program' to give primacy to children's experience and needs.
• It is important that the IEP be prepared in consultation with all those who will be involved in providing services to the child.

Important Points

Characteristics of IEP:

• To meet learner's individual needs and goals beyond their current strength.
• Focuses on making students work together to improve educational results.
• Outline adaptions and modifications to provide quality education to all children.
• Uses cooperative learning strategies by including students, teachers, parents, school administrators, etc.

Additional Information

Hence, it becomes clear that the Individualized Education Programme is planned from the perspective of child-centred education programme.

Language development is a process that starts early in life by which children begin to understand and express feelings through languages.

• Between 18 and 24 months of age, most children begin to combine words into short sentences while speaking.
• At this age, they use around 50 words and start placing two words together in short sentences.

Note: Refer to the Table to be aware of the stages of language acquisition in a child:

Hence, it becomes clear that between 18 and 24 months of age, most children begin to combine words into short sentences while speaking.

Definitions of Intelligence:

• According to Binet, ‘Intelligence means the capacity to judge well, to reason well and to comprehend well’.
• According to Terman, ‘Intelligence means the ability to think in terms of abstract ideas’.
• According to Wechsler, ‘Intelligence means the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.’

Key Points

• The first test to measure intelligence was developed by Binet and Simon in 1905.
• Stern in 1912 revised the test and devised the concept of Intelligence Quotient.
• Intelligence Quotient: It is commonly known as IQ refers to the score of standardized test which assesses and measures human intelligence.
• An individual’s Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is determined by the formula given below,

${\bf{Intelligence}};{\bf{Quotient}};\left( {{\bf{IQ}}} \right) = \frac{{{\bf{Mental}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{MA}}} \right);}}{{{\bf{Chronological}};{\bf{Age}};\left( {{\bf{CA}}} \right)}} \times 100$

• Where, Mental Age is based on intellectual development.
• Chronological Age is the number of years a person has lived.

Hence, it becomes clear from the above-mentioned points, the concept of Intelligence Quotient or IQ was developed by Stern.

Additional Information

Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities or processes and is unique to human beings. It involves manipulation and analysis of information received from the environment. 

Creativity refers to a cognitive ability to produce something original by offering a fresh perspective. Creativity is goal-directed thinking which is unusual, novel, and useful.

It is thought to be related to the concept of 'divergent thinking' because it refers to:

• a way of solving problems by more than one approach.
• an act of working with open-ended questions using creativity and ingenuity.
• a process which includes brainstorming, imagination, out of the box thinking in it.
• the ability possesses by the people who are creative, persistent, and imaginative.

Note: Open-ended question is the one which can't be answered in yes or no, rather requires a full answer with proper explanation.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that creativity is thought to be related to the concept of divergent thinking.

Key PointsLanguage is a rule-governed system that organises its proper use and dictates how words relate to one another. The acceptable sound combinations of a language are specified in its phonological rules as it:

• promotes the ability to manipulate sounds in spoken language.
• controls the way the sounds change during vocal communication.
• explains how a speaker deals with the underlining representation of a sound while pronouncing the same.
• Eg: 'S' may be pronounced as 's' in "cats" while 'z' in "peas".

Thus, it is concluded that the acceptable sound combinations of a language are specified in its phonological rules.

Linguistics determination makes an assumption that language both reflects and limits human mentality and its ability to make cross-cultural connections.

• It refers to the position where thought patterns are influenced by language.
• language and its structure determine one's thought process.
• people speaking different languages have different thinking patterns.
• people experience the world through the language they practically use.

Hint

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that the position where thought patterns are influenced by language is called linguistic determination.

A hypothesis refers to a reasonable guess about the solution of a problem, which the researcher goes on to verify based on the relevant information collected by him/her. 

• From the above-mentioned procedure of problem-solving, it could be interpreted that Ravi is using 'heuristic' which is a problem-solving method proposed by 'H.E. Armstrong'.
• It makes the process of problem-solving quick and efficient by:
• Promoting the use of critical and imaginative thinking.
• raising problems before students to activate their thinking power.
• emphasizing the active involvement of learners to boost their understanding.
• enabling students to  acquire knowledge by discovering the facts themselves.

The purpose of the hypothesis is to define the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable.

Hence, Ravi repairs appliances by a testing hypothesis about the cause of the malfunction based on his experiences with the symptoms. He uses 'heuristics'.

From the above-mentioned process, it could be interpreted that Divya is using 'subgoal analysis'. It is a way of breaking tasks in small pieces which helps in:

• achieving the desired goal easily.
• organising information systematically.
• reducing the extraneous cognitive load.
• recognizing the basic components of the task.

Hence, Divya often divides the assigned job into small tasks that she can handle easily. She is using a subgoal analysis.

Gender refers to the socially constructed differences between men and women.

Key Points The above-mentioned statement articulates gender as a social construct as gender refers to the socially constructed attributes of femininity and masculinity. 

It is a negative concept or unfair idea which leads to:-

• narrow expectations for gender behavior.
• the belief that one gender is superior to another.
• inequality between individuals based on their genders.

Note: Sex refers to the biological attributes of femininity and masculinity.

Hence, it becomes clear that “Society determines the roles of male and female.” This statement articulates gender as a social construct.

Additional Information

• Gender Discrimination: It is referred to as the differential treatment of individuals based on their gender. Societies around the world, particularly Indian society indulge in gender discrimination.
• Gender Equity: Gender equity exists when both males and females are expected and encouraged to pursue interests, subjects, careers, and lifestyles that are determined by individual interest and ability, rather than according to sex-role stereotypes.

Assessment is conducted in different phases of the teaching-learning process. Some assessments are conducted before the beginning of the teaching-learning process, some are carried out during the process, and others conducted at the end of the instructional process.

Grading, coding, marking and credit accumulation system are some of the examples of scoring procedures of assessment of learner's achievement.

Let's Understand it Further:

• Grading system: It assesses learner's achievement based upon points alone.
• Coding system: It assesses learner's achievement by assigning code to number.
• Marking system: It assesses learner's achievement by allocating marks to the individual item.
• Credit accumulation system: It assesses learner's achievement in terms of credit and determines the requirement for awarding a degree.

Note: Remaining options are not suitable in the context as these four terms are highly related to the procedures of assessment.

Hence, Grading, coding, marking and credit accumulation systems are some of the examples of scoring procedure of assessment of learners’ achievement.

Assessment is a process of collecting, receiving, and using data for improvement in the learning process.

Key Points

Assessment of learner's achievement helps the teacher to:

• evaluate the effectiveness of pedagogy.
• assess the actual task performance of the learners.
• monitor the learner's progress in the learning process.
• find out and diagnose learner's individual needs by appropriate strategy.

Note: Remaining options are not suitable in the context because they are representing assessment as a product-oriented activity while assessment is concerned with process-oriented activity.

Hence, Assessment of learners’ achievement helps the teacher to evaluate the effectiveness of pedagogy.

Inclusive Education: It refers to the inclusion of all children in the education system, regardless of their differences and disabilities.

• It values the diversity, each child brings to the classroom and facilitates all with equal opportunities to learn and grow.
• It provides a provision to include disabled children along with normal children in a regular classroom environment.
• It refers to an education system that accommodates all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic, or other conditions.

Basic Principles of Inclusive Education:

• Equity and equal opportunities for all.
• Well constructed educational plan.
• Use of multilingualism as a resource.
• Use of specific pedagogical strategies.
• Sensitization towards individual differences.

NOTE:

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that Inclusive Education is based on the principle of equity and equal opportunities.

“Person with Disability” means a person with long term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairment which, in interaction with barriers, hinders his full and effective participation in society equally with others.

Key Points

The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act has been enacted in 2016. It is an act which:

• ensures equal opportunities for the people who suffer from 40% of disability.
• covers 21 disabilities like blindness, dwarfism, haemophilia, mental illness, etc.
• enhances the reservation quota (3% to 4%) in government jobs for disabled persons.
• focuses on making all public buildings disabled-friendly by providing ramps, slopes, auditory signals, etc.

Note:

• 'The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016' has replaced 'The Person with Disabilities Act, 1995' which used to cover only 7 disabilities in it.
• The "International Day of Persons with Disabilities" is observed on 3^rd December.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act has been enacted in the year 2016.

Individual difference refers to the difference which distinguishes an individual from another on the basis of physical, emotional, or psychological characteristics.

Key Points

Children with individual differences should be taught in a school having teachers trained to:

• use different pedagogy to meet their diverse learning needs.
• perceive the significance of individual differences and needs.
• operate innovative teaching tools to address the learning gaps.
• understand the sociology of learning and major principles of child psychology.

NOTE: Remaining options are segregating children based on their abilities and skills, thus not suitable in the context.

Hence, it could be concluded that children with individual differences should be taught in a school having teachers trained to use different pedagogy to meet their diverse learning needs.

The Right to Education Act commonly known as RTE Act 2009 is an act which aims to provide free and compulsory education to all children between the age of 6 to 14 years in India under the Article 21A of the Indian Constitution.

• No child shall be held back, expelled or required to pass a board examination until the completion of elementary education.
• It provides free education from 6 to 18 years for children with disabilities.
• According to the RTE Act, a teacher will spend a minimum of 45 hours in teaching including preparation hours in a week.

Whereas the Act Ensures the Right of Children with Disabilities by:

• Providing free education from 6 to 18 years.
• Promoting their integration in normal schools.
• Bringing them in the mainstream with other children.
• Facilitating them with special training in an appropriate environment.

Note: The RTE Act, 2009 ensures to provide free and compulsory education to normal children from 6 to 14 years of age. 

Hence, the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 ensures the rights of children with disabilities to free education from 6 years to 18 years.

Teaching Learning Materials (TLMs):

• These are a set of tools that facilitate learning by providing the required input that meets the objectives.
• It consists of a variety of resources that are used by a teacher to teach the concepts outlined in the curriculum, and by the learner in learning and deriving knowledge out of the course.

Universal Design of Learning is an educational framework that implies providing teaching-learning materials in accessible formats to diverse learners.

It is a dynamic side of education which benefit the learners by:

• planning the class curriculum effectively.
• developing a flexible learning environment.
• improving accessibility to ample opportunities.
• providing a variety of strategies and resources.

Note: Universal Humanistic Approach of teaching allows students for social personal development and gives importance to learner's thoughts, feelings, and emotions in overall development.

Hence, providing teaching-learning materials in accessible formats to the diverse learners implies Universal Design of Learning.

Metacognition refers to an individual's awareness of his/her cognition and knowledge.

• It refers to the knowledge about cognitive processes and the way they function.
• It involves self-awareness and control of cognitive abilities, e.g., planning, reviewing and revising, etc.
• It deals with the individual's awareness of the self as a knower and processor of information.
• It pertains to the student’s capability of setting goals for learning, estimating the success with which the goals are being met, and selecting alternative strategies to meet the goals.

Characteristics of Metacognition:

• Relatively independent of age - age doesn't influence it.
• Late developing - mostly in the last stage of development.
• Largely procedural and subconscious process - need active regulation.

Hence, it becomes clear that Metacognition involves self-awareness and control of cognitive abilities, e.g., planning, revising, etc.

Thinking is a cognitive activity. It refers to a pattern of behaviour in which one makes use of internal representations of external events such as symbols and signs of the events for the solution of some specific problem.

Concrete thinking refers to the thinking process by which children think to interpret the received information according to their experiences.

It is a kind of lateral thinking which doesn't have any depth. It relies solely on the physical world that's why concrete thinkers can't think of what is beyond their sight.

Hence, when children think to interpret the received information according to their experience, it is called Concrete thinking.

Differentiated instruction refers to the way of teaching learners at varying levels of difficulty based on the ability of the individual learner.

Key Points

It is an activity-driven approach to education in which teacher:

• adjusts teaching content and process according to the learner's ability.
• works as a coordinator and maximizes student's involvement in learning.
• focuses on teaching the same concept to all using variety of strategies.
• targets students' learning strengths and needs and helps them accordingly.

Hence, it could be concluded that teaching learners at varying levels of difficulty based on the ability of individual learners is known as differentiated instruction.

Additional Information

Learning is a comprehensive process that results in a change in behaviour, knowledge, and skills. It emphasizes goal orientation which helps to improve performance skills to achieve the goal.

• There are four basic stages of learning which work as an instructional hierarchy in the learning process.
• Among these stages, maintenance is the specific stage and is antecedent to the generalization stage of learning.

Stages of Learning:-

• Acquisition – new skill or concept
• Fluency – the ability to immediately use the skill or concept without a prompt
• Maintenance – Counting to use the skill or concept over time
• Generalization – applying the skill or concept to new situations, people, activities, ideas, and settings

Additional Information

Hence, maintenance is the specific stage of learning which is antecedent to the generalization stage of learning.

Robert Zajonc, an American social psychologist is known for his crucial contribution to the field of the social and cognitive process.

Key Points

According to Robert Zajonc:

• Cognition and emotion are independent.
• He justified his beliefs by stating that:
• all emotion doesn't involve deliberate thinking.
• some emotions skip the thinking part of the brain.
• some emotions occur separately from our cognitive interpretation of them.
• Emotions are global in nature in contrast to cognitions. So according to him emotion and cognition are categorically different.

Note: However the recent research deviates from Zajonc's beliefs because they suggest that cognition and emotion are highly independent**.**

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that Zajonc believes that cognition and emotion are independent.

Teachers play the most crucial role in moulding the behaviour of learners. This shaping of behaviour is achieved through planning and dedication.

Here, the teacher is using the modelling method of teaching which refers to an instructional strategy in which a teacher demonstrates concepts and students learn through observation.

Characteristics of the Modelling Method:

• Gives importance to observation and imitation in the learning process.
• Creates a proper teaching-learning environment to meet specific goals.
• Ensures systematized efforts for the desired modification in learner's behaviour.

A teacher is teaching children by the demonstration of a task to correct the performances of an already learned task. He is using the modelling method of teaching.

Irving Janis and Leon Mann are psychologists who proposed a model of decision making in which they advocate that the above-mentioned characteristics of children reflect their vigilant behaviour.

• It is the ideal pattern of decision making which results in high-quality decisions.
• Procedures for Vigilant Decision Making:
• A systematized search for relevant information.
• Detailed consideration of available alternatives.
• Allocation of sufficient time to evaluate each alternative.
• Re-evaluation and review of data before making decisions.

Hence, given characteristics of children reflect their vigilant behaviour.

Logical thinking refers to the process of analysing the situation to draw a conclusion. In logical thinking, a child as a problem solver evaluates the truth or likelihood of statements.

Characteristics of logical thinking:

• increases the child's capability to think creatively.
• incorporates logic into the child's thinking process.
• makes the child able to think in a disciplined manner.
• emphasizes to organise thoughts together to arrive at a solution.

Hence, we conclude that the above statement is about logical thinking.

Additional Information

Task-based learning is an approach in which students get involved to do a piece of work or activity which exposes them to meaningful learning.

• Consumer-type task refers to the task in which the children get to experience while enjoying themselves.
• It helps the learners to foster their strategy of learning and to gain quality experience by making them work at their own pace.

• Drill and practice tasks refer to the task which promotes the acquisition of knowledge by practicing and repeating the concept again and again.

Hence, the task in which the children get to experience while enjoying themselves is known as Consumer type task.

Multisensory Approach:

• In this type of approach, the counselor helps the children to use their multiple senses.
• in teaching refers to the use of multisensory techniques to make children learn through more than one sense at a time.
• It is the simultaneous use of visual, auditory, tactile and kinesthetic senses to enhance learning.
• These tools enrich learner's knowledge by activating and developing all the senses like hearing, vision, tactile recognition, etc.
• Shared reading, sandpaper letters are examples of multisensory techniques.

Hence, The multisensory approach in teaching-learning is the simultaneous use of visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic senses to enhance learning.

A weather vane, wind vane, or weathercock is an instrument used for showing the direction of the wind. It is typically used as an architectural ornament to the highest point of a building.

• Wind vanes measure the direction of the wind.
• A typical wind vane has a pointer in front and fins in the back.
• When the wind is blowing then the wind vane points into the wind direction. For example, in a north wind, the wind vane points northward.

Hence, option 3 is the correct answer.

The atmosphere around the earth:

• The atmosphere consists of different layers with varying densities and temperatures.
• The column of the atmosphere is divided into five different layers depending upon the temperature condition.
• They are troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.

Key Points

The thermosphere 

• It is located between 80 and 400 km above the mesopause.
• It contains electrically charged particles known as ions, and hence, it is also known as the ionosphere.
• Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer.
• This layer helps in the transmission of radio waves.
• The temperature here starts increasing with height.

Hence, option 3 is the correct answer.

Additional InformationThe troposphere

• It is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere.
• Its average height is 13 km and extends roughly to a height of 8 km near the poles and about 18 km at the equator.
• The thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat is transported to great heights by strong convectional currents.
• This layer contains dust particles and water vapor.
• All changes in climate and weather take place in this layer.
• The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 1°C for every 165m of height.
• This is the most important layer for all biological activity.

The stratosphere

• It is found above the tropopause and extends up to a height of 50 km.
• One important feature of the stratosphere is that it contains the ozone layer.
• This layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation and shields life on the earth from an intense, harmful form of energy.

The mesosphere

• It lies above the stratosphere, which extends up to a height of 80 km.
• In this layer, once again, the temperature starts decreasing with the increase in altitude and reaches up to minus 100°C at a height of 80 km.
• The upper limit of the mesosphere is known as menopause.

The exosphere

• It is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere.
• This is the highest layer but very little is known about it.
• Whatever contents are there, these are extremely rarefied in this layer, and it gradually merges with outer space.

​

Interior of the Earth: The earth is made up of several concentric layers with one inside another, just like an onion.

The crust:

• The crust is the uppermost layer over the earth’s surface.
• It is the thinnest layer.
• it is only about 5 km on the ocean floors, which mainly consists of silica and magnesium thus called sial (si-silica and al-alumina), and 35 km on the continental masses, which mainly consists of silica and alumina.

The mantle:

• The mantle extends up to a depth of 2900 km below the crust.
• It is bounded below by a core and above by a crust.
• The upper part of the mantle is known as the asthenosphere.

The core:

• The innermost layer is the core with a radius of about 3500 km and divided into Inner and Outer core.
• It is called nife (ni – nickel and fe – ferrous – iron) as it's mainly made up of nickel and iron.
• Central core is called the Inner core and has a very high temperature and pressure.

The correct answer is option 4 i.e. Inner core, outer core, mantle, crust.

Tides: A tide can be defined as the rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water twice a day due to the strong gravitational pull exerted by the sun and the moon. These are classified as High tide and low tide.

High tide:

• The water rises to its highest level at the shore because during the new moon and full moon days, the earth, the moon, and the sun are in the same line and these high tides are called spring tides.
• They help to raise the water level close to the shores thus helps the ships to arrive at the harbor more easily.
• Much more fish come closer to the shore hence high tides also help in fishing.

Low tide: 

• The water level falls to its lowest level at the shore when the moon is in its first and last quarter because the ocean waters get drawn in diagonally opposite directions by the gravitational pull of the sun and earth and these tides are called neap tides.
• In some places, the rise and fall of water due to tides is being used to generate electricity.

​The correct answer is option 4 i.e. Neap tide.

Solar eclipse

• It occurs when Earth is in the shadow of the Moon which fully or partially blocks sunlight because the Sun, Moon, and Earth are aligned.

Lunar eclipse

• It occurs when the Moon moves into the Earth's shadow because the Sun, Earth, and Moon are aligned on the night of a full moon.

The landforms created as a result of degradational action (erosion and transportation) or aggradational work (deposition) of running water are called fluvial landforms. River develops a number of features during its youth, mature and old stage of river course development.

Key Points

Meanders

1. A meander is defined as a pronounced curve or loop in the course of a river channel.
2. The outer bend of the loop in a meander is characterized by intensive erosion and vertical cliffs and is called the cliff-slope side. This site has a concave slope.
3. The inner side of the loop is characterized by deposition, a gentle convex slope, and is called the slip-off side.

The correct answer is option 3 i.e. meander.

Additional Information

• Oxbow Lake: Sometimes, because of intensive erosion action, the outer curve of a meander gets accentuated to such an extent that the inner ends of the loop come close enough to get disconnected from the main channel and exist as independent water bodies called oxbow lakes.​
• Floodplain: At times the river overflows and leads to the flooding at banks, depositing layers of sediments causing the formation of a flat fertile floodplain.
• A natural levee has a long, broad, low shape and is composed of sand and coarse silt, which was built by a stream on its flood plain and along both sides of its channel. So the raised banks during floods are called levees.

The four important means of transport are road transport, rail transport, water transport, and air transport. Road transport is the most commonly used means of transport in most parts of the world.

Airways

• In the early twentieth century, it is the fastest way of transport developed and most expensive due to the high cost of fuels.
• It is the only mode of transport to reach the most distant and remote areas especially where there are no railways and roads.
• Example: For rescuing people and distributing medicine, water, clothes, and food, helicopters are extremely useful in most inaccessible areas and in times of calamities.

The correct answer is option 1 i.e. Airways.

1. Railways: railway is a kind of transport that needs railway tracks in the destination region. Sometimes, the service found unavailable or difficult to use due to severe destruction or damage.
2. Roadways: A natural disaster can cause loss of life or damage property, and typically leaves some economic damages. It firstly damages the road network that restricts transport by heavy vehicals.
3. Waterways: Waterways also require a seaport to reach, but it sometimes becomes unavailable for the services or located far away from the area.

Demography:

The correct answer is option 3 i.e. demography.

Biogeography: 

• It is the study of the distribution of ecosystems and species through geological time and in geographic space, along with geographic gradients of habitat area, isolation, latitude, and elevation.

Human geography or anthropogeography:

• It is the branch of geography concerned with humans and their cultures, economies, communities, and interactions with the environment by studying their relations with and across locations.

Urban geography**:** 

• A branch of human geography dealing with various aspects of cities.
• It studies the spatial processes and emphasizes mainly on location and space that create patterns observed in urban areas.

India is situated north of the equator between 8°4' north to 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' east to 97°25' east longitude. Arunachal Pradesh lies on the easternmost tip (eastern longitude) while Gujrat lies in the western most part of it.

• It can be noted that both the states are separated by a distance of over 3300 kilometers.
• The time taken by the sun to cross each longitude is 4 minutes and between two states, the longitudinal difference is 30 degrees.
• Hence sun-rises or sets earlier here than Gujarat, which lies on the westernmost tip.
• The coordinate of Ghuar Mati, Gujrat, the westernmost point of India is 22°15' N, 68°7' E while Kibithu, Arunachal Pradesh is located at 28°16′49″N, 97°01′04″E.
• Hence, by the time sun sets at Gujarat, it takes 2 hours (30*4=120) more than Arunachal Pradesh and from Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh, there is a time lag of two hours.
• Hence, the longitude passing through Mirzapur (in Uttar Pradesh), Standard Meridian of India (82°30'E), is taken as the standard time for the whole country.

The correct answer is option 2 i.e. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) does not explain (A).

Sources of Energy: There are numerous sources of energy. It can be chemical energy, electrical energy, heat/ thermal energy, mechanical energy, nuclear energy, and energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation i.e. light. Sources of energy contain energy in them if forms cannot be used directly but living organisms require energy to stay alive.

The correct answer is option 3 i.e. Solar energy.

The breeding of fish in specially constructed tanks and ponds is known as pisciculture.

Pisciculture:

• Pisciculture is the cultivation of fish through artificial means. It is also called fish farming.
• In Pisciculture, breeding of fish is done in specially constructed tanks and ponds.
• It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food.
• Fish species from fish farms include cabbage, tilapia catfish, and salmon.
• Fishing can be carried out either in the deep seas or in inland waters. In the case of deep-sea fishing, (which is also called the marine sector), fishing will be carried out in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) which refers to the water boundaries of our country.
• It is the main type of aquaculture whereas other methods can fall within the framework of mariculture.
• In the case of inland fishing, fishing activities will be carried out in inland waters like rivers, tanks, lakes, ponds, and reservoirs.

Hence, option 4 is the correct answer.

• Sericulture is the cultivation of silkworms, also known as silk farming.
• Viticulture is the science, production, and study of grapes.
• Horticulture is a wide field that includes a great variety and diversity of crops.

Introduction: there are several continents over the globe that are separated by the oceans. In the same way, the landmasses can be joins with strips of landmass. 

Isthmus:

• An isthmus is a narrow strip of land that connects two larger landmasses and separates two bodies of water.
• This type of isthmus is called a tombolo and is formed as waves and tides slowly build up a sand bar to create a permanent link between a coastal island (called a tied island) and the mainland.
• Isthmus of Panama, connecting North and South America, and the Isthmus of Suez, connecting Africa and Asia, etc.

The correct answer is option 2 i.e. isthmus.

Strait: A strait is a narrow passage of water that connects two large water bodies like seas and oceans. For example, Baring strait, Palk strait, etc.

Island: An island is a piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by all side water. Ex: Sri Lanka.

Bay: A bay is a coastal body of water that is directly connected to a larger main body of water, such as another bay, lake, or ocean. Ex: Bay of Bengal.

The continent is a very large area of land that consists of several countries.

Australia is a country and continent surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans.

• Australia is the smallest continent on earth with about 3 million miles about the area.
• It is the world's smallest continent and the sixth-largest country of the total area.
• The Australian continent is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth and it has had a relatively stable geological history.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that Australia is a continent that is the smallest in size.

Social Science is a branch of science that deals with human behaviour and social relationships, which rely primarily on empirical approaches.

• Social Science Pedagogy is the set of principles that influence the approaches to teaching-learning in social science.
• It consists of a learning environment, teaching-learning arrangements, methods, general educational principles, etc.
• According to the NCF, The teaching of the social sciences must adopt methods that promote creativity, aesthetics, and critical perspectives; and enable children to draw relationships between past and present to understand changes taking place in society.

Key Points​ Social Sciences at the Upper Primary Stage:

• It includes disciplines of History, Geography, Political Science, Economics, and Sociology.
• Social Sciences stimulates critical thinking and imagination in students.
• The objective of teaching the social sciences is to develop an understanding of the earth as the habitat of humankind and other forms of life.
• According to NCF 2005, At the upper primary stage, The social sciences encompass diverse concerns of society and include a wide range of content drawn from the disciplines of history, geography, political science, and economics. The main focus is on Contemporary India.
• It helps to initiate the learner into a study of India’s past, with references to contemporary developments in other parts of the world.

Hence, at the upper primary stage, Social Science comprises of History, Geography, Political Science, Economics.

Inductive Learning: Induction is a form of reasoning in which a general law is derived from a study of particular objects or specific processes. The child can use measurement or constructive activities, patterns, etc. to discover a relationship.

Key Points

• It proceeds from particular to the general or concrete to abstract.
• It encourages discovery and stimulates thinking.
• It starts from observation and direct experience and ends in developing a rule in abstract form.

Hint

Expository Method-

• Expository teaching is a lecture, presentation, or telling strategy used during instruction. The expository method is contradictory to inductive learning.
• Sometimes the teacher has to adapt/modify these strategies to suit the particular situation. Then these strategies are converted into methods of teaching i.e. the expository method, and the guided discovery method.
• While implementing expository strategy in the classroom, sometimes it may be difficult to offer the justification of the principle/move for one reason or the other, if this strategy is implemented then it will be an expository method.
• Structured Training: It has a clearly detailed schedule, time frame, the outline of activities, and assignment of responsibilities. It has well-defined goals and consequences. The structure training programme is based on the inductive approach.
• Mastery learning is the transformational education innovation of our time. It is used in order to advance an individual potential for learning. mastery learning refers to a category of instructional methods which establishes a level of performance, and it is based on the inductive approach.
• Simulation is also based on the inductive approach.

Therefore, from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that Inductive learning is contradictory to Expository approaches.

• According to Ross, “Thinking is a mental activity in its cognitive aspect of mental ability with regard to the psychological object.”
• According to Garrett, “Thinking is behavior which is often implicit and hidden and in which symbols (images, ideas, and concepts) are ordinarily employed.”

Critical Thinking: The ability to apply reasoning and logic to new or unfamiliar situations, ideas, and opinions. It refers to the process of judging or analyzing facts, events, etc. It requires proper analysis, evaluation, inference, and explanation.

• Thinking critically involves seeing and observing things in an open-minded way and examining an idea or concept in a way to form as many angles as possible.
• Critical thinking promotes the building of concepts, applications, and the expansion of ideas.
• It helps in understanding and evaluating the arguments and beliefs of others.
• It can be enhanced by asking children to discuss among themselves in groups followed by sharing in a large group.
• Playing games like puzzles, riddles, and board games helps children to navigate their experimentation, and learning, and enhance critical thinking.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that statement A is true, and statement B is false.

Empirical Evidence: It is the information obtained through observation and documentation of certain behavior and patterns or through an experiment.

According to Jaime Tanner, "Empirical evidence includes measurements or data collected through direct observation or experimentation."

• Information received by the means of senses, observation, documentation, or a particular pattern is called Empirical Evidence.
• It is a central part of the scientific method.
• It is a collection of data gathered in the real world through the senses.
• There are two research methods used to gather empirical measurements and data: qualitative and quantitative.
• In the scientific method, the pieces of empirical evidence are used to validate or disprove a stated hypothesis, statement, or claim.
• Empirical evidence is a quintessential part of the scientific method of research that is applicable in many disciplines.
• Empirical evidence is information acquired by observation or experimentation.
• Empirical research is the process of finding empirical evidence. Empirical data is the information that comes from the research.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that Empirical Evidence is data gathered in the real world through the senses.

Social Science as a discipline has the unique capability of being able to look at both developmental and normative issues of the society. It includes disciplines of History, Geography, Political Science, Economics, and Sociology.

Teaching and Learning Resources in Geography:

According to NCF-2005, "Teaching should utilize greater resources of audio-visual materials, including photographs, charts and maps and replicas of archaeological materials."

• In the teaching-learning process of geography, we tend to use various objects, materials, people, and buildings to transact the contents. Common learning resources such as maps, globes, blackboard (chalkboard), charts, models, video film, radio, etc.
• Maps/Replicas help students learn faster, remember for a longer time, and gain more accurate information.
• Learning resources help learners achieve learning objectives more effectively and efficiently.
• A good geographical inquiry usually involves the use and analysis of a rich variety of resources including worksheets, textbooks, maps, models, computer software, interactive games, internet, newspaper resources, weather instruments, specific items (rock samples and tools), and many others.
• Learning resources help in clarifying, interpreting, and appreciating concepts; establishing and correlating accuracy.
• They provide clarity, precision, and accuracy in processing information.

Therefore, the models/replicas of physical features are most suitable for teaching Geography.

An Information Source is a source of information for somebody, i.e. anything that might inform a person about something on providing knowledge to somebody. Information sources may be observations, people speeches, documents, pictures, organizations etc

Types of Information Sources:

Primary Information Sources: It contains first-hand information, meaning that you are reading the author’s own account on a specific topic or event that s/he participated in. Examples of primary resources include scholarly research articles and diaries.

Secondary Information Sources: 

• Secondary sources of information are those which are either compiled from or refer to primary sources of information.
• The original information having been casually modified selected or reorganized so as to serve a definite purpose for a group of users.
• Such sources contain information arranged and organized on the basis of some definite plan. Manuals, Tables, Handbooks, newspapers, dictionaries are examples of Secondary information sources.

Tertiary Information Sources: Tertiary sources summarize or synthesize the research in secondary sources. For example, textbooks and reference books are tertiary sources. Tertiary sources are usually not credited to a particular author.

Hence, it becomes clear that The collection of weather information from the local newspaper is an example of Secondary type of source.

Learning Disabilities are due to genetic and/or neurobiological factors that alter brain functioning in a manner that affects one or more cognitive processes related to learning. A learning disability is not a problem with intelligence or motivation.

Inclusive Classroom: It refers to an education system that includes children regardless of physical, intellectual, social, linguistic, or other differently-abled conditions.

• An inclusive classroom is about the child's right to participate and the school's duty to accept the child.
• Inclusion rejects the use of special schools or classrooms to separate students with disabilities from students without disabilities.
• In the inclusive classroom, students with learning disabilities learn alongside other students.
• A premium is placed upon full participation by students with disabilities and upon respect for their social, civil, and educational rights.
• It provides a provision to include disabled children along with normal children in a regular classroom environment.

Therefore, it is clear that in inclusive classrooms, students with learning disabilities learn alongside other students.

According to Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory:

• Development in children takes place at different rates at different stages of development.
• Piaget says, all children go through the same sequence of development.
• Piaget’s theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge but also on understanding the nature of the child’s intelligence.
• Cognitive development is not a continuous process, it occurs in 4 stages-
• Sensorimotor stage (Birth to 2 years)
• Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years)
• Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years)
• Formal operational stage (11 to 15 years)
• Piaget’s theory assumes that all children go through the same developmental sequence but that they do so at different rates.
• Every class at the school level is heterogeneous in nature and a key to excellence in education is an acceptance and understanding of all children and their individual differences.
• It is widely recognized that some students are so different from the average in one or more dimensions that the regular teachers are inadequately equipped to cater to the special needs and concentrates on teaching to the average student.

NOTE: The concept of ‘Precision Teaching’ is coined by Ogden Lindsey & his associates. 

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that the given theory is proposed by J. Piaget.

Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience. It represents progressive changes in behaviour. It also involves the acquisition of knowledge, habits, and attitude. 

Co-operative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. It is a method of instruction by which students work together in small groups to reach a common goal, and an activity that facilitates collaborative efforts among students. 

Ways to Promote Cooperative Learning in the Classroom:

• Facilitate classrooms with diverse and flexible social structures.
• Asked them to work together, promotes dialogue, which is the key to learning.
• Be open to other students’ ideas and encourage their participation and make sure no one is left out.
• Engage students in debates and discussions.
• Every day one student of each group is designated as a facilitator. The facilitator is not in-charge of the group, but simply keeps the group organized on a particular day.

Therefore, from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that in order to promote cooperative learning in the classroom, a teacher should engage students in debate and discussions.

• According to Ross, “Thinking is a mental activity in its cognitive aspect of mental ability with regard to the psychological object.”
• According to Garrett, “Thinking is behavior which is often implicit and hidden and in which symbols (images, ideas, and concepts) are ordinarily employed.”

Critical Thinking: The ability to apply reasoning and logic to new or unfamiliar situations, ideas, and opinions. It refers to the process of judging or analyzing facts, events, etc. It requires proper analysis, evaluation, inference, and explanation.

• Critical thinking is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest level of quality in a fair-minded way. People who think critically consistently attempt to live rationally, reasonably, and empathically.
• People use the intellectual tools that critical thinking offers – concepts and principles that enable them to analyze, assess, and improve their thinking.
• Thinking critically involves seeing and observing things in an open-minded way and examining an idea or concept in a way to form as many angles as possible.
• It can be enhanced by asking children to discuss among themselves in groups followed by sharing in a large group.

NOTE: Abstract thinking is the ability to understand concepts that are real, such as freedom or vulnerability, but which are not directly tied to concrete physical objects and experiences.

Hence, self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest level of quality in a fair-minded way is called critical thinking.

The Ajanta caves are located in Aurangabad, Maharashtra. The Ajanta Caves were carved in the 2^nd century BC out of a horseshoe-shaped cliff along the Waghora River.

Key Points

• Ajanta Caves are Buddhist caves built during the Gupta period.
• They are cut into the volcanic lava of the Deccan in the forest ravines of the Sahyadri Hills.
• The colours used for the wall paintings were made from pebbles and vegetable found on the hillside.
• The colours have been derived from plants and minerals.
• The main colours used were, red ochre, yellow ochre, brown ochre, lamp black, white and lapis lazuli (blue).
• This last pigment was imported from Northern India, central Asia and Persia. Green was made by mixed this lapis lazuli with Indian yellow ochre.

Hence, the correct answer is (3) Plants and minerals.

A manuscript was, traditionally, any document written by hand or, once practical typewriters became available, typewritten as opposed to mechanically printed or reproduced in some indirect or automated way.

Key Points

• If the scripts are written on palm leaves then those are named palm-leaf manuscripts, and when on paper, those are called paper manuscripts.
• It is a handwritten composition on clay, stone, textile, leather, bark, cloth, metal, palm leaf, paper, or any other material that has significant scientific, historical and aesthetic value and is found in hundreds of different languages and scripts.
• The earliest manuscripts were found in palm leaf from Nepal and Bengal.
• It is a beautiful, angular calligraphic script.
• Manuscripts are distinct from historical records such as epigraphs on rocks, firmans, revenue records which provide direct information on events or processes in history.
• In India, the long rectangular shape was used from ancient times until the 19^th century.

Hence, the correct answer is Palm leaves.

The Stone Age was a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make tools with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted for roughly 3.4 million years.

Key Points

• Paleolithic: 
• It is the earliest Stone age period dating.
• The age is distinguished by most primitive stone tools.
• It is roughly 2.5 million years ago to 10,000 B.C.
• It ended between 4,000 BCE and 2,000 BCE.
• Humans during the era grouped together in small “bands” and were involved in gathering plants, fishing, and hunting.
• The paleolithic period is the longest in human history.
• The age can be divided into lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic, and Upper Paleolithic.
• During the end of the age, people developed spiritual and religious beliefs as depicted in some of the excavations.

Hence, the correct answer is Palaeolithic.

Additional Information

• Mesolithic: 
• It is the second period of the stone age between Paleolithic and Neolithic.
• The start and end of the age vary by geographical region.
• It is a transition period from hunting and gathering as in Paleolithic to domestication as in Neolithic.
• The tools used were the mode V chipped stone tools (microliths).
• Neolithic: 
• It is the 3^rd period of the stone age and is often referred to as the “New stone age”.
• Its time period is considered to be around 10,200 BC to 4,500BC, which ended with the beginning of the “Bronze Age”.
• Megalithic: 
• A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones.
• Megaliths in India are dated before 3000 BC, with recent findings dated back to 5000 BC in southern India. Megaliths are found in almost all parts of southern India.

Agriculture in the Indus valley was solely dependent on good quality soil and advancements in farming techniques.

Key Points

Mehrgarh is considered to be one of the most important Neolithic sites in archaeology.

• Mehrgarh is of the Neolithic Site, lies on the Kacchi Plain of Balochistan, Pakistan.
• It is located near Balon Pass in Pakistan, which is a fertile plain.
• The site is located on the principal route between what is now Afghanistan and the Indus Valley.
• It is discovered in 1974 by an archaeological team.
• Evidence of farming and herding is found in Mehrgarh.
• Mehrgarh was a small farming and pastoralist village between 7000-5500 BC, with mud-brick houses and granaries.
• Mehrgarh is probably the earliest known center of agriculture and herding in South Asia.
• They cultivated six-row barley, einkorn and emmer wheat, jujubes, and dates.​

Hence, the correct answer is (4) Both A and B are true.

The site is the place where the settlement is located, eg on a hill or in a sheltered valley. Harrapa was an Indus civilization urban center.

Key Points

Around 13 sites have been discovered in Gujarat after Independence. There are two prominent sites- Lothal (Ahmedabad) and Dholavira (kutch).

Dholavira: 

• Dholavira is located on Khadir Beyt, an island in the Great Rann of Kutch in Gujarat State.
• It has only been excavated since 1990.
• Among prime discoveries made here were various reservoirs which bear testimony to the advanced water-management system back then.
• As large as Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, it has some of the best-preserved stone architecture.

Lothal:

• Lothal is on the top of the Gulf of Khambat in Gujarat, India, near the Sabarmati River and the Arabian Sea.
• It is the most extensively researched Harappan coastal site.
• Among several prominent features of Lothal, one was the dock, which is considered the oldest in the world.

Hence, the correct answer is Gujarat.

Vedic Sanskrit was an ancient language of the Indo-Aryan subgroup of the Indo-European language family.

Key Points

Rigveda:

• Rigveda is the oldest sacred book of Hinduism which was originally composed in the Sanskrit language.
• Its early layers are one of the oldest extant texts in any Indo-European language.
• The sounds and texts of Rigveda have been orally transmitted since the 2^nd millennium BCE.
• The philological and linguistic evidence indicates that the bulk of the Rigveda Samhita was composed in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, most likely between 1500 and 1000 BCE.
• It is a collection of 1,028 poems which are arranged in the form of Mandalas.
• It is the oldest and biggest amongst all the four Vedas.
• In it, we find the seeds of India’s religious and philosophical development.

Hence, the correct answer is (3) Sanskrit.

The correct answer is Bimbisara

• The Magadha Empire encompasses the rule of three dynasties over time – the Haryanka Dynasty, the Shishunaga Dynasty, and the Nanda Dynasty.
• The timeline of the Magadha Empire is estimated to be from 684 BCE to 320 BCE.

Key Points

Bimbisara (558-491 BC):

• Belonged to the Haryanaka dynasty was the first ruler of Magadha (543-492 BC) Mahajanpadas in the sixth century BC.
• He founded the state of Magadha by bringing together a number of tribes and territories.
• He expanded their empire by establishing matrimonial relations.
• He married Mahakoshla, sister of Koshal Naresh Prasenjit, Chellana, daughter of Chetak of Vaishali, and Princess Kshema of Madra Desh (modern Punjab).
• Aajatshatru was the son of Bimbisara.

​Hence, the correct answer is (3) Bimbisara.

Additional Information

• The total 16 Mahajanapadas are - Kashi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Machcha, Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboja.

Buddhism is a religion that originated in ancient India between the 6^th and 4^th centuries of BCE.

Key Points 

• The three jewels ("The Refuges") of Buddhism are-
• The Buddha- The one who fully enlightened.
• The Dhamma- The teachings proposed by Buddha.
• The Sangha- A community that practices Dharma.
• It is also called a Threefold Refuge.
• Anyone who sincerely wants to follow the Buddha's path may begin that commitment by reciting these lines:
• ​I take refuge in the Buddha.
• I take refuge in the Dharma.
• I take refuge in the Sangha

Hence, the correct answer is (3) Ahimsa.

Additional Information 

• Buddhism is World's fourth-largest religion and its followers are known as Buddhists.
• The Buddhist religion is attributed to the teachings of Gautama Buddha.
• Buddhism characteristically describes reality in terms of process and relation rather than an entity or substance.
• Some forms of Buddhism may call this Nirvana, others Buddhahood, and so forth, but all schools and sects of Buddhism do not have a notion of ultimacy.

NOTE: One can become a Buddhist easily by saying the words “I go to the Buddha for refuge, I go to the Doctrine for refuge, I go to the Order for refuge.”

Indian Parliament consists of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha and the President of India. Rajya Sabha is the upper house of the parliament and is termed as the House of Elders in the Indian Parliament.

Important Points

Working of Proportional Representation (PR) in Rajya Sabha elections:

• The Single Transferable Vote system (STV), the third variant of PR, is followed for Rajya Sabha elections.
• Under the system, every State has a specific quota of seats in the Rajya Sabha.
• The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected by the respective members of State legislative assemblies.
• This means the voters are the MLAs in that State.
• Every MLA is required to rank candidates according to his or her preference and a candidate must secure a minimum quota of votes to be declared the winner.

Thus, the correct answer is Members of Legislative Assemblies (MLAs).

The correct option is Parliamentary and Federal.

Key Points

Salient Features of the Constitution 

1. Federal System with Unitary Bias 

• But a notable point is that the term ‘Federation’ has nowhere been used in the Constitution. 2. Parliamentary Form of Government
• Indian Constitution has opted for the British Parliamentary System of Government also known as the ‘Westminster’ Model of Government.
• The system is based on the principle of cooperation and coordination between the executive and legislative organs.

A parliamentary constituency is a constituency in a state or Union Territory that is carved out for party candidates or independent candidates to fight to be elected members of parliament (MP). The winning party or coalition of parties in different constituencies of different states getting more than 272 candidates will form the Government in Delhi.

Important Points

• A total of 131 seats (24.03%) are reserved for representatives of Scheduled Caste (84) and Scheduled Tribes (47).
• The Lok Sabha or the House of People is the lower house of India's bicameral Parliament, with the upper house being the Rajya Sabha.
• The members of the Lok Sabha elect the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker from among themselves (Article 93).
• The Speaker acts as the presiding officer of the House and, in his absence, the Deputy Speaker acts for him.

Thus, the correct answer is 84 seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes in Parliamentary Constituencies.

Fundamental rights are the basic human rights enshrined in the Constitution of India which are guaranteed to all citizens. They are applied without discrimination on the basis of race, religion, gender, etc. 

Important Points

The Fundamental Rights have been classified under six categories including the Right to equality which include the following rights:

1. Right to equality (Articles 14–18)
2. Equality before the law and equal protection of laws (Article 14).
3. Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth (Article 15).
4. Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment (Article 16).
5. Abolition of untouchability and prohibition of its practice (Article 17).
6. Abolition of titles except military and academic (Article 18).

Additional Information

• **Right to Freedom (Articles 19 – 22)**​- The Indian Constitution guarantees freedom to citizens. The freedom right includes many rights such as:
• Freedom of speech
• Freedom of expression
• Freedom of assembly without arms
• Freedom of association
• Freedom to practise any profession
• Freedom to reside in any part of the country
• Right against Exploitation (Articles 23 – 24)- This right implies the prohibition of traffic in human beings, beggar, and other forms of forced labour. It also implies the prohibition of children in factories, etc. The Constitution prohibits the employment of children under 14 years in hazardous conditions.
• Right to Constitutional Remedies (32 – 35)- The Constitution guarantees remedies if citizens’ fundamental rights are violated. The government cannot infringe upon or curb anyone’s rights. When these rights are violated, the aggrieved party can approach the courts. Citizens can even go directly to the Supreme Court which can issue writs for enforcing fundamental rights.

Fundamental rights are the basic human rights enshrined in the Constitution of India which are guaranteed to all citizens.

• They are applied without discrimination on the basis of race, religion, gender, etc.
• There are six fundamental rights of the Indian Constitution along with the constitutional articles related to them are mentioned below:
• Right to Equality (Article 14-18)
• Right to Freedom (Article 19-22)
• Right against Exploitation (Article 23-24)
• Right to Freedom of Religion (Article 25-28)
• Cultural and Educational Rights (Article 29-30)
• Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32)

Important Points

Why Right to Property is not a Fundamental Right?

• There was one more fundamental right in the Constitution, i.e., the right to property.
• However, this right was removed from the list of fundamental rights by the 44^th Constitutional Amendment.
• This was because this right proved to be a hindrance towards attaining the goal of socialism and redistributing wealth (property) equitably among the people.

Note: The right to property is now a legal right and not a fundamental right.

Untouchability refers to discrimination on the basis of caste.

• It is the practice of excluding a group of people regarded as 'untouchables', resulting in the segregation and persecutions from the people regarded as "higher" caste.
• The term is most commonly associated with the treatment of the Dalit communities in the Indian subcontinent.
• Article 17 of the Indian Constitution abolishes untouchability and forbids its practise in any form.
• In 1976 the Untouchability Act 1955 was amended and renamed the Protection of Civil Rights act 1955.
• The term untouchability has not been defined in the constitution or in any act.

Chief Minister is the head of the state government.

• While the governor is the nominal executive of the state government, the person who becomes the chief minister is the real executive of the government.
• The real executive is called ‘de facto’ executive which means, ‘in fact, whether by right or not.’

Important Points

Just like the Prime Minister, provisions of whose appointment are not mentioned in the Indian Constitution, the Chief Minister’s appointment particulars are not mentioned in the Constitution.

• According to Article 164 in the Indian Constitution, Governor appoints Chief Minister.
• However, the Governor cannot appoint any random person as the Chief Minister but has to follow a provision.
• A leader of the party that has got the majority share of votes in the assembly elections, is appointed as the Chief Minister of the state.

Thus, we can conclude that the governor appoints the Chief Minister.

Key Points  

• According to the Article-164,
• The Chief Minister shall be appointed by the Governor and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister, and the Ministers shall hold office during the pleasure of the Governor.
• The Council of Ministers shall be collectively responsible to the Legislative Assembly of the State.
• Before a Minister enters upon his office, the Governor shall administer so him the oaths of office and of secrecy according to the forms set out for the purpose in the Third Schedule.
• A Minister who for any period of six consecutive months is not a member of the Legislature of the State shall at the expiration of that period cease to be a Minister
• The Chief Minister may be a member of any of the two houses of the state legislature.

Governor is a titular head or constitutional head and at the same time, he is the agent of the centre as the union government nominates Governor in each state.​

Important Points

The Indian President appoints Governor for each state by warrant under his hand and seal.

• Central Government is responsible to nominate the governor for each state.
• Unlike elections of the President, there is no direct or indirect election for the post of Governor.
• The office of a governor is not a part of the union executive and is an independent constitutional office. The governor doesn’t serve the union government and neither is subordinate to it.
• The nomination of a governor by the Union and his appointment by the President in India is based on the Canadian model of government.

Additional Information

A governor must:

• Be a citizen of India.
• Be at least 35 years of age.
• Not be a member of either house of the parliament or house of the state legislature.
• Not hold any office of profit.

India follows a parliamentary system of government, wherein the executive powers of the government are vested in the hands of the Prime Minister. 

The Prime Minister is elected by the people's elected Members of Parliament - MPs (Lok Sabha or lower house).

• Out of 545 seats in Lok Sabha, any party that wins a majority of seats choose their leader to be the head of the Government.
• Article 75 of the Constitution provides that the Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President but the President has to appoint the leader of the majority party in Lok Sabha as the Prime Minister.
• But when no party has a clear majority in the Lok Sabha the President can exercise his personal discretion in the appointment of Prime Minister
• There is no specific procedure for his election or appointment.
• Article 74(1) states that there shall be a Council of Ministers with a Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President.
• Thus, the Indian Constitution itself recognizes a Council of Ministers.

From the above, it is clear that Members of Parliament elects the Prime Minister.

The correct answer is the President.

Important Points

• The President is the head of the Indian state and the first citizen and acts as a symbol of Unity Integrity and Solidarity of the nation.
• Our President is called the first citizen of India because he/ she represents our country and he/she is the head of the Executive, Legislature, Judiciary, the three arms of our government and also the head of our armed forces.
• All the executive actions are taken in his/her name.
• All the treaties or International agreements are carried out by his/her name and all diplomatic relations are maintained by his name.​

Additional Information

• The President comes under Article 52 to 62 in part V of the Indian Constitution.
• The President is elected by the:
• Elected members of both houses of parliament.
• Elected members of the legislative assemblies of the states
• The elected members of the legislative assemblies of the union territories of Delhi and Puducherry.
• Qualifications of the President are:
• He should be an Indian Citizen.
• His age should be a minimum of 35 years.
• He should qualify the conditions to be elected as a member of the Lok Sabha.
• He should not hold any office of profit under the central government, state government, or any public authority.
• Once President is elected, he holds office for five years.
• He can also be re-elected and there is no cap on his re-election.

The correct answer is The Governor.

• Governor comes under Article 153 to 167 Part VI of the constitution.
• The Governor is the chief executive head of the state.

Key Points

• The 7^th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1956 facilitated the appointment of the same person as the government for two or more States.
• He stays in the office under the pleasure of the president.

Additional Information

• A governor must:
• Be a citizen of India.
• Completed 35 years of age.
• Not be a member of either house of the parliament or the house of the state legislature.
• Not hold any office of profit.

The correct answer is 16^th

Important Points

• Members of the 16^th Lok Sabha were elected during the 2014 Indian general election.
• The elections were conducted in 9 phases from 7 April 2014 to 12 May 2014 by the Election Commission of India.

Additional Information

• The Maximum strength of the Lok Sabha is fixed at 550.
• The normal term of the Lok Sabha is five years from the date of its first meeting after the general election.
• To be a member of Lok Sabha:
• A person must be a citizen of India.
• A person should not be less than 25 years of age for the election of Lok Sabha.
• He must be registered as an elector for the parliamentary constituency.

The correct answer is Ram Nath Kovind.

• The president is the head of the Indian state and the first citizen and acts as a symbol of Unity integrity and solidarity of the nation.
• The president comes under article 52 to 78 in part 5.
• The President is elected by the elected members of:
• Elected members of both houses of parliament.
• Elected members of the legislative assemblies of the states
• The elected members of the legislative assemblies of the union territories of Delhi and Puducherry.
• Qualifications of the President are:
• He should be an Indian Citizen.
• His age should be a minimum of 35 years.
• He should not hold any office of profit under the central government, state government, or any public authority.
• Once President is elected, he holds office for five years.
• He can also be re-elected and there is no cap on his re-election.

Important Points

• Droupadi Murmu has been elected as the 15^th President of India. She defeated the opposition candidate Yashwant Sinha in the election, the result of which was announced on Thursday (July 2022).

The correct answer is Names of political parties.

• Names of the political parties are not mentioned in the constitution of India.

Important Points

• Union and its Territories are mentioned under Article 1 to 4 under Part I of the constitution.
• The structure of government is given in Article 79 to 122 in Part V of the constitution.
• For the states, it is given under Article 168 to 212 in Part VI of the constitution.
• The fundamental rights are given in Part III of the constitution from Article 12 to 35.

Additional Information

• ​Conditions for recognition as a national party:
• The party must secure 6% of valid votes polled in any four or most States at a general election to the Lok Sabha or the Legislative Assembly.
• If it wins 2% of seats in Lok Sabha.
• If it is recognized as a state party in 4 states.

The correct answer is The President.

• Rajya Sabha is a permanent body and not subject to dissolution.
• The maximum strength of the Rajya Sabha is fixed at 250
• 238 are to be representative of the states and union territories.
• 12 are nominated by the president.
• One-third of its member retire every second year.
• The term of office of a member of the Rajya Sabha shall be 6 years.
• Conditions for a member of Rajya Sabha:
• He must be a citizen of India.
• A person should not be less than 30 years of age for the election of Rajya Sabha.
• He must pose other qualifications prescribed by the parliament.
• He must be registered as an elector for a parliamentary constituency.

The correct answer is Dr Rajendra Prasad.

• The constituent assembly held its first meeting on December 9 1946.
• Dr Sachidananda Sinha the oldest member was elected as the temporary president of the assembly.
• However, on December 11, 1946, Dr Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President and H.C. Mukherjee as the Vice-President of the Constituent Assembly.
• The Assembly ratified India's membership of the Commonwealth in May 1949.
• It adopted:
• National flag on July 22 1947.
• National anthem on January 24 1950.
• National song on January 24 1950.

The correct answer is C. Rajagopalachari.

Important Points

C. Rajagopalachari was the only Indian Governor-General of India.

• The title of Viceroy was abolished in August 1947.
• The first Governor-General of Bengal was Warren Hastings.
• Lord William Bentinck was the first Governor-General of India.
• Lord Canning was the first Viceroy of British India.

Additional Information

Other great personalities:

• Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was an Indian academic, professor, philosopher, and politician who served as the first Vice President of India and the second President of India.
• Bhogaraju Pattabhi Sitaramayya (24 November 1880 – 17 December 1959) was an Indian independence activist and political leader in the state of Andhra Pradesh.
• Tiruvellore Thattai Krishnamachari (1899–1974) was an Indian politician who served as Finance Minister from 1956 to 1958 and from 1964 to 1966. He was also a founding member of the first governing body of the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) in New Delhi, India's first independent economic policy institute established in 1956.

The correct answer is November 26, 1949.

Important Points

Indian Constitution was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26 November 1949 and became effective on 26 January 1950.

• There were 395 articles originally in the Constitution of India.
• Presently 448 articles are there in Constitution.
• Indian Constitution was originally written in English.
• Prem Behari Narain Raizada wrote the Indian constitution by hand.
• Dr. BR Ambedkar is known as the father of the Indian Constitution.

Princely states were states with native rulers that had entered into treaty relations with the British. 

• Few princely states like Travancore, Hyderabad, Junagadh, Bhopal, and Kashmir were unwilling to join the state of India while others like Gwalior, Bikaner, Baroda, Patiala, and others proactively joined India.
• With the end of the British rule over India, the paramountcy of the British crown over the Princely States would also lapse.

Important Points

Integrating the Princely States of India:

• The 26^th Constitutional Amendment abolished the purses and privileges of all rulers of the princely states. It took place in the year of 1971.
• The key factors that led the states to accept integration into India were the efforts of Lord Mountbatten, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and V. P. Menon.
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was the political head of the States Department, which was in charge of relations with the princely states.
• He applied methods of Sama, Dama, Dand and Bhed wherever necessary. Sometimes through persuasion, diplomacy, sometimes threat of coercion or military use.
• He also introduced the concept of 'privy purses', a payment to be made to royal families for their agreement to merge with India.

Hence, it becomes clear that Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel played a decisive role in integrating the Princely States of India.

Additional Information

• Jawaharlal Nehru was very much firm on the princely states. He announced that Independent India will not accept the divine right of kings and if they refused to join India they would be treated as an enemy state. He played an active role only in integrating Kashmir to India.
• Dr. B. R. Ambedkar played an active role in planning and drafting the constitution not in integrating princely states. Further, Patel and Menon were given the job of integrating the Princely states of India.
• C. Rajagopalachari was the Minister of Industry, Supply, Education, and Finance in Jawaharlal Nehru’s Interim government from 1946-47. He was the first Governor-General of West Bengal.

The Constitution of India came into force on 26^th January 1950.

• At the time of its adoption, the Constitution contained 395 Articles and 8 Schedules.
• The Constitution provides a threefold distribution of legislative powers between the Union Government and the State Governments.
• It contains three lists i.e. Union List, State List, and Concurrent List.

Concurrent List:

• The concept of ‘Concurrent List’ in the Indian Constitution has been borrowed from the Constitution of Australia.
• The Concurrent List includes subjects that give powers to both the Centre and state governments.
• Subjects like Education including technical education, medical education and universities, population control and family planning, criminal law, prevention of cruelty to animals, protection of wildlife and animals, forests, etc.
• Includes subjects that are of common interest to both the Union Government and the State Governments.
• These subjects include education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption, and succession.
• Both the Union and the State Governments are allowed to make laws on the subjects mentioned in the list.
• But, there can be a conflict regarding the passing of laws on the same subject and at that time the law made by the Union Government will induce.

Additional Information 

• State Governments and Local Government Bodies came under State List which includes subjects of state and local importance.
• Union Territories are too small to become independent State and cannot be merged with any of the existing States. So, these territories do not have the powers of a State and the Central Government has special powers in running these areas.

Hence, it becomes clear that the Union Government and State Governments deal with the matters in the Concurrent List of the Constitution of India.

The correct answer is Dr. B. R. Ambedkar.

Key Points

Constituent Assembly of India: The Constituent Assembly of India is a sovereign body, which was formed on the recommendations of the Cabinet Mission.

• The Constitution-making body was elected by the Provincial Legislative Assembly constituting 389 members who included 93 from the Princely States and 296 from British India.

• On 29 August 1947, the Constituent Assembly set up a Drafting Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr B.R. Ambedkar to prepare a Draft Constitution for India.
• There were 7 members in the drafting committee and, a Drafting Committee was headed by B.R Ambedkar.
• The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949.
• The Constituent Assembly took two years, eleven months and seventeen days to be precise to complete its historic task of drafting the Constitution for Independent India.

Additional Information

• C. Rajagopalachari was the Minister of Industry, Supply, Education, and Finance in Jawaharlal Nehru’s Interim government from 1946-47. He was the first Governor-General of West Bengal.
• Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the chairman of the following committees- Rules of Procedure Committee, Steering Committee, Finance and Staff Committee, and Ad-hoc Committee on the National flag.

Hence, it becomes clear that Dr. B. R. Ambedkar was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee in the Constituent Assembly of India.

By the end of the 17^th century, the Mughal Empire started facing multiple crises. Emperor Aurangazeb, who was the last powerful Mughal Emperor, had exhausted the military and the financial resources of his empire by fighting a long war in Deccan.

• The efficiency of the imperial administration broke down and Mughal Emperors were not able to keep a check on the powerful mansabdars. (mansabdar referred to an individual holding a mansab, meaning a position or rank.)
• Three Mughal provinces that stand out prominently are Awadh, Hyderabad, and Bengal.
• The Mansabdars of these provinces took advantage of the late 17^th-century crisis.

In the 18^th century, Bengal gradually broke away from the Mughal control under Murshid Quli Khan.

• He was appointed as naib of Bengal i.e. Deputy to the Governor of the province.
• He quickly grasped the power and commanded the revenue administration of the state.
• In order to reduce the influence of Mughals in Bengal, he transferred all Mughal jagirdars to Orissa and ordered a major reassessment of the revenues of Bengal.

Additional Information

• Nadir Shah was the ruler of Iran. In 1739, he sacked and plundered Delhi and carried away a huge amount of wealth.
• Alivardi Khan was the Nawab of Bengal from 1740-1756. He came to the throne after Murshid Quli Khan.
• Burhan-ul-Mulk was the Subadar of Awadh. He manages the political, financial and military affairs of the province of Awadh.

Hence, it becomes clear that in the 18^th century, Bengal gradually broke away from the Mughal control under Murshid Quli Khan.

Bahadur Shah Zafar was the last Mughal ruler, during the revolt of 1857, the sepoys of Meerut reached Delhi and declared him as their leader.

• At first, he was hesitant to challenge the British but later blessed the rebellion.
• This act inspired and gave courage to many small rulers and chiefs to act against the British.

In 1856, Lord Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal king and after his death, none of his descendants would be recognized as a ruler – they would just be called princes.

• This disrespectful behaviour towards the Mughal Emperor is also one of the political reasons for the revolt of 1857.
• Lord canning became the first Viceroy of India and served from year 1858 - 1862.
• He also served as the " Governor-General of India" from 1856 - 1862.
• He abolished the "Doctrine of Lapse" and established three universities in Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras.

Additional Information

• In 1849, it was announced by Lord Dalhousie that after the death of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the family of the king would be shifted out of the Red Fort. Also, they will be given another place in Delhi to inhabit.
• William Bentinck was the Governor-General of India from 1828-1835. He came before the coronation of Bahadur Shah Zafar (1837). Also, during his tenure, the Vellore mutiny took place and Sati Pratha was abolished.
• Lord Cornwallis was the Governor-General of Bengal and the Commander-in-Chief of British India from 1786-1793. He is said to be the Father of Civil Services in India. He served in India during the decline of Mughal in the 18^th century which is before the coronation of Bahadur Shah Zafar as an emperor.

Hence, it becomes clear that Lord Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal king and after his death, none of his descendants would be recognized as a ruler.

The correct answer is Lord Dalhousie.

Key Points

• Awadh was among the last territories to be annexed by the British government. ‘Subsidiary Alliance’ was imposed on Awadh in 1801, and finally was taken over in 1856.
• Governor-General Dalhousie declared that Awadh was being misgoverned and British rule was needed to ensure proper administration.
• Lord Dalhousie was in India from 1848- 1856. From the beginning, Lord Dalhousie was very keen to annex Awadh but there were certain problems he was facing:
• The Nawabs of Awadh had been British allies and obedient to the British over the years.
• Nawab of Awadh had many heirs, therefore, the Doctrine of lapse cannot be applied.

Additional Information

• Lord Ripon arrived in India after the annexation of Awadh i.e. in 1880. He introduced local self-government.
• Lord Canning was the first Viceroy of India. He served in India from 1856-1862, after the annexation of Awadh. He abolished the “Doctrine of Lapse”.
• Lord Mountbatten was the last viceroy of India and the first governor-general of independent India.

Hence, it becomes clear that Governor-General Dalhousie declared that Awadh was being misgoverned and British rule was needed to ensure proper administration.

The correct answer is Nana Saheb.

Peshwas served as the Prime minister of the Maratha Kingdom. With the help of Peshwas, the Marathas had a successful military organisation. 

• Nana Saheb: Balaji Baji Rao was popularly known as “Nana Saheb”.
• He was a Peshwa of the Maratha Empire in India.
• Born in Bithoor of Kanpur district.
• Adopted by Peshwa Baji Rao II who was residing in an estate in Bithoor after the Third-Anglo Maratha war.
• As the adopted son of Bajirao II, he sought to restore the Maratha confederacy and the Peshwa tradition.
• After the death of Peshwa Bajirao II, Nana Saheb was not accepted as the heir by the British as he was the adopted son of the Peshwa and they also refused to give him a pension.
• All this led him to participate in the Revolt of 1857.
• Nana Saheb was an inspiration to many other freedom fighters as he supported the ideology of Independence and tried to diminish the British impact through the rebellion of 1857.
• He attacked the British Barricade at Kanpur and captured it. Then he declared himself as the Peshwa and the governor under Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar.

Additional Information

• Bajirao I was the Peshwa of Chatrapati Shahu whose administrative capital was Satara. He was considered a highly skilled courageous warrior. He was the force behind the expansion of the Maratha empire, especially in the North.
• Bajirao II was the Peshwa of Poona and a puppet ruler installed by the Maratha nobles. After being defeated by Yashwantrao Holkar(ruler of Indore) at the Battle of Poona, he fled to British protection and signed the Treaty of Bassein. During the reign of Bajirao II, the Second Anglo-Maratha war and the Third Anglo-Maratha war happened.
• Bahadur Shah Zafar was the last Mughal ruler. The sepoys of Meerut proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader and captured Delhi. Again Delhi was recaptured by the British in September 1857 and Bahadur Shah Zafar was sentenced to life imprisonment.

Hence, it becomes clear that Nana Saheb, the ruler of Kanpur called himself ‘Peshwa’.

Co-curricular activities are usually organized outside the classroom to provide opportunities for students to develop their special talents and to creatively express themselves through various forms.

• The teacher uses different teaching methodologies to enhance student learning. To teach the theme ‘Factory’, the best methodology among these is organizing a visit to an industrial plant as it will develop holistic learning.
• A factory or an industrial plant is a site where goods are manufactured and assembled. By visiting the place, the students will acquire a great source of practical knowledge. This will also bridge the gap between theoretical and practical learning in a real-life environment. This will instill curiosity among students and they will learn naturally and creatively. Further, this will broaden the outlook of the students.

NOTE: Narrating a story, inviting a resource person, and screening a documentary film is helpful to develop students' imagination. These will provide second-hand information to the students and will not provide any practical knowledge.

Hence, it becomes clear that the best methodology to teach the theme ‘Factory’ would be to organize a visit to an industrial plant.

A Satellite is a celestial body that moves around the planets similarly the planets move around the sun.

• A Human-made Satellite is an artificial body that is designed by scientists to collect information about the universe or for communication.
• Some examples of the Indian satellites in space are INSAT, IRS, EDUSAT, etc.

Important Points EDUSAT: It is a communication satellite, launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation, to serve the educational sector. 

• It is a man-made satellite.
• The first Indian satellite built solely for serving the educational sector.
• EDUSAT is primarily meant for providing connectivity to school, college and higher levels of education for better academic outcomes.
• Launched successfully by GSLV-F01 on 20-9-2004 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), Sriharikota.
• This satellite is meant for distant classroom education from the school level to higher education.
• Provide the country with satellite-based two-way communication to the classroom for delivering educational materials.
• Through EDUSAT, India showed its commitment to using space technology for national development, chiefly for the progress of the population in remote and rural locations.
• Currently, 25 States are covered by the footprint of EDUSAT with more than 55,000 EDUSAT classrooms.

Hence, it becomes clear that EDUSAT is a man-made satellite.

Kabir, who might have lived within the fifteenth-sixteenth century, was one of the foremost influential saints.

• His ideas were collected in verses called Sakhis and pads which were composed by him and sung by wandering bhajan singers.
• Both Hindus and Muslims were his followers.