CTET Paper 2 Social Studies January 2021 (English-Hindi-Sanskrit) (Previous Year Paper)

Learning is the change in behaviour resulting from behaviour. The teacher is the one who can facilitate classroom teaching. 

Key Points

Role of the teacher in meaningful learning:

• Both teachers and learners get opportunities to interact with experts in a subject or a specialized field. It gives them useful exposure in terms of learning new and specialized field things. It also provides learners with motivation and inspiration for reaching the top in the field of learning
• The teacher has to maintain a conducive environment in the classroom and provide them with experiences through her experiences.
• The teacher has to play the role of a creator also as he has to develop the learners on the experiences of his own.
• The role of a teacher is full of diversity. The learners look up to them as their ideal, model, guide, mentor, supervisor and much more. The overall personality development i.e. physical, mental, emotional, social, moral, etc. of a learner lies in the teaching of a teacher.
• The teacher-learner interaction is quite obvious in the discussion. The teacher ensures that there are relevance and logic behind the discussion. Learners’ creativity and thought process is activated and they become more opinionated.

Thus from above-mentioned points, it is clear that (i), (iii) statements are true.

A social group establishing a positive inclination to inclusivity while fostering a feeling of oneness and a sense of belongingness in each of the members of the pluralistic society. It is the diversity that brings in the advocacy for equity and justice for each of the diverse persons in a group irrespective of their abilities, disabilities, social status, religion, class, caste, and so on and so forth.

Disadvantaged Learner-

• The socially disadvantaged child is one who is from a socially and economically backward section of the community, who cannot profit from school because of deprivation of one sort or another. Such children show cumulative academic deficits, high dropout rate and progressive decline in intellectual functioning.
• Some of the major causes are unstimulating environment, lack of verbal interaction with adults, poor sensory experience, poverty, low social status, malnutrition and broken homes.

Deprived Learner-

• The term 'underprivileged' refers to the disadvantaged section of people who are economically, socially and vocationally in an unfavourable situation compared to the rest of the population of the society. Thus it is a relative term. They are underprivileged in relation to the middle class or upper-class people of their society. Educationists and social scientists have used many other terms such as 'deprived', 'psycho-socially deprived' 'culturally deprived', 'socioeconomically deprived', 'locationally deprived', etc.

Key Points

Effective strategies to address learners from disadvantaged and deprived backgrounds-

• Inclusive education is a movement to empower the vulnerable and marginalized groups to overcome the disadvantages of unequalized socialization.
• The curriculum should to be specific and related to the needs and real-life experiences. Emphasis should be on learning manual skills, life skills and technical efficiency.
• Sometime the teacher should talk to the learners to understand their needs and challenges faced by them.
• Interest in learning has to be, created by the teacher, effort should be towards developing self-confidence, self-respect and a sense of cultural identity.
• Form collaborative groups to work on activities and encourage students to support each other.
• Motivate the students to set moderately challenging goals and provide appropriate instructional support.

Thus from above-mentioned points, it is clear that asking the learners, to enrol for tuition outside of school so that the teacher does not have to pay much attention to them is not an effective strategy.

Learning may be defined as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced by experience”. Learning is not a mere addition to the knowledge or acquisition of facts and skills through drill and repetition. It involves reorganization of experience.

Key Points

Factors affecting learning:

• Physiological Factors-
• Among the organic factors considered to cause learning problems are genetics, brain injury. biochemical imbalances, intake of toxic substances like lead, oxygen deprivation, infectious diseases, drug intoxication, malnutrition and congenital defects. While considering these as factors influencing learning, it may be mentioned that attempts to correlate specific physiological factors with learning problems are not successful.
• Unless the body is physiologically mature and ready, academic learning cannot take place.
• Psychological Factors-
• Several psychological factors such as intelligence, personality, attitude, interest, and aptitude have considerable influence on the learning of a child.
• Socio-emotional Factors-
• The family the child belongs to has a considerable influence on the learning. Family factors such as child-rearing practices, reward and punishment, the scope for freedom and independence in activities, play and study facilities, the ambitiousness of the parents, disorganization and discord among members, degree of maturity expected of the boy or the girl child, birth position such as eldest, youngest or single child have their definite influence on learning.
• Working mothers who also experience marital discord are not only physically absent from their children, they are also emotionally absent. Learner from such a home is usually found self-absorbed and inattentive.

Thus from above-mentioned points, it is clear that the physical and emotional health of children plays an important role in their learning.

Learning in groups leads to learning in a social context with observation, modelling, discussions and help from more knowledgeable others in the group. It is important to create a collaborative learning environment in the classroom rather than a comparative one. Collaboration involves the mutual engagement of participants and a coordinated effort to solve the problem.

Key Points

Collaborative and participatory approach:

• The approach involves students as partners in planning, transaction and assessment of the teaching-learning process and thus, includes giving and receiving feedback by both students and teachers.
• It fosters healthy teacher-pupil and pupil-pupil relationships through teacher-supported, peer and group learning.
• It encourages active engagement of students in the process of teaching-learning and assessment to enhance learning by providing an opportunity for dialogue and feedback between teacher and student.
• Involving children by giving more and more opportunities in planning, conducting and evaluating different tasks, helps build skills of self and peer assessment among them which, in turn, reduces teachers’ burden to a large extent.
• Children facilitate them by taking responsibility for assessing their own work, their peers’ work and promote collaborative learning by helping each other learn.
• Help from parents or guardians can be sought in this process as they can also contribute meaningfully towards the progress of their wards.

Thus from above-mentioned points, it is clear that it is important to create a collaborative learning environment in the classroom rather than a competitive one.

As teachers, we are deeply concerned about classroom learning. Your understanding of classroom motivation would enhance the probability of students' learning better. 

Key Points

How to motivate students to learn-

• Begin the lesson by giving a reason to be understood.
• Tell students exactly what you want to accomplish;
• Have students set short-term goals;
• Facilitate learning when the students are encouraged to take more control of their learning process. The teacher's role becomes that of a facilitator. which means the teacher needs to provide scaffolding especially when students learn a new skill.
• Use spoken and written praise:
• Capitalize on the arousal value of suspense, discovery, curiosity, exploration, and fantasy;
• Use familiar material for examples;
• Make students use what they have previously learned;
• use unique and unexpected content when applying concepts and principles;
• Use simulation and games;
• Minimize any unpleasant consequences of student involvement.

Hint

• Giving tasks that are very easy: Giving easy tasks won't enhance the learning. As easier tasks will lead to boredom. Hence, it is not an effective motivation strategy.
• Creating a lot of opportunities for competition: competition often makes students anxious and that interferes with concentration. competition doesn't permit them to share their talents and resources as cooperation does, so they can't learn from one another. Finally, trying to be Number One distracts them from what they're supposed to be learning. Hence, it is not an effective motivation strategy.
• Emphasis on completion of work rather than learning: Learning helps the individual to acquire the necessary skills through learning and knowledge so that he can achieve his set goals. Hence, it is not an effective motivation strategy.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that providing scaffolding especially when students learn a new skill, is an example of an effective motivational strategy to encourage students to learn.

Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities or processes and is unique to human beings. It involves manipulation and analysis of information received from the environment. Thinking, therefore, is a higher mental process through which we manipulate and analyse the acquired or existing information. Such manipulation and analysis occur by means of abstracting, reasoning, imagining, problem-solving, judging, and decision-making. 

Key Points

• Children learn through their surroundings, they actively think about various phenomena around them and have an urge to explore.
• Children are born with curiosity to learn about the world around them. That's why they start exploring various things since birth.
• Since the children construct their own theories about various phenomena around them. The process evokes curiosity and excitement to think more and more in different directions. The person tries to look at the task or problem from different angles and viewpoints.
• The role of the teacher to provide information and feedback about their thinking also deal with their misconceptions about various topics. For this, a teacher should give relatable examples in the classroom.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that children cannot think of concepts on their own and the primary role of teachers is to provide information is incorrect about thinking.

Learning is the process by which behaviour is modified either by the addition of new and different abilities or by the extension and enhancement of those abilities which an individual already possesses. It can be best understood as a word which describes a change in an individual’s range and repertoire of behaviour. 

Important Points

Learning is complex, active, planned or unplanned, conscious or unconscious. It can be incremental, cumulative, or transformational. It can be guided or independent. Learning is also life-long.

Key Points

Some of the important characteristics of learning are as given below: 

• Learning is complex and involves all sorts of things as knowledge, skills, insights, values, attitudes, and habits.
• Learning may be planned or unplanned.
• Learning can be triggered by any experience, failure, success, and anything in between.
• Learning can be active as well as passive. Learning requires the active participation of students in the classroom. The more they are involved, the greater would be the possibility of their concentration.
• Learning is individual and can also be collectively generated in groups.
• Learning is both a process and an outcome.
• Learning may be incremental, adding cumulatively to what has previously been learned or transformed.
• Learning outcomes can be undesirable as well as desirable.
• Learning has a moral dimension.
• Learning is life-long.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that Learning is a complex and active process.

Diversity in literary terms means differences. The term diversity indicates that a group of people is made up of individuals who are different from each other in some way or the other or it means collective differences among people, that is, those differences which mark off one group of people from another. For example, differences in culture, language, gender, appearance lifestyle, social and economic status, family structure, abilities, values and beliefs. 

Key Points

The classroom is a cross-section of society where the diversity existing among people in the community is reflected. The increasing number of learners from diverse backgrounds admitted to elementary classrooms has reinforced the importance of making schools more inclusive.

• a teacher is expected to transfer the understanding and position about diversity into the classroom processes
• identify and recognize the threads of diversity among learners in order to address the corresponding issues and challenges with respect to curriculum design
• teaching-learning practices and processes and learning materials so that subsequently the different learning needs of children are met.
• the elementary classroom in India is confronted with the immense challenge of weaving in diversity constructively into classroom processes to democratize these processes and practices, all geared to the larger goal of social justice.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that a teacher should understand the social, cultural, religious and- linguistic diversity in her classroom to facilitate meaningful learning. 

Additional Information

• Linguistic Diversity-
• There are many languages that are used in social communication, which is linguistic diversity.
• Socio-Cultural Diversity-
• Cultural diversity to a sociologist refers to the variety of human societies or cultures in the world; to the variety of the makeup or the varied cultures of a group or organization or region.
• Economic Diversity-
• The money power related to caste and class gave rise to economic differences and added yet another dimension to our diversity.
• Gender Diversity-
• Gender diversity refers to the difference in the societal outlook to people around vis a vis their sex.

Progressive education: It is based on the belief that education should primarily serve the needs of children and focus on understanding, action, and experience rather than rote knowledge and memorization.

Key Points

The progressive classroom is democratic and there is space given to children for understanding as ​it: 

• emphasizes to enhance skills and understanding of the learners by engaging with the contents and experiences.
• promotes 'learning by doing' to make children self-reliant and productive to use their knowledge and talents effectively.
• ensures the active participation of students by working in a group and applying practical knowledge to complete an activity.

Important Points

Qualities of a Teacher in Progressive Classroom:-

• Focuses attention on student-centered learning where the teacher encourages them to indulge in self-learning techniques and adapt their Pedagogy and vary assessment to cater to individual students.
• Employs minimum effort and resources on teaching and motivates the learner to actively construct knowledge.
• The teacher should promote discovery in the classroom.
• Prepare students for active participation in a democratic society.
• Progressively refining the learning experiences based on reflection and feedback.

Hence, we can conclude that In a progressive classroom teachers adapt their Pedagogy and vary assessment to cater to individual students.

Schools are centers of learning for children and not only do they learn the required academic courses (curricular activities), motor and psychological skills such as problem-solving, thinking, etc. but also develop many congenial characteristics and personality traits through co-curricular and extracurricular activities.

• Schools should provide for the needs of all the children in their communities, regardless of their ability. The idea seems simple but there are significant barriers to achieving these goals.
• The child is subjected to social influences as he or she enters the school.
• The cognitive and all-around personality development takes place in the school as the child goes through the processes of learning the three R’s (REDUCE, RECYCLE, REUSE) and interacting with his peers.

Important Points

Problems related to School

The development of their personal, social and emotional aspect of personality is also influenced by the school. How the child copes with the activities required by the school and the time demanded of them, determine how well she/he succeeds in the school. There are some problems caused by the school are:

• Failure to cope with these expectations and demands may result in stress, frustration, anxiety, and low self-esteem in these children.
• Failure to cater needs and interests of children due to individual differences.
• Absence of schooling activities in the vicinity,
• The absence of an educational environment, examination failure and, the need for children to work for economic reasons are major reasons for leaving school.
• Poor systemic support in terms of rules and procedures of the schooling system.
• A curriculum that is alien to the needs of the students.
• Poor quality of education and poor equipment also play a role in increasing school dropouts.

Hence, we can conclude that Children’s failure in school indicates that the school has not been able to cater to the needs and interests of these children.

Two or more people interacting for longer than a few minutes constitute a group. A group may be considered as an entity but at the same time, it is imperative to study the individual experience of its members as well as the size of group activities.

Key Points

• Group techniques are carried out to meet the specific learning needs of each student. It helps to accommodate the diversity of students.
• the learners get opportunities to establish intimate relationships with their peers. They learn valuable lessons in social development including social adjustment. They also get opportunities to lead the group in certain situations and to cooperate with the leader.
• These techniques are especially useful for the development of higher-order mental abilities like creative thinking, critical thinking, etc.
• The group techniques have important implications for the affective domain of the child's personality. They would express themselves freely, shift to a higher level of the cognitive nativity which is likely to enhance the level of their motivation and self-esteem.
• It has also been observed that as a result of the use of group techniques, improvement takes place in the communication skills of students.
• The techniques like seminars, symposia etc. provide opportunities to the students for self-study, which necessitates the development of investigative or discovery skills.

Thus from above-mentioned points, it is clear that by working in groups, teaching and helping each other, children are able to reflect on their own thought processes and shift to a higher level of the cognitive nativity.

Socialization: It refers to the process which transforms a quite helpless human infant into a self-aware, knowledgeable person who is skilled in the ways of their society’s culture. Socialization is a Life-Long process that continues throughout life from birth to adulthood.

Important Points

Secondary Socialization: Those which emerge to meet primary needs e.g. the need for learning skills to earn a livelihood.

• A school is a secondary social institution because it meets the derived needs of the children.
• the school teachers are the secondary socializing agents.
• the process of imbibing norms, values, and behavioral patterns of school may be called secondary socialization.
• Generally, secondary socialization starts from the later stage of childhood and goes up to maturity.

Key Points

Agents of socialization are as follow:

Primary Agents of Socialization- They are family members and relatives as they are the ones whom children interact with since birth. Family is the primary socializing agency.

Secondary Agents of Socialization- These are a school, neighborhood, media, government, peer group, laws of society, etc.

Hence, we can conclude that school is a secondary agency of the socialization of children.

Piaget (1896 – 1980) was born in Switzerland. He was a student of biology, and also had a keen interest in psychology and philosophy. His interest in the study of cognition evolved while working in a laboratory, Alfred Binet laboratory, where he was assisting in IQ test (intelligence quotient) related research.

Important Points

During this work, he interacted with many children and observed some interesting things about children’s thinking. He realized that the older children were able to answer more questions on the same test.

• Piaget does not view development as a continuous progression with gradual quantitative changes. For him, like physical development, cognitive development also occurs in stages with each stage being qualitatively different from the other.
• The child grows not only does her store of information increase but how she thinks also changes. At successive ages, her thought is qualitatively different from the earlier ages and different from that of adults.
• Also, there were qualitative differences between the answers and the logic that the older children applied. That is, as compared to the younger children older children were able to apply logic which was more adult-like.
• Piaget further realized that incorrect answers given by children helped in analyzing children’s logic and thought better than the correct answers.
• Moreover, there was a similarity between the ‘incorrect’ logic among the children of the same age.

Hence, we can conclude that Piaget theorists proposed that children’s thinking is qualitatively different from that of adults.

The life span perspective argues that significant modifications take place throughout development. It consists of the development of humans in multidimensional, multi directional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual factors. The development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation. 

Important Points

Characteristics of Development: 

• Development is Lifelong: This belief has two separate aspects. First, the potential for development extends across the entire life span: there is no assumption that the life course must reach a plateau or decline during adulthood and old age. Second, development may involve processes that are not present at birth but emerge throughout the life span.
• Development is Multidimensional: Multidimensionality refers to the fact that development cannot be described by a single criterion such as increases or decreases in a behavior. It occurs in the biological, cognitive, and social-emotional domains.
• Development is affected by cultural changes: An individual’s development is moulded to conform to cultural standards and norms, while changes in these standards affect the developmental pattern.
• Development is Contextual: Development varies across the different contexts in which we live our lives. For example, social and rural environments are associated with different sets of factors that have the potential to impact development; understanding how development differs for individuals within these two settings requires an understanding of the differing contexts. It occurs in the context of a person’s biological make-up, the physical environment, and social, historical, and cultural contexts.
• Development is Multidirectional: The principle of multidirectional maintains that there is no single, normal path that development must or should take. In other words, healthy developmental outcomes are achieved in a wide variety of ways. Development is often comprised of multiple abilities that take different directions, showing different types of change or constancy.

NOTE: Growth occurs in a neat, orderly set of stages predetermined by genetic factors.

Hence, we can conclude that there is a lot of cultural diversity in the development of children statement is correct about development.

The development of a child takes place through various stages. Although each stage has an encompassing relationship to other stages, yet it has its own unique characteristic needs and demands. These stages are as follows-

• Infancy Period: birth to 2 years
• Early Childhood: 2-6 years
• Middle Childhood: 6-12 years
• Adolescence: 12-18 years
• Adulthood: 18 years to above

Key Points 

Middle Childhood (The School Years):

• This period extends from age 6 to age 12 years.
• Children in this age period become capable of logical thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving in a variety of tasks.
• The ability to think logically about concrete or real-world events and experiences is the hallmark of this stage. Concrete logic becomes possible when the children understand operations.
• Physical development during middle childhood is less dramatic than in early childhood or adolescence. Growth is slow and steady until the onset of puberty when individuals begin to develop at a much quicker pace.
• Middle childhood is also a time when children develop competence in interpersonal and social relationships.

Thus from the above-mentioned points, it is clear that the development of logical thought is concrete in nature.​is a major hallmark of the period of middle childhood.

Jean Piaget', a swiss psychologist, is famous for his work on child development. He made a systematic study of cognitive development in his theory that is categorized in four stages.​

Jean Piaget observed his children and their process of making sense of the world around them and developed a model of how the mind processes new information encountered.

Important Points

Jean Piaget proposed that when the child is at the formal operational stage:

• children's mental capabilities are developed to the maximum level.
• children become capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning
• children are capable of creating logical combinations and verifying hypotheses.
• children develop abstract thinking and understand the structure of mathematical problems.
• children gain the ability to reason proportionally and to work in probabilities and possibilities.
• children can segregate the variable, eliminates contradictions, and combines variables in a logical way.

Hence, it could be concluded that when the child is at the formal operational stage are capable of hypothetical- deductive reasoning and Propositional thought.

Additional Information

 Refer to the diagram for conceptual understanding of the characteristics of other stages of Piaget's theory: ​

Lawrence Kohlberg, an American psychologist, has propounded the 'Theory of Moral Development'. He has made a systematic study of moral development in his theory that is categorized into 3 levels and 6 stages.

Key Points

Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality It consists of the first two levels of moral development. Here morality is judged based on the standards of adults and the consequence of an action.

• Stage I (Obedience and Punishment Orientation) — An action is immoral if it is punished by the authority.
• Stage II (Individualism and Exchange) — This stage is self-interest driven and children understood for the first time that different individuals may have different viewpoints. An action is considered morally correct if it is in the best interest of the individual.

Level 2: Conventional Morality: This level consists of stages three and four. During this level, children start internalizing the value of society to judge morality.

• Stage III (Good Interpersonal Relationship) — Intention of the actor is more important in terms of judging the moral values. If the intention is to gain the consensus of others or approval of the society then the actor will be judged morally right.
• Stage IV (Maintaining the Social Order) — Judgment of morality is based on one’s duty, law, and social order. actively maintaining the current social system ensures positive human relationships and societal order

Level 3: Post Conventional Morality: The last level consist of stage five and six of moral development. According to Kohlberg, very few people are able to reach this level. Here, the individual perspective is given more importance over social rule and order. Individual judge morality based on basic human rights and justice.

• Stage V (Social Contract and Individual Rights) – In this stage, the individual or child understands that different people and communities may hold different views and laws. Laws of the society are not rigid edicts and should be changed with the change in the time and need of the society.
• Stage VI (Universal Principles) – Individual judge morality of the actor based on some universal principles that transcend beyond the society’s rules and regulations.

Hence, we can conclude that in the social-order maintaining orientation stage individuals believe that actively maintaining the current social system ensures positive human relationships and societal order.

Development can be defined as a broad term that includes a series of qualitative and progressive changes. The development of human beings is divided into different stages such as Infancy, Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood.

Childhood refers to the period of the human lifespan, ranging from birth to puberty. It consists of many developmental stages. The development in this stage is multi-layered and complex. It consists of many developmental stages. It is from two years to the age of 10 or 12 years. It consists of two stages i.e. Early & Late Childhood.

Early Childhood:

• 'Early childhood' lies between the age of '2 to 7 years'.
• It is also known as the toy age, pre-gang age, and exploratory age, etc. It is a very crucial period for the overall development of the child.

Characteristics of early childhood:

• Develops the skills of language acquisition.
• Faces problems with the concept of conservation.
• Struggles with the idea of centration and reversibility.
• Begin to use words and pictures to represent objects.

Later childhood: 

• Later childhood is the time period from the age of 'seven to twelve years'.
• The signs of puberty usually begin to appear in this stage. It is also known as troublesome age, gang age, play age, etc.

Characteristics of late childhood:

• Increased logical reasoning.
• High Interest in science fiction.
• Use of analogies in explanation.
• Development of problem-solving skills.
• Powers of perception and observation become keen.

Hence, it could be concluded that during the period of childhood, development is multi-layered and complex.

Lev Vygotsky', a Soviet psychologist, has propounded the "Socio-cultural Theory". This theory implies the idea that social interaction plays a crucial role in the development of learners' cognitive ability. 

According to Vygotsky, 'zone of proximal development' or 'ZPD' refers to the:

• the gap between what the child can do independently and with assistance.
• difference between what a learner can do on his/her own and what he/she can do with someone's help.
• range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone, but possible with the help of adults and more skilled peer.
• distance between learners' actual development level and his/her level of development under someone's guidance.

Additional Information

Other Important Terms Proposed by Vygotsky in his 'Socio-cultural Theory':

• Scaffolding: It refers to a process through which temporary support is imparted to the learners to enhance learning to achieve goals.
• More Knowledgeable Other(MKO): It refers to a person with a higher skill level and a better understanding of the concepts than the learners.

Hence, we can conclude that the Zone of proximal development is the area between a child’s current level of independent performance and the level of performance that the child could achieve with the help of adults and more skilled peers.

The meaning of "progressive education" depends on the meaning assigned to the word 'progress'. Progress implies movement and movement involves changes in some direction. 

• 'progressive education', is that body of educational thought that nourished in the fertile mind of John Dewey.
• According to John Dewey, “Education is reconstruction or reorganisation of experience which adds to the meaning of experience and which increases the ability to direct the course of subsequent experiences.”

Key Points

• The assessment usually measures how much content (concepts and skill) has been achieved by a child out of the identified content he/she was supposed to achieve in a particular class.
• Assessment plays a crucial role in enhancing the quality of teaching and learning for elementary students as it gives insight into children’s understanding and helps the teacher to reflects on her pedagogy.
• The assessment provides learners feedback on his/her performance during classroom instruction, in unit tests, termed test, etc.
• Feedback helps learners to know about their strengths and weaknesses. Accordingly, a teacher can provide remedial inputs and learners can improve their learning.

Thus from above-mentioned points, it is clear that in a progressive classroom, assessment of’ learners during the process of teaching-learning gives insights into children’s understanding and helps the teacher to reflects on her pedagogy.

Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences. According to him, intelligence is not a single entity; rather distinct types of intelligence exist.

• Each of this intelligence is independent of each other. This means that, if a person exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate being high or low on other types of intelligence. That is why different intelligence demands different methods for different students.
• Gardner also put forth that different types of intelligence interact and work together to find a solution to a problem.

Key Points

Following are types of intelligence-

Thus from above-mentioned points, it is clear that 2 is correctly matched.

As per Vygotsky’s sociocultural perspective, interaction with adults and abler peers is of critical importance in the development and learning of children.

Vygotsky provided a sociocultural perspective to cognitive development. He attempted to establish the relationship between the child's development and the sociocultural context in which the child was situated.

Vygotsky viewed language as an important mediator between learning and development.

Linguists may differ in their views regarding how children acquire language but do not dispute the fact that language plays an important role in development.

Thus, the language assumes a central role in development. Vygotsky (1978) writes that language enables children:

• in solving difficult tasks (when children articulate a problem it happens in a language)
• to overcome impulsive action (children control themselves through language; if they are tempted to touch an electric switch they say “no” to themselves)
• to plan a solution to a problem before executing it
• to master their own behavior

Key Points

Vygotsky believed that since language differs across cultures and communities, thinking/ Cognitive Development cognition also differs.

• Therefore, language is not only needed for interaction with others, it is an important aspect of the development of mental processes in the socio-cultural milieu.
• With children from diverse linguistic backgrounds in a class, it becomes important for a teacher to understand ways in which children gradually transit to the second language.

Hence, According to Lev Vygotsky language plays an important role in the cognitive development of children.

A learner or child-centered classroom means planning and transacting curriculum in the classroom in a way that allows for flexibility in pace and style of learning to keep in mind that children in a classroom are widely different.

It, therefore, suggests an approach of teaching different from the existing practice of having a uniform curriculum, uniform learning material and activities, uniform time, and uniform instructional and evaluation strategies for the whole class.

Important Points

Learner-centered classroom advocates:

1. The child and not the teacher is the focus of the entire process of teaching-learning.
2. The child is not a passive but an active participant in the classroom process.
3. Has a democratic climate so that the child gets maximum opportunities for interaction with other children in the class, with the teacher, and with a variety of teaching-learning material.
4. The teacher is flexible and caters to the needs of individual children.
5. The students learning collaboratively and share the information actively.
6. Activities planned by teachers and carried out by children become the medium of learning for the child rather than only the textbook.
7. Teacher adopts a variety of teaching-learning strategies to address the needs of all children at the same time.
8. Varieties of activities/opportunities are available in the classroom, which enables each child to learn at her/his own pace and in tune with her/his own learning style.
9. The teacher is a friend and a facilitator for the children and allows the center of the action to shift in the classroom from herself/himself to the children.

Hence, we can conclude that a child-centered classroom is one in which the teacher is flexible and caters to the needs of individual children.

Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Perspective on Learning and Cognitive Development

Lev S. Vygotsky. Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist. It will be interesting to note that he was also a teacher. His ‘theory’ or explanation primarily emerged Cognitively

• Development while he was studying learning and development to improve his own teaching. His works say that people live and are located in a culture.
• They develop from childhood to adulthood in that culture. They perform all activities and think within the framework of their socio-cultural environment.
• Therefore, their developmental processes can be only understood by studying children’s (or people’s) interactions with their culture.
• This perspective also argues that children’s learning is central to their development. He proposes learning and development as being interrelated processes. However, learning in a way pulls-up development.
• He understood learning and development as processes that happen during interactions of a child with adults and peers.

Key Points

Vygotsky writes, “every function in a child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level and then inside the child” (Vygotsky, 1978).

• Higher-order mental processes first appear during interactions with people, and then these processes are internalized by the child.
• We can also say that knowledge is constructed together by the adults and children in interactions. And it is then internalized by the child.

Hence, we can conclude that According to Lev Vygotsky's theorist ‘cultural tools’ play an important role in the cognitive development of children.

Gender is a social construct that impacts attitudes, roles, responsibilities, and behaviour patterns of boys and girls, men, and women in all societies. 

Gender Stereotyping refers to to-

• one-sided and exaggerated images of men and women which are deployed repeatedly in everyday lives.
• the assignment of roles, tasks and responsibilities to a particular gender on the basis of preconceived prejudices.
• It is also the assumptions made about a particular gender that may be positive or negative.
• Some of the stereotypes of men and women are: ‘men are not sensitive’; ‘women are not great drivers’ and ‘women love nagging and gossiping’.

Key Points 

Strategies to reduce gender stereotype-

• A school that practices gender equality combines healthy educational theory and practice.
• Gender equality can be introduced through the very text/practice of the educational institutions.
• It is ensured that both girls and boys can work in the same group with equal participation.
• the teacher has to evolve inclusive assessment strategies which are free from all biases.

Thus from above-mentioned points, it is clear that forming mixed-sex activity groups and promotes discussion is the best strategy to reduce gender stereotyping and broadening developmental possibilities for all sexes.

Multilingualism is the ability to use more than two languages. Multilingualism is constitutive of the identity of a child and a typical feature of the Indian linguistic landscape must be used as a resource, classroom strategy, and a goal by a creative language teacher.

Multilingualism refers to the ability of an individual to use more than two languages.

 In learning of new language, it works as an asset and resource as it:-

• increases the better innate understanding of how language works.
• improves the cognitive flexibilities to express the thought in multiple ways.
• enhances creativity, divergent thinking, and appreciation of local languages.
• ensures the inclusion of all students irrespective of their linguistic background.
• connects the classroom with real-life to make the learners familiar with the content.

Hence, we can conclude that multilingualism in a classroom needs to be understood as an asset and resource by the teachers.

Gifted children are those who show consistently remarkable performance in educational endeavors. They possess superior intellectual ability within the range of the upper two to three percent of the population. 

• Creative children have the ability to produce new ideas by bringing together elements usually thought of as independent or dissimilar and the aptitude for developing new meanings that have social value. Characteristics of creative and productive children's openness to experience, setting personal standards for evaluation, ability to play with ideas, willingness to take risks, preference for complexity, tolerance for ambiguity, etc.

Key Points

• The gifted and creative children are required to channelize their energies and abilities in such a way it will develop their personality and complement their character.
• There is a lot of scope for these types of children to show their creativity and intelligence which can be used as a tool to inspire and motivate others.
• The teacher needs to provide them such tasks which challenges their ability to think, analyze, or create.
• As the creative and gifted children tend to get bore easily, the teacher should give them challenging tasks and activities.
• Such tasks will not just keep them busy but will also increase their ability in terms of their creativity, thinking, and reasoning, etc.

Hint

• Giving specific instructions to solve a problem will make them feel restricted and they will not be able to use their abilities to the fullest.
• Administering memory based test will only help them in recalling something which does not nurture their creativity or intelligence.
• Giving questions that require convergent thinking will limit their boundaries to think, analyze, and criticize that can become a hurdle for their creativity and giftedness.

Thus, it is clear that option 3 is correct.

Learning disability refers to the neurological disorder that causes cognitive impairment. Dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, etc are example of learning disabilities.

Dyslexia has difficulty in Reading, Writing, and Spelling as dyslexia is the most common learning disability which makes learners:

• confuse with the same shapes and sounds of the alphabet.
• unable to read, interpret, and understand letters and words.
• bewilder in identifying and relating speech sounds with letters and words.

Hence, it could be concluded that Children with ‘dyslexia’ can be identified by analyzing their reading and writing skills.

Additional Information

Other Disabilities in Brief:

Individuals with visual impairments are generally assigned on a functional basis to two groups: the partially sighted and the blind. A partially sighted group consists of those who are able to use their sight in some way to read (e.g. using special glasses). Individuals with visual acuity ranging from 20/200 to 20/70, are defined as partially sighted. 

Key Points

Strategies for facilitation-

• Educational experiences in regular classrooms are frequently visual. But with some modifications, teachers can usually apply the same general principles of instruction to both students with and without visual impairment.
• Braille is being recommended for those with low vision as it might worsen over time years.
• In addition to Braille, large-print books and audiotapes are available.
• A teacher should allow such students to sit in the front rows so that they can read the blackboard with ease. They should be encouraged to glance out of the window now and then while reading from the blackboard. You should write in bold letters that are legible and must use a felt bulletin board.
• You should read aloud when you write on the blackboard. Books with bold letters (14 points or more) should be available in the library to cater to the needs of these students. Three-dimensional maps and charts can also be used by the teacher.
• The District Rehabilitation Centres and hospitals may be approached for hand lenses, magnifying glasses, etc. for students whose disability is beyond the spectacle lens.

Thus from above-mentioned points, it is clear that Small-print worksheets are not a suitable learning material for students who are partially sighted.

Inclusive Education means education for all children in school as It refers to the inclusion of all children in the education system, regardless of their differences and disabilities.

• All students have the equal right to get an education in regular settings.
• It values the diversity, each child brings to the classroom and facilitates all with equal opportunities to learn and grow.
• Inclusive education improves the quality and making provisions of education for all.
• Inclusive education welcomes and celebrates diversity in the classroom.
• It provides a provision to include disabled children along with normal children in a regular classroom environment.
• It refers to an education system that accommodates all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic, or other conditions.

Key Points

Basic Principles of Inclusive Education:

• Equity and equal opportunities for all.
• Well constructed educational plan.
• Use of multilingualism as a resource.
• Use of specific pedagogical strategies.
• Sensitization towards individual differences.

Hence, we can conclude that the underlying belief behind ‘inclusive education’ the philosophy that all children have a right to get an equal education.

The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in southern India until the 13th century.

• The dynasty originated in the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. Karikala Chola was the most famous among the early Chola kings, while Rajaraja Chola, Rajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I were famous emperors of the medieval Cholas.

Key Points

Chola Temples and Bronze Sculpture:

• Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlements that grew around them.
• These were centres of craft production.
• They were not only places of worship, they were the hub of economic, social, and cultural life as well.
• Amount the crafts associated with temples, the making of bronze images was the most distinctive.
• Chola bronze images are considered amongst the finest in the world.
• While most images were of deities, sometimes images were made of devotees as well.

Hence, we can conclude that both the statement A) and B) are true, but B) is not the correct explanation of A).

We know about the Delhi Sultanate because of its architecture, inscriptions, coins, and T**arikh/T**awarikh (histories written in Persian, the official language of the Delhi Sultanate).

Key Points

Tawarikhs:

• The authors of Tawarikh lived in cities (mainly Delhi) and hardly ever in villages.
• They often wrote their histories for Sultans in the hope of rich rewards.
• These authors advised rulers on the need to preserve an “ideal” social order based on birthright.
• Their ideas were not shared by everybody. Common mass had nothing to do with their ideas.

Hence, we can conclude that the statement A) is true but B) is false

Tarikh (singular) / Tawarikh (plural), written in Persian, the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans. It tells a lot about the Delhi Sultanate.

• The authors of Tawarikh were learned men: secretaries, administrators, poets and courtiers, who both recounted events and advised rulers on governance, emphasising the importance of fair rule.
• The authors of Tawarikh lived in cities (mainly Delhi) and hardly ever in villages.
• They often wrote their histories for Sultans in the hope of rich rewards.
• These authors advised rulers on the need to preserve an “ideal” social order based on birthright and gender distinctions.
• Their ideas were not shared by everybody.

Thus, statement B is correct.

Key Points

Raziyya:

• In 1236 Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter, Raziyya became Sultan.
• The chronicler of the age, Minhaj-i Siraj, recognized that she was more able and qualified than all her brothers.
• But she was not comfortable with having a queen as ruler.
• Nor were the nobles happy at her attempts to rule independently.
• She was removed from the throne in 1240.

Hence, we can conclude statement A is wrong.

Sulh-i-Kul:

• While Akbar was at Fatehpur Sikri during the 1570s he started discussions on religion with the ulama, Brahmanas, Jesuit priests who were Roman Catholics, and Zoroastrians.
• These discussions took place in the ibadat khana.
• He was interested in the religion and social customs of different people.
• Akbar’s interaction with people of different faiths made him realize that religious scholars who emphasized ritual and dogma were often bigots.
• Their teachings created divisions and disharmony amongst his subjects.
• This eventually led Akbar to the idea of sulh-i kul or “universal peace”.
• Both Jahangir and Shahjahan followed the idea of Sulh-i-Kul.

Hence, we can conclude that both the statement A) and B) are true and B) is the reason for A).

Additional InformationJahangir, Akbar’s son, described his father’s policy of sulh-i kul in the following words: 

• 'As in the wide expanse of the divine compassion there is room for all classes and the followers of all creeds, so … in his Imperial dominions, which on all sides were limited only by the sea, there was room for the professors of opposite religions, and for beliefs, good and bad, and the road to intolerance was closed. Sunnis and Shias met in one mosque and Christians and Jews in one church to pray. He consistently followed the principle of “universal peace” (sulh-i kul).'

In large parts of the subcontinent, society was already divided according to the rules of varna.

• Many societies in the subcontinent did not follow the social rules and rituals prescribed by the Brahmanas nor were they divided into numerous unequal classes. Such societies are often called tribes.
• These rules, as prescribed by the Brahmanas, were accepted by the rulers of large kingdoms.
• The difference between the high and low, and between the rich and poor, increased.
• Under the Delhi Sultans and the Mughals, this hierarchy between social classes grew further.

Hence, we can say that statement A) is false, but statement B) is true.

Revolt of 1857 and the role of Bahadur Shah Zafar:

• The revolt of 1857 started only when Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last ruler of the Mughals, gave his permission.
• He wrote letters to the various chiefs and rulers of the country to come forward and organize a confederacy of Indian states to fight the British. This single step taken by Bahadur Shah had great implications.
• His decision to bless the rebellion changed the entire situation dramatically.
• The people could see an alternative possibility, they felt inspired and enthused.
• It gave them the courage, hope, and confidence to act.

Hence, we can conclude that option 1 is correct.

Additional Information

• Later, the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried in court and sentenced to life imprisonment.
• His sons were shot dead before his eyes. He and his wife Begum Zinat Mahal were sent to prison in Rangoon in October 1858.
• Bahadur Shah Zafar died in the Rangoon jail in November 1862.
• The recapture of Delhi, however, did not mean that the rebellion died down after that.
• People continued to resist and battle the British.
• The British had to fight for two years to suppress the massive forces of popular rebellion.

From the early nineteenth century, we find debates and discussions about social customs and practices taking on a new character.

• One important reason for this was the development of new forms of communication.
• For the first time, books, newspapers, magazines, leaflets and pamphlets were printed.

• The Prarthana Samaj adhered to the tradition of Bhakti drew upon Hindu, Buddhist, and Christian texts.

​Hence, we can conclude that the statement 'Prarthana Samaj drew only upon Hindu texts.' is false in the context of women, caste and reform during the colonial period.

Key Points

• Whenever the reformers wished to challenge a practice that seemed harmful, they tried to find a verse or sentence in the ancient sacred texts that supported their point of view.
• Thus, the knowledge of ancient texts helped the reformers promote new laws.
• One of the most famous reformers, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, used the ancient texts to suggest that widows could remarry.
• His suggestion was adopted by British officials, and a law was passed in 1856 permitting widow remarriage.
• Pandita Ramabai, a great scholar of Sanskrit, felt that Hinduism was oppressive towards women, and wrote a book about the miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women.
• She founded a widows' home at Poona to provide shelter to widows who had been treated badly by their husbands' relatives.

The Telangana Formation Day  June 2, 2014, as the 29th State of India. 

• The seeds of the Telangana struggle were sown in 1955 when the recommendation of the States Reorganisation Commission to retain Hyderabad as a separate State went unheeded.
• Telangana leaders accused the people of Andhra of "colonizing the region" by grabbing their jobs and land, and the government of not investing in the region's infrastructure.
• After a reorganization in 1956, the region of Telangana was merged with Andhra State to form Andhra Pradesh. The central government established the unified state of Andhra Pradesh on 1 November 1956.
• After 4 years of peaceful and impactful protests, the UPA government started the statehood process in July 2013 and concluded the process of passing the statehood bill in both houses of Parliament in Feb 2014.
• Telangana, as a geographical and political entity, was born on June 2, 2014, as the 29th and the youngest state in the Union of India.​

Hence, we can conclude that the Andhra Pradesh state of Telangana was earlier part of which state of India.

In a democracy, the media plays a very important role in providing news and discussing events taking place in the country and the world.

• The media should provide information to citizens through the news.
• It is based on this information that citizens can, for example, learn how government works.
• Given the role that the media plays in providing information, it is important that the information be balanced.
• A balanced report is one that discusses all points of view of a particular story and then leaves it to the readers to make up their minds.

Thus, we can say that **statements A and C indicate the correct role of media in a democracy.**​

Additional Information

• One way in which the mass media earns money is by advertising different things like cars, chocolates, clothes, mobile phones, etc.
• It should not provide the point of view of the advertiser, through its news programmes because its main role is to provide news and discuss the events taking place in the country and the world.

Gender Stereotyping refers to the relatively fixed and overgeneralized attitudes and behaviors that are considered normal and appropriate for a person in a particular culture based on his or her biological sex. For example,

• Presenting women doing make-up.
• Being dropped by her husband.
• Doing some household chores given that when a woman is capable of doing much more.

• It should be noted that stereotypes can be broken by showing 'girl playing football in an advertisement for a sports shoe.'

​Hence, we conclude that 'girl playing football in an advertisement for a sports shoe' does not show gender stereotypes.

Additional Information

• Gender stereotyping can limit the development of the natural talents and abilities of girls and boys, women and men, as well as their educational and professional experiences and life opportunities in general.
• Stereotypes about women result from deeply ingrained attitudes, values, norms, and prejudices against women.
• To avoid the situation of gender stereotype, a family should start involving boys in household chores that were mainly concerned with girls traditionally which gave rise to gender biasing and stereotyping.
• Therefore, "to bridge the gap of gender stereotypes, girls should be asked to help in works outside the home too as well as boys to help inside the home".

There are seven major continents. These are separated by large water bodies. These continents are – Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America, Australia, and Antarctica.

Australia:

• Australia is the smallest continent that lies entirely in the Southern Hemisphere.
• It is surrounded on all sides by the oceans and seas.
• It is called an island continent.

• South America has the world's largest river, the Amazon. Australia is the smallest continent that lies entirely in the Name the Strait Southern Hemisphere.
• The Southern Hemisphere is the half (hemisphere) of Earth that is south of the Equator. It contains all or parts of five continents (Antarctica, Australia, about 90% of South America, one-third of Africa, and several islands off the continental. Antarctica – the entire continent and its associated islands are wholly within the.

Hence, we can conclude that the above features are of the Australian continent.

The Earth isn't even spiraling in toward the Sun, it's spiraling outward, away from it. 

• Over the course of a year, Earth moves sometimes closer to the sun and sometimes farther away from the sun.
• Earth's closest approach to the sun, called perihelion, comes in early January and is about 91 million miles (146 million km).
• The farthest from the sun-earth gets is called aphelion.
• Right now, the Earth is slowly drifting away from the Sun, driven by the relentless effect of nuclear fusion on the Sun.
• As time goes on, the Sun burns through more and more of its fuel, losing mass in the process and loosening its gravitational grip on the Earth.
• With every year that goes by, we go away from the Sun than the year before.

The Outer Planets: - These planets are much larger than the inner planets and are made primarily of gases and liquids, so they are also called gas giants. the outer planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune

​Hence, we may say that as we move away from the sun in the solar system time taken by planets to complete one orbit around the sun increases.

If the plane of the earth's equator were not inclined to the plane of the earth's orbit there would be no change of seasons. When tilted, the hemisphere closer to the sun would experience summer, while the hemisphere that is relatively farther away would experience winter. If the axis becomes perpendicular, the whole geographical characteristics of our planet will be changed drastically. The day-night cycle will be hampered. And the normal weather cycle will be also hampered.

Important Points

Circle of illumination:

• The imaginary line which divides the parts of the earth with day and night is called the circle of illumination.
• The circle of illumination is at a right angle to the orbital plane.
• Thus, the circle of illumination is at an angle of 23.5º to the earth’s axis.
• It divided the equator into two equal halves.
• Because of the angle between the circle of illumination and the axis; both the hemispheres of the earth do not get the same amount of light on most of the days.
• This causes different seasons at different times of the year.

Imagine if the earth is not inclined towards the plane of its orbit, then

• The circle of illumination is at an angle of 23.5º to the earth’s axis
• This imaginary line has almost a similar length as the longitudes.
• It also stretches from north to south as the longitudes stretch.
• If there' is no inclination the circle of illumination will totally match with longitudinal lines.
• Due to the inclination of the earth, seasonal variation happens.
• Different places located in different latitudes received different amounts of insolation due to inclination.
• But, all the places will start receiving the same amount throughout the year and there will be no seasonal changes.

Hence, we can conclude that the A and C statements are correct.

Broadly, the major seasons recognised in India are:

• Cold Weather Season (Winter) December to February
• Hot Weather Season (Summer) March to May
• Southwest Monsoon Season (Rainy) June to September
• Season of Retreating Monsoon (Autumn) October and November

Key Points

Southwest Monsoon' period:

• The period that starts in June and ends in September is referred to as the Southwest Monsoon' period.
• The Southwest Monsoon is the significant rainy season for India.
• This is the summer monsoon where the southwest monsoon holds away over the country.
• Southwest monsoon season that is marked by the onset and advance of monsoon is caused by the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal winds.
• It causes the onset of monsoon in India in the month of June and July.
• It contributes to about 80% of the total rainfall in India.
• There are six major controls of the climate of any place.
• They are latitude, altitude, pressure and wind system, distance from the sea (continentality), ocean currents, and relief features.

Retreating/Post Monsoons (Autumn) and the transition season during October-November, with the movement of the sun towards the south. the monsoon trough or the low-pressure trough over the northern plains, becomes weaker.

• This is gradually replaced by a high-pressure system.
• The southwest monsoon winds weaken and start withdrawing gradually.
• By the beginning of October, the monsoon withdraws from the Northern Plains.
• Cold weather season - Mid-November to mid-March.
• Hot weather season - Mid-March to May.
• Southwest monsoon season - June to September.
• Retreating monsoon season - October to mid-November.

Hence,

• The north-east monsoon, which is also known as the winter monsoon blows from land to sea area.
• Whereas the south-west monsoon, known as the summer monsoon blows from sea to land areas after crossing the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea, and the Bay of Bengal.
• The south-west monsoon brings most of the rainfall

India is marked by a diversity of physical features such as mountains, plateaus, plains, coasts, and islands. 

Ganga and the Brahmaputra delta:

• The delta is triangular in shape. It is an area of land formed at the mouth of the river (Where rivers enter the sea, that point is called the mouth of the river.)
• The Ganga and the Brahmaputra form the world’s largest delta, the Sundarbans delta.
• Sunderban Delta, or Bengal Delta a vast tract of forest, and the saltwater swamp is situated in Asia, originated from India, forming the lower part of the Padma Delta, where the "Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers" discharge into the Bay of Bengal.

Hence, we conclude that Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers form the 'Sunderban Delta'.

The atmosphere around the earth:

• The atmosphere consists of different layers with varying densities and temperatures.
• The column of the atmosphere is divided into five different layers depending upon the temperature condition.
• They are troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.

Mesosphere:

• This is the third layer of the atmosphere. It lies above the stratosphere. It extends up to the height of 80 km.
• Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from the space.
• The mesosphere starts at 50 km above the surface of Earth and goes up to 85 km.
• The temperature drops with altitude in this layer.
• By 80 km it reaches -100 degrees Celsius. Meteors burn up in this layer.

Hence, we can conclude that the above are the features of the Mesosphere.

Troposphere:

• This layer is the most important layer of the atmosphere.
• Its average height is 13 km.
• The air we breathe exists here.
• Almost all the weather phenomena like rainfall, fog, and hailstorm occur in this layer.

Stratosphere:

• Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere.
• It extends up to a height of 50 km.
• This layer is almost free from clouds and associated weather phenomenon, making conditions most ideal for flying airplanes.
• One important feature of the stratosphere is that it contains a layer of ozone gas.
• We have just learned how it protects us from the harmful effect of the sun's rays.

Mesosphere:

• This is the third layer of the atmosphere.
• It lies above the stratosphere.
• It extends up to the height of 80 km.
• Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from the space.

Thermosphere:

• In the thermosphere, the temperature rises very rapidly with increasing height.
• The ionosphere is a part of this layer.
• It extends between 80-400 km.
• This layer helps in radio transmission. In fact, radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected the earth by this layer.

Exosphere:

• The uppermost layer of the atmosphere is known as the exosphere.
• This layer has very thin air.
• Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into space from here.
• The temperature you feel every day is the temperature of the atmosphere.
• The degree of hotness and coldness of the air is known as temperature.

The earth’s surface receives most of its energy in short wavelengths. The energy received by the earth is known as incoming solar radiation which in short is termed insolation. 

Variability of Insolation at the Surface of the Earth:

• The amount and the intensity of insolation vary during a day, in a season, and a year.
• The factors that cause these variations in insolation are :
• the rotation of the earth on its axis
• the angle of inclination of the sun’s rays
• the length of the day
• the transparency of the atmosphere
• the configuration of land in terms of its aspect.
• The last two, however, have less influence.
• The second factor that determines the amount of insolation received is the angle of inclination of the rays. This depends on the latitude of a place. The higher the latitude, the less the angle they make with the earth's surface, resulting in slant sun rays.
• The area covered by vertical rays is always less than the slant rays.
• If more area is covered, the energy gets distributed and the net energy received per unit area decreases.
• Moreover, the slant rays are required to pass through a greater depth of the atmosphere resulting in more absorption, scattering, and diffusion.

The correct answer is a-iii, b-iv, c-ii, d-i.

Key Points

The Sahara desert covers a large part of North Africa. It is the world’s largest desert. It has an area of around 8.54 million sq. km. The Sahara desert touches eleven countries. These are Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan, Tunisia and Western Sahara.

• Besides the vast stretches of sands that the Sahara desert is covered with, there are also gravel plains and elevated plateaus with bare rocky surface.
• These rocky surfaces may be more than 2500m high at some places.
• The present-day Sahara once used to be a lush green plain.
• Cave paintings in the Sahara desert show that there used to be rivers with crocodiles. Elephants, lions, giraffes, ostriches, sheep, cattle and goats were common animals.
• But the change in climate has changed it to a very hot and dry region.

Hence, we conclude that both statements are correct about the Sahara Desert.

Dolphins are regarded as the friendliest creatures in the sea. They look after other dolphins when they are ill, care for pregnant mothers, and protect the weakest in the community. Some scientists have suggested that dolphins have a language but it is much more probable that they communicate with each other without needing words. 

Some facts related to dolphins:

• In the fresh waters of River Ganga and River Brahmaputra, a variety of dolphins locally called Susu (also called blind dolphins) is found.
• The presence of Susu is an indication of the health of the river.
• Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary is located in the Bhagalpur district of Bihar, India.
• "The well-being of river dolphins and gharial is reliable and telltale indicators of river entire river ecosystem health.

Hence, we conclude that all the above statements are correct.

The relationship between energy and social issues is related to address the energy needs of the majority of rural people, especially the poor. A large majority of rural masses have a very low ability to pay for energy in our country and require major structural changes.

Key PointsBiogas:

• The byproducts of anaerobic digestion of organic materials are commonly referred to as ‘biogas’ because of the biological nature of gas production.
• Biogas technology refers to the production of a combustible gas (called biogas) and a value-added fertilizer (called slurry or sludge) by the anaerobic fermentation of organic material under certain controlled conditions.
• Biogas is produced by microbial activities and can be used only at the place where it is produced.
• The main constituents of biogas are:
• about 55-65% Methane (CH₄)
• 30-45% Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
• traces of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S)
• Fractions of water vapors Waste like cow dung, poultry slurry, pig manure and other crop residue have the following biogas composition

Methane 50-60%

Carbon Dioxide 38-45%

Trace component 2% (Hydrogen, Hydrogen Sulphide, Non-Methane Volatile organic, etc.).

Additional Information

• The major resources which can be used for biogas production are:
• Animal Manure
• Poultry Waste
• Pig Waste
• Night soil
• Municipal Organic Waste
• Agricultural Residues
• Forests Residues (Leafs etc)
• Aquatic Plants (like water hyacinth)
• Organic wastewater from Industries (Food processing, milk processing, etc.)
• Hotels and Restaurants
• Sanitary Landfills

Hence, we may say that Biogas is essentially a mixture of Methane and Carbon dioxide.

Some resources can become economically valuable with time. Your grandmother’s home remedies have no commercial value today. But if they are patented and sold by a medical firm tomorrow, they could become economically valuable.

Significant characteristics of resource:

• Value means worth. Some resources have economic value, some do not.
• For example, metals may have an economic value, a beautiful landscape may not.
• But both are important and satisfy human needs.
• Time and technology are two important factors that can change the substance into a resource.
• Time and technology are two important factors that can change substances into resources. Both are related to the needs of the people.
• People themselves are the most important resource. It is their ideas, knowledge, inventions, and discoveries that lead to the creation of more resources.

Hence, we can conclude that A is false, but B is true.

The two major sources of energy can be classified under:

• Conventional Sources
• Non-Conventional Sources

​

Conventional Sources:

• It is also known as non-renewable sources of energy.
• It is available in limited quantity apart from hydro-electric power.

Non-Conventional Sources:

• It is also known as renewable sources of energy
• It uses again and again without depletion.
• Examples include solar energy, bio-energy, tidal energy, and wind energy.

​Hence, the group of conventional sources of energy is oil, natural gas, firewood.

Additional Information

Difference Between Conventional and Non-conventional Sources of Energy:

A resource is something that can be utilized by human in its original or modified form. It can be classified in the given category:

On the basis of accessibility/stock: Renewable and Non-renewable

• Renewable resources:
• Renewable resources are those which get renewed or replenished quickly.
• Some of these are unlimited and are not affected by human activities, such as solar and wind energy.
• Yet careless use of certain renewable resources like water, soil, and forest can affect their stock.
• Non-renewable resources are those which have limited stock. Once the stocks are exhausted it may take thousands of years to be renewed or replenished.

On the basis of Distribution: Ubiquitous and localized

1. A resource that is found everywhere is a ubiquitous resource. The air we breathe is an example of a ubiquitous resource.
2. A resource that is found only in certain places.is called a localized resource. A mineral like copper is an example of a localized resource.

On the basis of origin: Biotic & Abiotic

1. Biotic Resources are also known as living resources. These are renewable resources and include plants, forests, and animals. The foods, sugars, tea, coffee, medicines are obtained from the plants.
2. The resources which are composed of non-living things are called Abiotic resources. Example, land, water.

On the basis of development and use: Actual and Potential

• Actual Resource: 
• ​A resource whose quantity is known and they are being used at present.
• The available technology is used to use these resources. Such resources are called Actual Resource.
• The dark soil of the Deccan Plateau in Maharashtra, rich deposits of coal in the Ruhr region of Germany is an example of actual resources.
• Potential Resource: 
• ​A resource whose extra quantity is not known. and they are not being used at present.
• But when technology improves, their use in the future is possible. Such resources are called Potential Resource.
• The uranium found in Ladakh is an example of a potential resource.

Statement A:

• Around 12,000 years ago, there were major changes in the climate of the world, with a shift to relatively warm conditions.
• In many areas, this led to the development of grasslands.
• This in turn. led to an increase in the number of deer, antelope, goat, sheep, and cattle, i.e. animals that survived on the grass.

Statement B:

• Those who hunted these animals now followed them, learning about their food habits and their breeding seasons.
• This likely helped people to start thinking about the herding and rearing of these animals themselves.
• Fishing also became important.
• This was also a time when several grain-bearing types of grass, including wheat, barley, and rice grew naturally in different parts of the subcontinent.
• Men, women, and children probably collected these grains as food and learned where they grew, and when they ripened.
• This may have led them to think about growing plants on their own. But this cannot be considered as the reason of Statement A

Hence, ​Both (A) and B) are true but(B) is not the reason for (A) is correct.

Sites are places where the remains of things (tools, pots, buildings etc.) were found. These were made, used and left behind by people.

• These may be found on the surface of the earth, buried under the earth, or sometimes even underwater.
• Bhimbetka (in present-day Madhya Pradesh) is one such example of a site.
• Some sites, known as habitation sites, are places where people lived.
• These include caves and rock shelters such as the one shown below.
• They can be found on the earth's surface, for example, the Taj Mahal.
• They are also found under the sea, or near the rive, (Harappan Civilization, near Indus River)

Hence, we conclude that only statement A is true in the context of 'sites'.

Crafts made by Harappans:

• Most of the things that have been found by archaeologists are made of stone, shells and metal, including copper, bronze, gold and silver.
• Copper and bronze were used to make tools, weapons, ornaments and vessels.
• Gold and silver were used to make ornaments and vessels.
• The Harappans also made seals out of stone. These are generally rectangular and usually have an animal carved on them.
• Spindle whorls made of terracotta and faience have also been discovered, which were used to spin thread. This indicates cloth was used in the Harappan civilization.
• Harappans also made pots with beautiful black designs.

Hence, we can conclude that A and D statements are correct regarding Harappan civilization.

Megalithic burials are aboveground burial chambers, built of large stone slabs (megaliths) laid on edge and covered with earth or other, smaller stones.

Key Points

• A better way of figuring out the sex of a skeleton is to look at the bone structure. The hip or the pelvic area of women is generally larger to enable childbearing.

Hence, we can conclude that Only A is correct.

Key Points

• Beginning of the composition of the Vedas (about 3500 years ago)
• Beginning of the building of megaliths (about 3000 years ago)
• The settlement at Inamgaon (between 3600 and 2700 years ago)
• Charaka (about 2000 years ago)

Hence, we can conclude that the correct sequence is A, B, C, D.

We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. 

Key Points

• Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)
• Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)
• Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)
• Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1900 years ago). Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands.

Hence, the correct sequence is C, D, A, B.

Questions are an aid in the learning process and questioning skills. It is one of the important teaching skills required to be developed to conduct a classroom session successfully by a teacher. End-of- the-text Questions are those questions that are given at the end of the chapter.

Key Points

• Questioning in teaching and learning promotes critical thinking among students.
• These questions Expand on the learners' understanding of concepts and relate to what has been taught earlier.
• It also helps teachers to determine whether their students understand a specific concept.
• Project work and compare and contrast are types of end-text questions.
• End-of-the-text questions are used to enable students to understand and express in their own words what they have learned.

Hence, all the above points are true with respect to the end text question.

‘Social and political life (SPL)’ is a new learning area of social science curriculum at the upper primary stage replacing the earlier learning area of ‘Civics’. 

 Key PointsNCF (2005) remarked that, “Civics appeared in the Indian school curriculum in the colonial period against the background of increasing ‘disloyalty’ among Indians towards the Raj. Emphasis on obedience and loyalty were the key features of civics”.

• SPL is based on a ‘real-life’ situation, which uses practical situations to teach concepts because it recognizes that children learn best through concrete experiences.
• It includes definitions and descriptions of socio-political issues.
• It uses materials that draw upon the experimental understanding of familial and social issues that middle school children bring to the classroom.
• SPL draws its leaning experiences mostly from political science, economics and sociology.
• Political science makes the child familiar with democratic processes and participation.
• Economics enables the child to be familiar with economic activities like production, consumption, distribution, exchange etc.
• Sociology makes the child to be an important member of civic society, removing the barriers of caste, class, religion, etc.

Hence, we conclude that all the above points are true.

Questions are an aid in the learning process and hence questioning skills is one of the important teaching skills required to be developed to conduct a successful classroom session by the teacher. Effective teachers use productive questions to help students advance in their thinking and to construct their own understandings.

Divergent Questions: 

• These questions allow students to explore different avenues and create many different variations and alternative answers or scenarios. Those answers may or may not be correct.
• Correctness may be based on logical projections, may be contextual, or arrived at through basic knowledge, conjecture, inference, projection, creation, intuition, or imagination.
• From the above statement about Dr Ambedkar, the teacher is emphasising inferring from the situation.
• These types of questions often require students to analyze, synthesize, or evaluate a knowledge base and then project or predict different outcomes.
  

It stimulates and develops critical thinking, helps in developing thinking strategies, and in assessing creative behaviour in a learner.

Hence, in the above situation, the teacher is emphasizing inferring from the situation.

Interview: It refers to a formal conversation in which questions are asked from an individual in order to know whether he/she is suitable or not for the job. It should be noted that:​

• It can be semi-structured or structured and may use different media (e.g., phone, e-mail, and in-person).
• In a semi-structured interview, the interviewer has an idea about the types of questions but the order and way of asking questions may vary.
• A structured interview, on the other hand, is a specified set of questions that are asked in the same order during each interview.
• In the above situation, the teacher can invite a shopkeeper for an interview to the class to let students know about the market.
• It should be noted that showing picture of markets not only is passive learning but also does not connect with real-life situation.
• Locating major market on the map will improve mapping skills, but will not give an idea of the market.
• Textbook reading is a won't offer hands-on experience. However, group discussion can help but taking interview of the person who works in the market itself will help in much better way.

Hence, we conclude that interviewing a shopkeeper is the best pedagogical method.

The poem above is written by Soyrabai, the wife of the well-known Bhakti poet Chokhamela from fourteenth-century Maharashtra. They belonged to the Mahar caste, which was at that time considered untouchable. Note that:

• Soyrabai is questioning the idea of purity and arguing that since every human is born in the same manner, there is nothing that makes one body less or more pure than the other.
• She is possibly also trying to say that pollution, a key tool of the caste system to separate or deny people access to spaces, work, knowledge and dignity, occurs not through the nature of work done, but ‘from within’- from your thoughts, values and beliefs.

Hence, we conclude that the above lines should be interpreted as 'Human purity is determined by our thoughts and beliefs' by the teacher.

Social sciences comprise a branch/field of knowledge which basically studies human society or human relationship. Social sciences study the social behaviour of human life. The different core-components of social behaviour of human life are- economic behaviour, political behaviour, cultural behaviour and tradition, customs and social institutions, religious faiths and ethics, value patterns followed in society, etc. The remarks of National Focus Group on Teaching Social Sciences (2006) on the teaching of Social Sciences at the Upper Primary Stage: 

• The objectives of teaching the social sciences at the upper primary stage are-
• To develop an understanding of the earth as the habitat of humankind and other forms of life.
• To initiate the learner into a study of her/ his own region, state, and country in the global context.
• To initiate the learner into a study of India’s past, with references to contemporary development in other parts of the world.
• To introduce the learner to the functioning and dynamics of social and political institutions and processes of the country.
• At this stage, the subject areas of the social sciences – drawing their content from history, geography, political science, and economics – will be introduced.
• The child may be introduced simultaneously to contemporary issues and problems.
• Emphasis needs to be given to issues like poverty, illiteracy, child and bonded labour, class, caste, gender, and environment.
• Geography and Economics may together help in developing a proper perspective related to issues concerning the environment, resources, and development at different levels, from local to global.
• Similarly, History will be taught emphasizing the concepts of plurality.
• The child will be introduced to the formation and functioning of governments at the local, state, and central levels, and the democratic processes of participation.

From the above, it is clear that all the above points are true.

Maps and globes are used to determine relative location or where something is in relationship to something else (towns, rivers, mountains, roads, etc.). Globe is a true model (miniature form) of the earth. Consider the following activity:

• In a dark room, take a globe and project a torch (or lamp) on it.
• Here, the globe represents earth and the torch represents the sun.
• Rotate the globe slowly, you will observe that the fore part receives light while the rear part does not.
• The part (countries) where it receives light causes day, and those parts where it does not receive light causes night.
• Using globe, it can also be taught that the earth is tilted at 23.5^o, due to which seasonal variation takes place on earth.

It should be noted that the distribution of the rainfall can not be explained using merely the source of light and a globe.

Hence, we conclude that using a globe and a source of light, concepts of rotation, day-light, and seasonal variations can be explained.

History explains the present events and happenings, hence, identifying issues that are relevant in the present is one of the objectives which must be focused on while teaching history.

Geography provides relevant details regarding the space/place where living things (including humans) live. It provides information regarding the natural and physical resources needed for proper sustenance. By teaching, 'Iron Smelters and factory owners, the following topics are interlinked:

• Mineral Resource: As we all know, iron is a mineral that is obtained from Hematite
• Industries: The teacher can talk about iron industries present in the local area, and at the state and the national level.
• Inside Our Earth: Earth’s inner core is the innermost geologic layer of the Earth and it is made of iron.

Hence, as a teacher, you can make interlinkages while discussing 'Iron smelters and factory owners, a theme in History, with all the above-mentioned topics.

Field trip refers to a learning approach that ensures the active involvement of learners in the learning process by taking them to a certain place where they can earn knowledge by engaging with real situations. Note that:

• Screening a documentary on different types of forest is appropriate since here the questions asks about teaching different types of forest.
• Dividing learners into small groups to work is a good idea, however, it will not give an opportunity to connect with real forests.
• Although, field visit to the near forest can help learners to connect with the real environment, however, it will not give an idea of different types of forests, it can only give an idea of the forest (one type of forest) which is near to the school.
• Making Powerpoint is a passive learning approach.

Hence, we conclude that in a city school, the best method to introduce 'Types of Forests' in a geography class would be to ​screen a documentary on different types of forests.

Earthquakes are caused by seismic waves that are generated due to a sudden movement in the earth's crust.

The discussion takes place whenever there is a difference of opinion concerning the situation. It involves an interchange of questions and ideas among the students/peers. The purpose of the discussion is to encourage an exchange of ideas and viewpoints. Discussion methods may be superior to lectures or reading for the retention of information. This method has been found to be superior in building attitudes that are important in shaping behavior patterns. 

• While developing practical skills among learners while discussing 'earthquakes', a teacher should focus on precautions during an earthquake.
• Teaching about present cases of earthquakes is a passive approach to teaching.
• Focusing on types of earthquakes is more of a teacher-centered approach.
• It should be noted that rather than having an 'activity on the earth's movement', an activity should be conducted which relates to the idea of the earthquake.

Hence, to develop practical skills among learners while discussing 'earthquakes' teachers should focus on 'Precautions during earthquakes'.

In 1994, the government gave the rights to fishing in the Tawa reservoir to private contractors.

• These contractors drove the local people away and threatened the ones who did not leave, by bringing in hoodlums.
• The villagers stood united and decided that it was time to set up an organisation and do something to protect their rights.
• Thus they formed the Tawa Matsya Sangh (TMS), which organised rallies and protests demanding their right to continue fishing for their livelihood.

Thus, it is clear that Tawa Matsya Sangh was fighting for the right to continue fishing for their livelihood.

Additional Information​

• The committee recommended that fishing rights be granted to the villagers for their livelihood.
• In 1996, the Madhya Pradesh government decided to give to the people displaced by the Tawa dam the fishing rights for the reservoir.
• A five-year lease agreement was signed two months later.
• On January 2, 1997, people from 33 villages of Tawa started the new year with the first catch.

Hence, the local people of the Tawa reservoir area organized to demand Fishing rights related to their livelihood in the 1990s.

Diversity means that each individual is unique having individual differences.

• These differences may be because of personal qualities, physical features, social or economic background or cultural factors.
• India has always been a country with diversity.
• People belonging to different religions, cultural backgrounds, caste and regions have been living here in harmony for several centuries.
• People come from various backgrounds which are cultural, religious, and from regional backgrounds.

Thus, we can say that the statement *'*It accepts differences among people.' best represents diversity.

Additional Information

• Diversity helps us understand how various cultures influence each other and what makes each culture so different from the other.
• It teaches us many values.
• We learn how to live and adjust in a diverse society.
• It teaches us to be united in an adverse situation.

Democracy is a form of government where power is held by the people.

• A democracy is a rule by the people.
• During British rule, few upper-class people were allowed to vote. Thus, a small section of the Indian population could vote even before the independence of India.
• In representative democracies people do not participate directly but, instead, choose their representatives through an election process.
• In a representative democracy, people rule themselves.
• Between December 1946 and November 1949, some three hundred Indians had a series of meetings on the country’s political future.
• These discussions resulted in the framing of the Indian Constitution, which was adopted on 26 January 1950.
• One feature of the Constitution was its adoption of a universal adult franchise.
• All Indians above the age of 21 years would be allowed to vote in state and national elections.
• So, we can say that India adopted representative democracy after independence.
• Therefore, we can say that the statements mentioned in the 1,3 and 4 are true in the context of democracy in India.

Important Points 

• The Indian general election of 1951–52, held from 25 October 1951 to 21 February 1952, was the first election in the Lok Sabha.

Thus, the statement that 'The first general election after independence was held in 1950.' is false in the context of democracy in India.

The Gram Sabha is a meeting of all adults who live in the area covered by a Panchayat.

• This could be only one village or a few villages.
• In some states, as in the example above, a village meeting is held for each village.
• Anyone who is 18 years old or more and who has the right to vote is a member of the Gram Sabha.

• Every village Panchayat is divided into wards, i.e. smaller areas.
• Each ward elects a representative who is known as the Ward Member (Panch).
• All the members of the Gram Sabha also elect a Sarpanch who is the Panchayat President.
• The Ward Panchs and the Sarpanch from the Gram Panchayat.
• The Gram Panchayat is elected for five years.
• The Gram Panchayat has a Secretary who is also the Secretary of the Gram Sabha.
• This person is not an elected person but is appointed by the government.
• The Secretary is responsible for calling the meeting of the Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat and keeping a record of the proceedings.

Hence, a Gram Panchayat is elected for a term of 5 years in India.

The police station is headed by the Station House Officer (SHO) who may be of Inspector or Sub-Inspector.

• The officer on Special Duty is the officer who posting orders or removes the rank of officers.
• Home inspectors inspect residential properties to check for compliance and assess if there are hazards or structural defects.
• This examining the property, like infrastructure, electrical and plumbing systems, and water quality, etc.
• The SP Police Superintendent or Superintendent of Police has a duty in the policies pertaining to recruitment, promotion, training programs, and disciplinary matters.
• He evaluates the performance of his administrative subordinates and takes disciplinary actions.

The Hindu Succession Amendment Act (2005) came into force in September 2005. The Government of India has issued a notification to this effect.

This Act has been passed to remove gender discriminatory provisions in the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 and gives the following rights to daughters under Section 6: 

• ​The daughter of coparcener (joint-heir) by birth becomes a coparcener by right in the same manner as the son.
• The daughter has the same rights in the coparcener property as she would have had if she had been a son.
• In the new law, sons, daughters and their mothers can get an equal share of the land.

Hence, the Amendment brought about in 2005 to the Hindu Succession Act provided for the Right of women to have an equal share in the family property.

The legislature, executive and judiciary are the three organs of government.

• Together, they perform the functions of the government, maintain law and order and look after the welfare of the people.
• The Constitution ensures that they work in coordination with each other and maintain a balance among themselves.

The judiciary is the system of courts that judge legal disputes/disagreements and interprets, defends, and applies the law in legal cases.

• The Supreme Court has been assigned a very significant role in the Indian political system and is the final interpreter of the constitution.
• Under the constitution of India, the Supreme Court is provided with the scope of judicial review.
• The judicial review allows the Supreme Court to safeguard fundamental rights and struck down legislation that is violative of Constitutional provisions.
• Under Articles 13, 32, 131-136, 143, 226 and 246 Supreme Court can review any law.
• Thus, it is clear that the Judiciary is the final interpreter of the Constitution of India.

Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989:

• The Scheduled Castes and Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act is popularly known as POA, the SC/ST Act, the Prevention of Atrocities Act, or simply the Atrocities Act.
• The SC/ST Act was enacted on September 9, 1989. The rules for the Act were notified on March 31, 1995.
• The SC/ST Act lists 22 offences relating to various patterns or behaviours inflicting criminal offenses and breaking the self-respect and esteem of the scheduled castes and tribes community. This includes denial of economic, democratic, and social rights, discrimination, exploitation, and abuse of the legal process.
• According to the SC/ST Act, the protection is provided from social disabilities such as a denial of access to certain places and to use a customary passage, personal atrocities like forceful drinking or eating of inedible food sexual exploitation, injury, etc, atrocities affecting properties, malicious prosecution, political disabilities, and economic exploitation.
• For speedy trial, Section 14 of the SC/ST Act provides for a Court of Session to be a Special Court to try offences under this Act in each district.
• The prime objective of the SC/ST Act is to deliver justice to the marginalized through proactive efforts, giving them a life of dignity, self-esteem, and a life without fear, violence, or suppression from the dominant castes.

Hence, The (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 was enacted to provide justice to the Tribals and Dalits.

Federalism is a system of government in which powers have been divided between the centre and its constituent parts such as states or provinces.

• It is an institutional mechanism to accommodate two sets of politics, one at the centre or national level and the second at the regional or provincial level.

​Thus, we can say that a political system having more than one level of government can be described as federal.

Additional Information

• Secularism refers to the separation of religion from the State.
• In a Republic form of government, a state is ruled by the representatives of the citizen body.
• Liberal means accepting different opinions and ways of behaving and tending to be sympathetic to other people.

Social justice is the view that everyone deserves equal economic, political and social rights and opportunities.

Important Points

• It is believed that if people who enjoy very different standards of living and opportunities are treated equally in all respects with those who have been deprived of even the basic minimum needs to live a healthy and productive life, the result is likely to be an unequal society, not an egalitarian and impartial one.
• In our country, lack of access to good education or health care and other such facilities is often found combined with social discrimination on grounds of caste.
• The Constitution, therefore, allowed for reservations of government jobs and quotas for admissions to educational institutions for people belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Tribes.
• Justice does not require absolute equality and sameness in the way in which people live.
• But society would be considered unjust if the differences between rich and poor are so great that they seem to be living in different worlds altogether, and if the relatively deprived have no chance at all to improve their condition however hard they may work.
• In other words, a fair society should provide people with the basic minimum conditions to enable them to live healthy and secure lives and develop their talents as well as equal opportunities to pursue their chosen goals in society.
• Providing people with their basic needs is considered to be one of the responsibilities of a democratic government.
• In order to promote social justice, the government's Minimum Wages Act is an important step. This law sets the minimum wages that must be paid to skilled and unskilled labours.

Hence, the Reservation of seats in government employment for listed Dalit candidates and the Enacting Minimum Wages Act policies promote social justice.

Discussion method: Discussion takes place whenever there is a difference of opinion concerning the situation. It involves an interchange of questions and ideas among the students/peers. The purpose of the discussion is to encourage an exchange of ideas and viewpoints. Discussion methods may be superior to lectures or reading for the retention of information. This method has been found to be superior in building attitudes that are important in shaping behaviour patterns. Note that:

• Since, the discussion is going on the architecture of Delhi, which is a historical site, the teacher should focus on how it asserted British importance and created a sense of awe.
• Emphasizing the style of New Delhi over Old Delhi will give a negative impact on Old Delhi among students.
• Tourists look at the buildings is out of the topic of discussion.
• In discussion, viewing the buildings from a distance will not add anything useful.

Hence, in a discussion on the architecture of New Delhi, a teacher should focus on how it asserted British importance and created sense of awe.

The English word ‘History’ has been derived from the Greek noun ‘Historia’ which means enquiry, research, exploration, or information. 

Key Points Nature of history:

• History is the study of human beings who existed since ancient times.
• History explains the present events and happenings, hence, identifying issues that are relevant in the present is one of the objectives which must be focused while teaching history.
• Historical events are continuous and coherent.
• This history is related to human efforts and achievements from ages.
• History is an unending dialogue between the present and the past.
• History is the interpretation of the past with intention of predicting the future.
• Historical forces are linear as well as cyclical: Linear view of history expresses that history is a straight line from an unknown past passing through the known present to the unknown future. The cyclical view of history conveys that history moves in a circle. There is a starting point, and then it moves upward movement until it reaches the peak. Thereafter the downward movement sets in until it touches the lowest point where it disappears.
• Knowledge of history is incomplete because of lack of sources.
• History is changing. It can be justified in the way that different sources found at different times makes our previous knowledge completely changed.

Hence, the teaching of History must be done with the focused objective of ​identifying issues which are relevant in the present.

Current affairs cover all the news and events that are going around us on a day-to-day basis and cover the recent news.

Key Points There are various purposes for teaching current affairs in the social science classroom. Some of these are listed below:

• It promotes interest in the issues of the country.
• It lets analyze and evaluate events critically.
• It gives opportunity to learner to connect learning outside of the school.
• But it should be noted that current affairs should not only cover sensational news, but also cover that news which is important for the rest of society.

Hence, we conclude that all the above-mentioned points are the purposes of teaching current affairs in the social science classroom.

Social sciences comprise a branch/field of knowledge which basically studies human society or human relationship. Social sciences study the social behaviour of human life. The different core-components of social behaviour of human life are- economic behaviour, political behaviour, cultural behaviour and tradition, customs and social institutions, religious faiths and ethics, value patterns followed in society, etc. Social sciences occupy a significant component of both university/ higher education as well as school curriculum. The objective of discussing 'equality' in a social science classroom is to:

• address issues of dignity with the learners.
• sensitize learners towards respecting everyone.
• build upon values enshrined in the Constitution.

It should be noted that a teacher, in any way, should not promote inequality. In fact, he should promote the benefits of individual differences.

**Hence, '**explaining all differences leads to inequality' is not the objective.

India is a country incredible for its diversity. Ethnic origins, religions and languages are the major sources of cultural diversity. Despite maintaining distinct identities several Jatis, sects, and communities have organic links with other segments of the population of the region. They have constantly maintained cultural linkages, particularly by sharing resources, traits, and space. A teacher can do the following to teach students about diversity:

• Including examples of multiple cultures in the class discussions.
• Encourage students to share their personal experiences in the class.
• Giving pictures of different places and asking them to differentiate based on religion and asking names of those religions.
• Asking them to write an essay with proper elaboration, how India experiences these differences in different times and at different places.
• Presenting them different situations the way people travel, live, eat.
• Asking them to differentiate among them in regard to their relation to urban area and rural area.
• Asking them to make a list of differences do we find in India.
• Asking them castes existing in our country and their opinion on it.

Hence, we conclude that all the above points can be included to teach students about diversity.

Assessment is integral to the teaching-learning process which helps in facilitating student learning and improving instruction. The methods of assessment can be either formal or informal. Assessment is a process of collecting, receiving, and using data for the purpose of improvement in the learning process. 

Key Points Purposes of Assessment in Social Science:-

• evaluation of learners' ability to extrapolate their learning to various life situations.
• making reliable decisions about educational planning.
• determining the effectiveness of the learning process or program.
• laying emphasis on thought processes and de-emphasize memorization.
• assessing both scholastic and co-scholastic aspects of a child's growth.
• helping teachers in evaluating their teaching methods to meet expected learning objectives.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that assessment in social science should emphasize the evaluation of learners' ability to extrapolate their learning to various life situations.

Social Science is a branch of science that deals with human behaviour and social relationships, which rely primarily on empirical approaches. A source in social science can be referred to as something which tells the origin of an object or an event. For example, the Taj Mahal says a lot about Shahjahan. There are two types of sources in social science:

• Primary Source: For example, coins, rivers, forts, the Constitution of India, a painting by Rabindranath Tagore, James Mill's A History of British India etc. (These are the sources created when the event had taken place. )
• Secondary Source: These are sources that are derived from the primary source after some analysis. For example, biographies, dissertation, indexes, C.A. Bayly's An Illustrated History of Modern India (this book was published in 1991, that is, the time after modern history) etc.

Hence, C.A. Bayly's An Illustrated History of Modern India is an example of a secondary source.

Additional Information

Primary sources can be classified in:

• Physical Sources: Monuments, statues, weapons
• Oral Sources: Stories, tales, speeches
• Written/Printed Sources: Manuscripts, diaries

An autobiography is a book written by oneself on one's own life.

• Amar Jiban is an autobiography of Rashsundari Devi. It was published in 1876, which shows the status of women in the Nineteenth Century.
• Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain was a Muslim feminist and social reformer.
• Manimekalai was composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago. This describes the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.
• Stri-Purush was a pamphlet/book written by feminist activist Tarabai Shinde.

Hence, we conclude that to discuss on women's education in colonial India, students could refer to Rashsundari Devi's Amar Jiban.

Geography provides relevant details regarding space/place where living things (including humans) live. It provides information regarding the natural and physical resources needed for proper sustenance. Teaching Geography should develop perspectives related to issues concerning:

• Resources and Conservation
• Development and Displacement
• Human Development

It should be noted that teaching "Challenges to Unity in Diversity" will pose a negative image of Unity in Diversity, which should not happen since one of the objectives of social science is to teach students appreciating and accepting diverse culture.

Hence, teaching Geography should develop perspectives related to issues concerning all the above points.

A teacher teaching Social Sciences has the responsibility of making the class interesting. This is possible when the learners participate actively in the teaching-learning process.

A project is an educational method where students working individually or in small groups analyze and develop “real-life” problem or tackle a present-day theme within a preset time limit, working independently and with the division of tasks clearly defined.

• The project method is based on the principles of active learning. The student gets totally involved in the activity which helps in enhancing his/her knowledge, understanding and skills in real-life situation and ultimately in developing a holistic personality.
• Since all the activities of a project are related to the real-life experiences, each of such activities is meaningful to the student. Therefore, meaningful learning is always associated with the project method. The student enjoys full freedom in conducting a project. This develops self-confidence to act and also promotes a sense of responsibilities among the students.
• The student gets the scope to imbibe several social qualities like cooperation, and team-work, group affinity, and sacrifice through project work.
• Interest and motivation for the project activities are spontaneously created and no external persuasion or force is needed to attract the students toward learning.
• Completion of the project gives individuals a sense of accomplishment which in turn encourages the student for further learning.

Hence, we conclude that an active social science classroom would encourage learners to ​participate in challenging projects.

The correct answer is Adjective.

Key Points

• An adjective is a word that describes a noun or pronoun such as person, place, thing or idea.
• We is the subject here. 'Get' is the linking verb. And, we know that with the linking verb we usually write the subject complement and the subject complement is always an adjective.
• Here 'affected' is an adjective. Also, it is written in the past participle (adjective) form because the doer of this verb is somebody else. So, it is an adjective.
• Thus, option 4 is the correct answer choice.

Confusion Points

• Adverbs provide a description of how, where, when, in what manner and to what extent something is done or happens.
• But, here 'affected' is not the extent/manner and is not telling is how, where and when.
• Thus, affected is not an adverb.

Additional Information

Particle is a word or a part of a word that has a grammatical purpose but often has little or no meaning. 

Hinglish

• विशेषण(adjective) वह शब्द है जो किसी संज्ञा या सर्वनाम का वर्णन करता है जैसे व्यक्ति, स्थान, वस्तु या विचार।
• 'हम'(we) यहां **विषय(subject)**हैं। 'Get' जोड़ने वाली क्रिया है। और, हम जानते हैं कि लिंकिंग क्रिया के साथ हम आमतौर पर विषय पूरक लिखते हैं और विषय पूरक हमेशा एक विशेषण होता है
• यहाँ 'प्रभावित' एक विशेषण है। साथ ही यह विगत कृदंत (विशेषण) रूप में लिखा है क्योंकि इस क्रिया का कर्ता कोई और है। तो, यह एक विशेषण है।
• इस प्रकार, विकल्प 4 सही उत्तर विकल्प है।

Confusion Points

• क्रियाविशेषण(adverb) इस बात का विवरण प्रदान करते हैं कि कैसे, कहाँ, कब, किस तरीके से और किस हद तक कुछ किया या होता है।
• लेकिन, यहां 'प्रभावित' सीमा/तरीका नहीं है और यह नहीं बता रहा है कि कैसे, कहां और कब।
• इस प्रकार, प्रभावित क्रिया विशेषण (adverb)नहीं है।

Additional Information

Particle एक शब्द या शब्द का एक हिस्सा है जिसका व्याकरणिक उद्देश्य होता है लेकिन अक्सर इसका बहुत कम या कोई अर्थ नहीं होता है।

The correct answer is Each one of us has an inborn filter in our mind.

Key Points

• Let's refer to the line: This filter is built day by day by our actions, suggestions, teachings and influence of others. We can ultimately choose our own filter. So let us learn to build our filter wisely and strengthen it daily.
• Upon the perusal of the above statement, it can be concluded that filter is not inborn in us.
• Hence, option 3 is the most appropriate answer choice.

Hinglish

• पंक्ति का संदर्भ लें: This filter is built day by day by our actions, suggestions, teachings and influence of others. We can ultimately choose our own filter. So let us learn to build our filter wisely and strengthen it daily.
• उपरोक्त कथन के अवलोकन से यह निष्कर्ष निकाला जा सकता है कि फिल्टर हममें जन्मजात नहीं है।
• अतः विकल्प 3 सबसे उपयुक्त उत्तर विकल्प है।

The correct answer is Both A and B are ​incorrect.

Key Points

• Let's refer to the lines: That is why some people are obsessed with football, cricket or fashion while others could not care less for such things. This filter is built day by day by our actions, suggestions, teachings and influence of others. We can ultimately choose our own filter. So let us learn to build our filter wisely and strengthen it daily.
• Our actions, suggestions, teachings and other's influence but not reading decides the filter in our minds. It is no where mentioned that filter controls our likes or not.
• Thus, it is evident that a and b are incorrect.
• Hence, option 4 is the most appropriate choice.

Hinglish

• पंक्ति का संदर्भ लें: That is why some people are obsessed with football, cricket or fashion while others could not care less for such things. This filter is built day by day by our actions, suggestions, teachings and influence of others. We can ultimately choose our own filter. So let us learn to build our filter wisely and strengthen it daily.
• हमारे कार्यों, सुझावों, शिक्षाओं और दूसरों का प्रभाव लेकिन पढ़ना नहीं हमारे दिमाग में फिल्टर तय करता है। यह कहीं नहीं बताया गया है कि फ़िल्टर हमारी पसंद को नियंत्रित करता है या नहीं।
• इस प्रकार, यह स्पष्ट है कि a और b गलत है।
• अतः विकल्प 4 सबसे उपयुक्त विकल्प है।

The correct answer is clouds.

Key Points

• Look at the lines: However, all thoughts that pass through our mind do not affect us. But we get affected when our ego is hit.
• Upon the perusal of the above statement, it can be concluded that thoughts affect us when our ego i.e. pride is hurt.
• Hence, option 2 is the most appropriate choice.

Hinglish

• पंक्ति का संदर्भ लें: However, all thoughts that pass through our mind do not affect us. But we get affected when our ego is hit.
• उपरोक्त कथन के अवलोकन से यह निष्कर्ष निकाला जा सकता है कि जब हमारे अहंकार अर्थात अभिमान को ठेस पहुँचती है तो विचार हमें प्रभावित करते हैं।
• अतः विकल्प 2 सबसे उपयुक्त विकल्प है।