CTET Paper 2 Social Studies December 2019 (English-Hindi-Sanskrit) (Previous Year Paper)

Lawrence Kohlberg, an American psychologist, has propounded the Theory of Moral Development. Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral development wherein each level comprised of two stages as depicted in the table below:-

• During the pre-conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers, and they judge an action based on its consequences. i.e. individualism exchange or tit for tat stage.
• During the conventional level, an individual’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now because they believe that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order.
• During the post-conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated.

Therefore, it becomes clear that Noor's statements represent exchange orientation typical at the pre-conventional level.

Gender refers to the socially constructed differences between men and women. It refers to the masculine and feminine qualities, behaviour, roles, and responsibilities that society upholds. Gender can be changed / re-oriented.

Gender stereotype an oversimplified and unfair belief or idea that groups of people have particular characteristics or that all people in a group are the same.

• Gender stereotyping can limit the development of the natural talents and abilities of girls and boys, women and men, as well as their educational and professional experiences and life opportunities in general.
• It referred to beliefs about typified characteristics deemed appropriate for different sexes in society.
• Stereotypes about women both result from and are the cause of, deeply engrained attitudes, values, norms, and prejudices against women.
• They are used to justify and maintain the historical relations of power of men over women as well as sexist attitudes that hold back the advancement of women.

Therefore, the widely held beliefs about characteristics for different sexes in society are referred to as gender stereotypes.

Additional Information

• Gender discrimination describes the situation in which people are treated differently simply because they are male or female, rather than on the basis of their individual skills or capabilities.
• A gender role, also known as a sex role, is a social role encompassing a range of behaviors and attitudes that are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on that person's biological or perceived sex.
• Gender identity is the personal sense of one's own gender. Gender identity can correlate with a person's assigned sex at birth or can differ from it.

Gender refers to the socially constructed differences between men and women. It refers to the masculine and feminine qualities, behaviour, roles, and responsibilities that society upholds. Gender can be changed / re-oriented.

Gender Stereotyping refers to the relatively fixed and overgeneralized attitudes and behaviors that are considered normal and appropriate for a person in a particular culture based on his or her biological sex.

• Gender stereotyping can limit the development of the natural talents and abilities of girls and boys, women and men, as well as their educational and professional experiences and life opportunities in general.
• To eliminate the gender stereotyping, there have been conscious efforts to include stories in the curriculum where the father is involved in household works and the mother is doing adventure activities.
• Stereotypes about women both result from and are the cause of, deeply engrained attitudes, values, norms, and prejudices against women.

Strategies to Promote Gender Equity:

• Closing the gender gap in education at all levels
• Giving the equal opportunity to boys and girls in the classroom
• Teach both genders equally and ensure participation of both genders
• Assume that both genders have similar potential for developing physical and motor skills
• Build coalitions to advocate for gender equality in the planning stages

NOTE

• Gender bias is the tendency to prefer one gender over another. It is a form of unconscious bias, or implicit bias, which occurs when one individual unconsciously attributes certain attitudes and stereotypes to another person or group of people.
• Gender constancy refers to the theory that children develop a sense of gender over time and eventually come to understand that their biological sex is fixed and permanent.
• Gender discrimination describes the situation in which people are treated differently simply because they are male or female, rather than on the basis of their individual skills or capabilities.

Hence, the conscious efforts to include stories in the curriculum where the father is involved in household works and mother is doing adventure activities, is a move to eliminate gender stereotyping.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Learning:

• Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who believed that social interactions play a key role in development. According to him, learning occurs when children interact with people and the environment.
• He asserted that the cognitive development of children is enhanced through social interaction with other people, particularly those who are more skilled.
• He explains this with the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which refers to a range of tasks that a child can achieve only with assistance from a more skilled adult or peer called the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). Adult assistance is provided wherever necessary which is called Scaffolding.

Scaffolding is a teaching method that enables a student to solve a problem, carry out a task, or achieve a goal through a gradual shedding of outside assistance. Scaffolding literally means the structure which is made to support the work crew while a building is constructed or repaired.

• Scaffolding is when adults adjust the support to extend the child's current level of performance
• Scaffolding refers to a technique that provides the right kind of support in the right amount at the right time to increase a child’s competence.
• In other words, it isa means by which a child's 'zone width' (or potential for new learning) can be assessed, i.e. scaffolding helps with providing support to learners in their initial phase of learning, which is in the right amount and gradually decreases as the learner progresses.
• As children are given assistance or shown how to perform certain tasks, they use this information as a guide on how to perform these tasks and eventually learn to perform them independently.

NOTE:

• Discovery learning is a technique of inquiry-based learning and is considered a constructivist based approach to education. It can occur whenever the student is not provided with an exact answer but rather the materials in order to find the answer themselves.
• Inter-subjectivity is the process where two participants begin a task with a different understanding and arrive at a shared understanding. It is essential that participants work towards the same goal.

Hence, according to Vygotsky, when adults adjust the support to extend the child's current level of performance, it is called Scaffolding.

According to Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory:

• Cognitive development takes place at different rates at different stages of development.
• Cognition develops through the interaction between the child and the environment.​
• Piaget’s theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge but also on understanding the nature of the child’s intelligence.

Cognitive development is not a continuous process, it occurs in the following 4 stages:-

Stage 1: Sensorimotor Stage (Birth – 2 years)

• During this stage, babies up to 2 years learn through their senses. During this stage, they develop the motor function.
• They learn about their environment and who belongs to it. They also learn how to solve problems through trial and error.
• One of the primary lessons learned in the sensorimotor stage is object permanence. Object permanence is the concept that things do not vanish from existence if they are no longer in plain sight.

Stage 2: Preoperational Stage (2 – 7 years)  

• In this stage, children learn through symbolic learning.
• Symbolic learning is stimulated through language development and imitative or imaginative play. A child may give human characteristics to inanimate objects.
• During the preoperational stage, the child has egocentric thinking. This means that they lack the ability to see outside of their own perspective without being prompted by reward.
• The child also tends to not be able to understand that situations, actions, or issues can be altered or reversed.

Stage 3: Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11 years)

• In this stage, a child has begun to develop logic and concrete reasoning skills. Children in the concrete operational stage are able to quantify and organize.
• Their egocentric thinking diminishes. They are able to understand the perspective of another person.
• Children in the concrete stage are able to understand and relate to relational terms. Relational terms, like time, size, space, and distance, are more easily understood and conceptualized in this stage.

Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage (11 – 15 years )

• The formal operational stage is the final stage of Piaget’s theory of development. In this stage, a child develops the ability to utilize abstract thinking.
• They are able to consider different perspectives, opinions, and concepts to draw conclusions.
• Children in the formal operational stage are able to use abstract thought. They use abstract thought to solve problems. In the formal operational stage, a child’s skills are fine-tuned.
• This makes the following forms of thought easy to use for drawing conclusions and solving problems:
• Deductive logic
• Hypothetical situations
• Problem-solving through the organization of information
• Drawing conclusions from information, thoughts, and opinions
• The ability to create informed opinions

Therefore, according to Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, hypothetico-deductive reasoning develops during the formal operational stage.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Learning:

• Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who believed that social interactions play a key role in development. According to him, learning occurs when children interact with people and the environment.
• Vygotsky believed that it is important to understand the social processes and influence of the cultural context on children's thinking.
• Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral development of children, which he believed follows a series of stages. He defined three levels (pre-conventional level, conventional level, post-conventional level ) of moral development (each level has two distinct stages)
• Jean Piaget stressed that children actively construct their understanding of the world. The information does not simply enter their minds from the environment.
• Piaget believed that a child’s mind passes through a series of stages of thought from infancy to adolescence.
• In his theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget proposed that humans progress through four developmental stages: the Sensorimotor, Pre-operational, Concrete Operational, and Formal Operational period.
• Albert Bandura is known for his Social Learning Theory which emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.

Hence, according to Lev Vygotsky, It is important to understand the social processes and influence of the cultural context on children's thinking.

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development:

• Jean Piaget observed his children and their process of making sense of the world around them and developed a model of how the mind processes new information encountered.
• According to him, cognitive structures are the basic mental patterns people use to process any information.

Piaget explained that children progress through four stages. The Four Stages of Cognitive Development are as follows:-

Applying Jean Piaget’s Theory In the Classroom of grade 6-8​: It has the following steps to structure preoperational development.

• It has the following steps to structure preoperational development.
• Use concrete props and visual aids whenever possible.
• Present problems with students that require reasoning based solutions.
• Make instructions relatively short, using actions as well as words.
• Do not expect the students to consistently see the world from someone else’s point of view.
• Be sensitive to the possibility that students may have different meanings for the same word or different words for the same meaning. Students may also expect everyone to understand the words they have invented.
• Give children a great deal of hands-on practice with the skills that serve as building blocks for more complex skills like reading comprehension.
• Provide a wide range of experiences in order to build a foundation for concept learning and language.

 Hence, it becomes clear that drawing implication from Piaget's theory of cognitive development, a teacher of grade 6-8 in his classroom should present problems that require reasoning based solutions.

The theory of Multiple Intelligences was introduced in 1983 by Howard Gardner in his book 'Frames of Mind'.

• According to Howard Gardner, “Intelligence is a bio-psychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture”.
• The essence of Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (MI) is that each person has eight types of intelligence.

Key Points 

Howard Gardner formulated the following types of intelligence:

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence can be Understood Briefly by the Following Diagram:-

Hence, according to Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence, the sensitivity to and capacity to detect patterns, handle long chains of reasoning are the characteristics of a person with Logico-mathematical intelligence.

Socialization is a process by which an individual becomes a member of society through a mechanism of interaction. Its purpose is to prepare individuals for future roles. It is the process of learning how to become part of a culture. Through socialization, one learns the culture’s language, their role in life, and what is expected from them.

Key Points Aims of Socialization in Education:-

• To make new members of society familiar with social traditions, manners, customs, etc.
• To prepare the members of the society to adapt to the constantly changing environment.
• To preserve the traditions, values, and customs of a society.
• To develop habits, skills, values, and motives that make them responsible, productive members of society.
• To study the various types of social relationships and their impact on individual development.
• To control the teaching-learning process to achieve the personality development of every single child.

NOTE

• Inclusion in education refers to a model wherein students with special needs spend most or all of their time with non-special (general education) needs students
• Mainstreaming: Many students with special needs are placed into a self-contained classroom or multi-classroom program in which they learn alongside peers who have disabilities as well.
• Differentiated learning or, simply, Differentiation, is a framework or philosophy for effective teaching that involves providing all students within their diverse classroom community of learners a range of different avenues for understanding new information in terms of acquiring content; processing, constructing, or making sense of ideas; and developing teaching materials and assessment measures so that all students within a classroom can learn effectively, regardless of differences in ability.

Hence, the process by which children develop habits, skills, values, and motives that make them responsible, productive members of society is called socialization.

Heredity and environment are the elements that play a vital role in determining the personality development of an individual. How a person will develop depends on the environment but how far a person can develop depends on heredity. 

Each individual has a different pattern of behaviors and personality. This difference is seen due to the influence of heredity and environment.

• Heredity and environment play an important role in the development of the personality and other qualities in the individual.
• From the earliest moments of life, the interaction of heredity and the environment works to shape who children are and who they will become.
• While the genetic instructions a child inherits from his parents may set out a road map for development, the environment can impact how these directions are expressed, shaped or event silenced.
• In order to understand child development, it is important to look at the biological influences that help shape child development, how experiences interact with genetics and some of the genetic disorders that can have an impact on child psychology and development.
• The complex interaction of Heredity and the environment does not just occur at certain moments or at certain periods instead it is persistent and lifelong.

Hence, it becomes clear that heredity and environment both influence human development in a complex interplay.

John Dewey, an American philosopher has proposed the concept of 'Progressive Education' that emphasizes learning takes place through a hands-on approach so the students must interact with their environment to adapt and learn.

• The progressive education philosophy says that educators should teach children how to think rather than relying on rote memorization.
• It promotes co-operative learning, children gain socially and academically knowledge from co-operative learning endeavors.
• Progressive classroom is the best way for students to experience real-world situations.
• The process of learning by doing is at the heart of this style of teaching.
• The concept, known as experiential learning, uses hands-on projects that allow students to learn by actively engaging in activities that put their knowledge to use.
• A reaction to didactic approaches such as behaviorism and programmed instruction, constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge.
• A progressive teacher is an effective one when he is able to stimulate the students to initiate, plan, and carry out their projects on their own. He encourages students to communicate in solving problems as a group not only within the context of the lesson.
• Knowledge is constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses of the environment.
• For example, the workplace is a collaborative environment that requires teamwork, critical thinking, creativity, and the ability to work independently.
• Experiential learning, by helping students develop these skills, better prepares them for college and life as productive members of the workplace.

Therefore, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that in a progressive classroom, knowledge is constructed by the learner.

Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) refers to a system of school-based evaluation of students that covers all aspects of students' development.

• CCE was introduced by the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) in India to evaluate the student’s development in all aspects throughout the academic year on a continuous basis.
• The objective of CCE is to make evaluation an integral part of learning through diagnostic and remedial teaching.
• CCE helps in improving student’s performance by identifying his/her learning difficulties at regular time intervals right from the beginning of the academic session and employing suitable remedial measures for enhancing their learning performance.

CCE describes two different types of evaluations which include summative and formative assessment/evaluation.

• "Summative Evaluation", commonly known as  "Assessment of Learning" is a type of evaluation which:
• measures, certifies, and reports the level of students' learning by assessing them at the end of the term.
• produces an accurate description of students' potential and achievement to promote them to the next grades.
• "Formative evaluation", commonly known as "Assessment for Learning" is a type of evaluation which: 
• monitor the child's progress throughout the teaching-learning process and improves students' academic achievements.
• diagnoses and removes the learning difficulties of students with appropriate strategies.

Hence, it becomes clear that Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation includes both formative and summative assessments using a wide variety of strategies.

Stereotype threat is a phenomenon in which a person’s concern about confirming a negative stereotype can lead that person to underperform on a challenging assessment or test. It occurs when a person is worried about behaving in a way that confirms negative stereotypes about members of their group. It is socially premised psychological threat that arises when one is in a situation or doing something for which a negative stereotype.

• Foster a 'growth mindset' by conveying the idea that intelligence is not fixed, but can change and grow incrementally, with practice and “exercise.”
• Create a learning environment in which mistakes and missteps are valued as opportunities for learning.
• Encourage students to 'think out loud', to ask questions, to embrace difficult problems, and to take intellectual risks.
• Describing the situations of role models from different social groups in which their mistakes, missteps, and wrong turns have led to discovery and innovation.
• Hong and Lin-Seigler have found that learning about struggles faced by famous physicists increased students’ interest in science and problem-solving.

Therefore, to reduce the impact of stereotype threat, a teacher's initial step can be presenting stories and examples of role models from different social groups.

Inclusive education refers to the practice of educating students with special needs in regular classes for all. It provides a provision to include disabled children along with normal children in a regular classroom environment.

• An inclusive classroom refers to an education system that includes children regardless of physical, intellectual, social, linguistic, or other differently-abled conditions.
• An inclusive classroom is not limited to children with a disability but also gifted children, economically disadvantaged children, children from remote populations, children belonging to ethnic, linguistic, or cultural minorities or children from other marginalized groups.

Key Points

Role of Teacher in an Inclusive classroom:

• Inclusion requires teachers to accept the responsibility for creating schools in which all children can learn and feel they belong.
• The teacher should believe that every child has the potential to learn as per their abilities and strength.
• Labeling students as ‘handicapped child’ or ‘disabled child’ and paying attention to only gifted or talented children will create an environment of discrimination among students.
• The factor of secondary socialization (i.e. learning from friends and peer group) will also get severely affected, which will be an obstacle in achieving the full potential of the children.

Therefore, in an Inclusive classroom, a teacher’s most important role is to believe that every child has the potential to learn as per their abilities and strength.

Learning disability includes those skill deficits which are confined to scholastic performance in subjects like reading, writing, and arithmetic even though having average or above-average intelligence.

• Learning Disabilities are due to genetic and/or neurobiological factors that alter brain functioning in a manner that affects one or more cognitive processes related to learning.
• A learning disability is not a problem with intelligence or motivation.

Signs of Learning Disability:-

• Difficulty in recognizing words or letters
• Poor vocabulary skills
• Difficulty in writing letters
• Anxiety around reading
• Difficulty with understanding or remembering what was read
• Difficulty in calculations

Some other common learning disabilities in children:-

• Autism is a developmental disorder of variable severity that is characterized by difficulty in social interaction and communication and by restricted or repetitive patterns of thought and behavior.
• Creative student refers to abilities to solve problems or tasks in a creative way by means of generating many original ideas.
• Mental impairment is a mental or psychological disorder.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that all the given indications are related to a student with a learning disability.

Inclusive education refers to the practice of educating students with special needs in regular classes for all. It provides a provision to include disabled children along with normal children in a regular classroom environment.

Key Points

• The primary objective of inclusive education is to educate disabled students in the regular classroom and still meet their individual needs.
• Inclusive education allows children with special needs to receive a free and appropriate education along with non-disabled students in the regular classroom.
• Students with specific learning difficulties may require resource support for meeting their individual needs.
• This support can be provided in the form of developing specific learning objectives based on an analysis of each student's learning strengths and weaknesses during their class or after school hours or if possible, in another small room during school hours.
• The support can be provided on a one-to-one basis or in a small group.

Therefore, a teacher can address the needs of specially-abled learners in an inclusive classroom by developing specific learning objectives based on an analysis of each student's learning strengths and weaknesses.

The meaning of creativity is to think or do something differently. Creativity is considered as the ability to produce something original.

Key Points

• The creative learner has a highly developed problem-solving ability, a curious and impulsive nature, an ability to create original and imaginative ideas.
• Creative learning encourages diversity of ideas, opinions, and perspectives and helps to think laterally and approach problems from multiple perspectives.
• Flexibility and originality help to think differently/challenge the old assumption, try out new ways, create resources without many facilities, ponder over the mystery of things with an open mind.
• Teachers must develop in our students' creative thinking skills for successful adaptability to change and fulfilling social and moral responsibilities for the improvement of social situations.
• A teacher can encourage creative learners in her classroom by encouraging multiple perspectives and appreciating original ideas.

Convergent thinking refers to thinking that is required to solve problems that have only one correct answer. The mind converges to the correct solution.

Divergent thinking is open-ended thinking where the individual can think of different answers to the questions or problems in terms of her/his experiences. Such kind of thinking helps in producing novel and original ideas.

Hence, a teacher can encourage creative learners in her classroom by encouraging multiple perspectives and appreciating original ideas.

Meaningful learning is an active, constructive, and durable process. It implies understanding i.e a child must feel that the information is useful and not limit them to only memorizing it. It requires active learning techniques. It also implies linking new information to existing knowledge.

• Meaningful learning is a generative process of representing and manipulating concrete things and mental representations, rather than storage and retrieval of information.
• Showing genuine interest in the content matter and having concern for children's overall well-being and learning, supports meaningful learning.
• The most important measure of curriculum development is meaningful learning.
• Only if the child finds the activity or knowledge being learned meaningful, then only will its inclusion in the curriculum be justified.

 NOTE:

• Children find it difficult to cope with several tests and assignments that give them anxiety and the fear of others being judgmental about their performance.
• The lecture method is an age-old and widely used method of teaching that helps teachers to present logically organized facts and is a direct source of information.
• Lectures are especially useful for teaching large groups. However, the learners are passive as there is usually one-way communication and it is difficult to assess whether learners have actually learned.

Therefore the factor of Showing genuine interest in the content matter and having concern for children's overall well-being and learning supports meaningful learning in the classroom.

Problem-solving is a learner-centred approach that emphasizes learner's active involvement in the learning process. In this approach, teachers create a problematic situation for students and then assist them in perceiving, defining, and stating the problems in a fear-free classroom environment. 

An effective problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to find a solution. Different strategies have different action plans associated with them For example, a well-known strategy is the trial and error principle.

• In the means-ends analysis, it is possible to control the entire process of problem-solving. In the means-end analysis, a problem is solved by dividing the in into a number of sub-goals. It is an example of an effective problem-solving strategy.
• the problem solver begins by envisioning the end, our ultimate goal, and then determines the best strategy for attaining the goal in his current situation.
• It starts from a predetermined goal, in which actions are chosen that lead to that goal.
• Each action that is executed leads to the next action; everything is connected together in order to reach the end-goal.
• In the meantime, however, problems may arise. It is often hard to determine where exactly the crux is.
• With the help of Means-End Analysis, both forward and backward research can be done to determine where the stagnation is occurring. This enables the larger parts of a problem to be solved first, to subsequently return to the smaller problems afterward.

NOTE:

• The concept of functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a person to use an object only in the way it is traditionally used. Functional fixedness is the inability to realize that something known to have a particular use may also be used to perform other functions.
• A response set is a human tendency to answer questions in ways that are the most complimentary, or flattering, to the respondent rather than telling the absolute truth.

Hence, it becomes clear that means-end analysis is an effective problem-solving strategy.

Teaching effectively involves not only the use of tools, techniques, and strategies to optimize student learning but an understanding of context, in particular how your students learn, how they process information, what motivates them to learn more, and what impedes the learning process. There are different kinds of teaching-learning methods in a fashion which makes learning a fruitful process.

• Focusing on the reproduction of knowledge as given by the teacher is not an effective method since it is limiting the opportunities for active exploration and learning through the environment. Rather It is more focused on rote learning and memorization is not an effective strategy for teaching-learning.
• The experimentation and exploration are essential for teaching because it allows the practical activities to integrate teachers and students, to provide joint planning in which teacher and student construct the process of the activity), and the use of teaching techniques that can lead to a better understanding of the subject.
• Encouraging children to make intuitive guesses is an effective strategy for teaching-learning.
• A dialogue and discussion sparks engaged learning through an open exchange of perspectives that deepens students' understanding of an issue or topic.
• The dialogue process promotes analysis of course content and encourages reflection.

Hence, focusing on the reproduction of knowledge as given cannot be an effective strategy for teaching-learning.

For the non-attentiveness of the child, there can be various reasons such as the curriculum may be repetitive or boring, the class environment is not interactive and maybe the child is suffering from ADHD.

• Not paying attention is a mental disorder of the neurodevelopmental type.  It is also called attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
• It is characterized by problems of paying attention, excessive activity, or difficulty controlling behavior, all of which are not appropriate for the learner’s age**.**

To Address such Disadvantaged Learners Teachers Should:-

• Seat a child with ADHD away from windows
• Creating a distraction-free space
• Giving one instruction at a time
• Talk to them and find out the reasons for their disinterest
• Keeping instructions simple and structured
• Using audio-visual aids and charts while explaining

NOTE: Scolding them or asking them to go out or giving a lot of worksheets, won't solve the problem, rather it will burden the child.

Hence, talking to the child and finding out reasons for their disinterest can be an effective way of removing the non-attentiveness of the child.

The constructivist approach to learning suggests that people actively construct or make their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of the learner.

Constructionism seeks to understand how children and childhood knowledge is constructed, by whom, why, and most substantially what purpose it would serve.

• Constructivists believe that a learner's ability to learn relies to a large extent on what he already knows and understands, and the acquisition of knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction.
• It emphasizes the diversity of situations and circumstances in which childhood is experienced.
• Constructivists believe that prior knowledge impacts the learning process and it is crucial for constructing knowledge.
• Asking students what they already know about a topic and what puzzles them affords an opportunity to assess children's prior knowledge and the processes by which they will make sense of phenomena.
• Constructivist learning is based on the active participation of learners in problem-solving and critical thinking–given real and authentic problems.

NOTE:

• Conditioning in behavioral psychology is a theory that the reaction (response) to an object or event (stimulus) by a person or animal can be modified by 'learning', or conditioning. The most well-known form of this is Classical Conditioning, B.F. Skinner built on it to produce Operant Conditioning.
• Rote memory allows for the memorization of base information, but it doesn't put that information into any sort of context. The lack of context for complex subjects means that the student has not learned anything about what they are studying.

Hence, it becomes clear that the Constructivist approach suggested that prior knowledge of the learner is crucial for constructing knowledge.

It is assumed that young children actively construct naive theories about phenomena (such as birth, disease, death, and growth) that they encounter in their world.

• A naive theory (also referred to as commonsense theory or folk theory) is a coherent set of knowledge and beliefs about a specific content domain (such as physics or psychology), which entails ontological commitments, attention to domain‐specific causal principles, and appeal to unobservable entities.
• Conceptual change often takes the form of theory change and examples, because concepts are considered to be embedded in theories and their practical demonstration through examples and counter-evidence that help in clearing the misconceptions that arise in a child's mind, often regarded as 'naive theories'.
• Forming a theory of mind is critical in our ability to understand ourselves and others.
• So, it is important to clear each and every doubt raised in a child’s mind by giving a practical demonstration and building up permanent concepts.

NOTE: Scolding and dismissing or ignoring children’s ideas will completely discourage their active exploration and learning approach and that will hinder their all-around development.

Therefore, challenging the conceptions of the naive theories through dialogue will help in the proper construction of the knowledge in the child.

Emotion is a mental state associated with fear, anger, love, etc. Cognition is the process of acquiring knowledge through experiences and senses. 

Cognition describes how mental processes i.e. learning, remembering, problem-solving, and thinking develop from birth until adulthood. Understanding cognitive development is useful in determining the kind of thinking children are capable of at different age levels.

• The relationship between cognition and emotion has fascinated important thinkers within the intellectual tradition. Physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development in a child is the development of an integrated and holistic fashion.
• Cognition is closely intertwined with emotions and language. Mind states are a powerful determinants of one’s current judgments and decision making, that often effect once performance outcome in a task both in social and non-social context.
• Emotions or emotional approach is a psychological construct that involves the use of emotional processing and emotional expression in response to a different situation.
• The relationship between cognition and emotions is bi-directional - a dynamic interplay.
• Emotions are experienced as positive feelings, negative feelings, undesired reactions to any stressful situation, these often impact decision making i.e. cognition.
• The Emotional Approach involves the conscious use of emotional expression and processing to better deal with stressful situations.

Hence, the relationship between cognition and emotions is bi-directional i.e. a dynamic interplay between both cognition and emotions.

Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience. It represents progressive changes in behaviour. It also involves the acquisition of knowledge, habits, and attitude. The term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet environmental requirements.

It has been found out that the child’s difficulty in learning may be due to many factors within the child himself. These are-

• The Interest of the Student - The factor of interest is very closely related in nature to that of symbolic drive and reward.  A favorable mental attitude facilitates learning.
• The Emotional Health of the Student - Concentration needs emotional and mental poise and absence of mental conflict or complex. Some children find it difficult to prepare for the examinations, simply because of fear of the examination and anxiety neurosis. A calm, serene, and balanced mind has the power to concentrate and learn better.
• Pedagogical Strategies - The strategies or steps taken by the teacher to make the class environment interactive and that also engrave interest among students regarding the topic.
• The Social and Cultural Context of the Student -  Regardless of the differences, most students learn best when they live in a culture that values not just education but understanding the material well. So students should be encouraged to question and test concepts when they are learning and not on cultural backgrounds.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that all the given factors will affect learning.

Knowledge is not absorbed but rather constructed through a person’s experiences with his or her environment. This knowledge may be constructed individually or collaboratively is termed as the construction of knowledge.

Key Points

• Meaningful construction of knowledge is a collaborative process that aims to produce new understanding or knowledge which exceeds something that anyone alone could not achieve.
• It is also essential that knowledge construction is based on each others’ ideas and thoughts.
• The association of response to the stimulus or vice-versa in remembering either of the two with the help of the other.
• 'Lev Vygotsky', a Soviet psychologist, has propounded the "Socio-cultural Theory". This theory implies the idea that social interaction plays a crucial role in the learner's cognitive development.
• According to Vygotsky, social interaction is the primary cause of learners' development as his theory emphasizes that children learn through interaction and collaboration with skilled and knowledgeable people.

Hence, Social interaction is an important aspect of the process of meaningful construction of knowledge.

Additional Information

• Reinforcement is simply defined as an effect that increases the probability of a response. It is the process of giving reward and punishments to the children. It is, therefore, discussed in terms of observable or measurable events. We reward people, we reinforce the behaviour.
• In operant conditioning, infants act or operate, on the environment, and stimuli that follow their behavior change the probability that the behavior will occur again. A stimulus that increases the occurrence of a response is called a reinforcer. For example, sweet liquid reinforces the sucking response in newborns. Removing a desirable stimulus or presenting an unpleasant one to decrease the occurrence of a response is called punishment. A sour-tasting fluid punishes newborns’ sucking response. It causes them to purse their lips and stop sucking entirely.

The learning attitude of students determines how well they think, prioritize, choose a career, pursue your goal, perform in work, etc. Attitude can alter every aspect of a students’ life, including their education and attitude on learning and it determines their ability and willingness to learn.

• Learning is determined by the child’s level of consciousness, the results obtained by statistical analysis of the data show that there is a statistically significant interrelationship between attitude, performance, and other factors.
• Research has shown that when students repeatedly engage in an activity (designing, experimenting, etc.) to earn a reward (like a 'star' or 'badge') that is not directly related to that activity are likely to develop a materialistic attitude towards learning.
• The statistical analysis showed that students who have positive ways of thinking about learning and get involved in activities achieve higher academic performance than those who make minimal efforts in this regard.
• Students with good results believe that learning provides satisfaction, and just being a student is not enough to feel fulfilled. They are willing to take on additional tasks and condemn superficiality in school tasks.
• They set specific goals for learning, aiming at acquiring new knowledge and not just completing a routine activity and strive for excellent school performance.
• In addition to this, students with good performance consider learning a way towards personal development. This ensures their personal achievement and success in life.

Hence, it becomes clear that when students repeatedly engage in an activity to earn a reward that is not directly related to that activity, they are likely to develop a materialistic attitude towards learning.

Childhood is generally considered to be either a natural biological stage of development or a modern idea or invention. It is generally referred to as the pre-school or school period.

• Social Constructionism seeks to understand how children and childhood knowledge is constructed, by whom, why and most substantially what purpose it would serve.
• It emphasizes on the diversity of situations and circumstances in which childhood is experienced.
• According to contemporary socio-constructivist theorists, the concept of childhood is a social construction because it is a theory of knowledge in sociology and communication that evaluates the development of the child on the basis of assumptions of reality.
• Social constructivism is an approach that tells about importance of social interaction and context in learning. It approaches to learning that holds that people actively construct or make their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of the learner.
• Constructivism's central idea is that human learning is constructed, that learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This prior knowledge influences what new or modified knowledge an individual will construct from new learning experiences.
• A child-centred constructivist approach to early childhood education is applicable to various classroom scenarios.
• Children benefit from group problem-solving. By working together to find solutions, students experience cognitive growth.

Hence, it becomes clear that according to contemporary socio-constructivist theorists the concept of childhood is a social construction.

During middle childhood, the growth rate is slow but steady. The child's thinking develops rapidly and his/her store of information grows at a fast pace. They are better at recognizing emotions in others and empathizing with them. It is considered to be a transitional period between childhood and adulthood.

Key Points The Development of a Child is divided into Different Stages: 

Therefore, it becomes clear that during period of middle childhood children begin to think logically but concretely.

Socialization is the process where the child learns to associate and relate with others. It refers to the process which transforms a quite helpless human infant into a self-aware, knowledgeable person who is skilled in the ways of their society’s culture.

• Socialisation is also considered as the passing of culture from one generation to the next.
• Watching children play together provides valuable insight into how socialization affects child development, and during their formative years, children will acquire most of their social skills through group interactions with other children.

Primary Socialization: It happens during infancy and childhood. It refers to the process where the child becomes socialized through the family or neighbourhood in the early childhood years. 

• This highlights that the key agent in the process of primary socialization is the family.
• For example, a very young child in a family has little knowledge of his culture. He is unaware of the values, social norms, practices, etc. It is through the family that the child gets to know what is accepted and what is not in a particular society.
• Two specific processes are conducted by the family when speaking of primary socialization. They are-
• Internalization of the society’s culture
• Structuring of the personality

Secondary Socialization: It occurs once the infant passes into the childhood phase and continues into maturity. It refers to the process that begins in the later years through agencies such as education and peer groups. 

• During this phase more than the family, some other agents of socialisation like the school and friends’ group begin to play a role in socialising the child.
• Friends and peer groups are some examples for secondary social agents.

 Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that family and neighbourhood are primary socializing agencies.

A mountain is any natural elevation of the earth's surface.

• Mountains are formed by enormous movements upon the earth's crust.
• These gigantic movements fold and break the crust into many layers and sometimes these movements raise the crust in the upward direction (dome-shaped).
• As a result, the changes in crust give rise to different types of mountains.

Important Points

Types of Mountains:

• Fold mountains:
• Young fold mountains (Himalayas)
• Old fold mountains (Appalachians, Ural)
• Block mountains or Fault mountains  (Vosges)
• Volcanic mountains:
• Plateaus
• Intermontane Plateau
• Piedmont Plateau
• Dissected Plateau
• Volcanic Plateau

Key Points

Block Mountains (Fault mountains):

• Block mountains are also known as fault mountains. These mountains are formed due to natural faults (break up of bedrock) in the earth crust as a result of being extended and stretched by the tensile forces.
• Block mountains are created by widely breaking up in a large area of bedrock which displaced the earth's crust vertically. These vertical displacements result in tilting the earth's crust and lead to high slopes.
• These mountains have massive structure, steep slopes and smooth topography.
• The Sierra Nevada Mountains (North  America), Harz Mountains (Germany), Vosges  Mountain (Rhine Valley).

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that Vosges mountains are block mountains.

Additional Information

Himalayas: 

• The Himalayas are known as young fold mountains. These were formed during the past 10-25 million years ago.
• These mountains are characterized by faulting, volcanic activities, erosion, and weathering caused by running water,  ice, winds, etc.
• They have deeper and steeper slopes with glacier-capped high peaks.

Appalachians

• The Appalachians are the old fold mountains. These were formed over 240 million years ago.
• The Urals in Russia and the Appalachians in North America and Aravallis in India are a few examples of old fold mountains.

The Moon is the natural satellite of the Earth. The Moon is the second brightest object in the sky after the Sun.

Key Points

• We can see only one side of the Moon from the Earth because the Moon rotates on its axis at the same rate that the Moon orbits the Earth. Also, the moon rotates on its axis at the same time that it takes to orbit the Earth i.e. approximately 27 days. So, Statement A is correct.
• The above-mentioned situation is known as tidal locking which slows the moon's rotation to the point where it always keeps the same side towards Earth. Thus it allows only one side of the moon's surface to be viewed from the Earth.
• The Moon orbits Earth once every 27.3 days and spins on its axis once every 27.3 days.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that it reveals that both statements (A) and (B) are true and (B) is the correct explanation of (A).

The correct answer is A, B, C all are correct.

Important Points

There are three types of rocks which include igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

• Igneous Rock: It forms when magma cools and crystallizes, either at volcanoes on the surface of the Earth or while the melted rock. For example, granite, pegmatite, etc.
• Sedimentary Rock: It forms from the deposition of materials and solidification of sediment. For example, shale, sandstone, etc.
• Metamorphic Rock: It forms when igneous and sedimentary rocks are changed because of heat and pressure. For example, marble, gneiss, etc.
• Metamorphic rocks melt to form molten magma when subjected to great heat and pressure.
• When igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure they change to metamorphic rocks.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that all the given statements are correct.

​

Additional Information

Note: Actually, there exists a rock cycle that again melts metamorphic rocks into magma through heat and pressure and forms igneous rocks.

Refer to the image for further information:-

The Earth's atmosphere is like a blanket of air and consists of different gases like Nitrogen-78 %, Oxygen-21 %, Argon-0.93 %, Carbon dioxide-0.04 %.

Important Points

Earth's atmosphere is composed of six layers and the mesosphere is one such layer-

• Mesosphere: This layer lies above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere and extends from 50 to 80 km above the earth's surface.
• It is the middle layer of the atmosphere. Because of thin air, you would not breathe easily in this layer.
• Most of the meteors and rock are burned up in these layers before reaching the earth.
• This layer has more gases than the above layers i.e. exosphere and thermosphere which causes more friction and heat to burn up meteors.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that on entering the Mesosphere layer of the atmosphere from space do the meteorites burn up.

Additional Information

Other layers are as follows: 

• Troposphere: The troposphere is the innermost layer of the earth's atmosphere.
• Mixing up of gases and changing weather occurs in this layer.
• This layer is dense and closest to the earth's surface and 10 - 15 km above the surface.
• This layer consists of dense air, water vapour, the formation of clouds, all-weather phenomena take place in this layer.
• Thus, this layer contains about  80% of the total mass of the atmosphere.
• Stratosphere: This layer lies above the troposphere and below the mesosphere.
• The Earth's ozone layer is found in this layer.
• This ozone layer is located between 15 to 50 km above the surface.
• This layer absorbs the ultraviolet rays from the sun and gives protection to the earth from its harmful effects.
• Ionosphere: The Ionosphere is a highly active layer of the atmosphere as it shrinks or expands continuously depending upon the amount of energy absorbed.
• The sun radiation causes gases to form ions having an electric charge.
• This layer helps in propagating radio signals and sending them back to earth.
• Thermosphere: The thermosphere is located in between the exosphere and mesosphere.
• 'Thermos' means heat, this layer contains the most heat and this layer can produce the heat up to 4,500 degrees Fahrenheit.
• This layer is the most thicker than all inner layers of the atmosphere.
• Exosphere: This is the outermost and thinner layer of earth atmosphere.
• It has a low atmospheric pressure and gas molecules are at wide spaces.
• It is composed of lighter gases like helium, argon, hydrogen.

Transhumance is a type of pastoralism or nomadism, a seasonal movement of livestock between fixed summer and winter pastures.

• In montane regions, it implies movement between higher pastures in summer and lower valleys in winter.
• Herders have a permanent home, typically in valleys.

Key Points

• Transhumance developed on every inhabited continent. Although there are substantial cultural and technological variations, the underlying practices for taking advantage of remote seasonal pastures are similar.
• Transhumance is a "form of pastoralism or nomadism". Nomadic forms of pastoralism are divided into five groups as follows: "pure pastoral nomadism", "semi-nomadic pastoralism", "semi-sedentary pastoralism", "distant-pastures husbandry" and "seasonal transhumance".
• Generally, only the herds travel, with a certain number of people necessary to tend them, while the main population stays at the base. In contrast, horizontal transhumance is more susceptible to being disrupted by climatic, economic, or political change.
• Traditional or fixed transhumance has occurred throughout the inhabited world, particularly Europe and western Asia. It is often important to pastoralist societies, as the dairy products of transhumance flocks and herds (milk, butter, yoghurt, and cheese) may form much of the diet of such populations.

Hence, we can say that the term transhumance refers to the Seasonal movement of people.

There are three kinds of winds including permanent, seasonal, and local winds.

Permanent Winds:

• These are the winds that blow continuously for the entire year in a specific direction.
• Permanent winds blow extensively over continents and oceans.
• Some important examples of Permanent wind are Westerlies, Easterlies, and Trade winds.
• Westerlies winds: Flow from the west to east.
• Easterlies winds: Flow from the east to west.
• Trade winds: Flow from the east to west.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that all the given statements are correct.

Seasonal Winds: These are movements of air repetitively and predictably driven by changes in patterns. Seasonal winds occur in many locations throughout the world.

Local Winds: Local winds are winds that cover smaller vicinity than global winds and usually possess some sort of peculiarity such as a higher pressure distribution than the global winds in the area.

Grassland refers to the large open areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses. There are two main types of grasslands which include tropical and temperate grasslands.

Key Points

• Tropical Grasslands:
• These are the grasslands that are located in the tropical zones and in the interior part of the continents.
• 'Campos' in Brazil and 'Llanos' in Venezuela are examples of tropical grasslands.
• Campas in Brazil is also called Savanna grasslands.
• These are rich in plant species and are more diverse than forest ecosystems.
• Savanna grasslands lie between 24°S and 35°S, which includes Uruguay and parts of Paraguay, Brazil, and Argentina.
• In these regions, the climate is subtropical and humid and the rainfall is distributed regularly all over the year.
• Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that Compos in Brazil and Llanos in Venezuela are examples of Tropical grasslands.

Additional Information

• Temperate Grasslands:
• These are the grasslands that are located in the temperate zone and in the interior part of the continent.
• 'Downs' in Australia, and 'Steppes' in Europe are examples of temperate grasslands.
• The temperate grasslands of North America are called Prairies.
• The Temperate grasslands in South America are known as Pampas.
• Tundra: Tundra is a type of biome where tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons.
• Mediterranean regions occur between approximately 30° to 40° north and south latitudes on the west sides of continents.

The correct answer is option 4.

Key Points

• Weather is the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time. While Climate is the average course of weather conditions for a particular location over a period of many years.

Characteristics of climate:

• Climate refers to the general weather conditions of a place over a long period.
• The climate of a place takes hundreds, thousands, and even millions of years to change.
• The climate of a place is affected by its latitude, ocean currents, elevation, relief, prevailing winds, etc.
• Climate information includes statistical weather information that tells us about the normal weather, as well as the range of weather extremes for a location.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that both the given statements (A) and (B) are false about climate.

Weather:

• Weather is the day-to-day state of the atmosphere and its short-term variation in minutes to weeks.
• Weather is generally considered as the combination of temperature, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, visibility, and wind.

A source from which useful energy can be extracted or recovered either directly or by means of a conversion or transformation process (e.g. solid fuels, liquid fuels, solar energy, biomass, etc.) is known as a source of energy.

Here 'natural gas' can be identified from the given features. Let's understand in brief:

• Natural gas is a 'conventional' or 'non-renewable' source of energy as it is present in a limited quantity and if once exhausted, can't be reused again.
• Natural gas is a source of energy that is released when crude oil is brought to the surface.
• It is a colorless highly flammable gaseous hydrocarbon consisting primarily of methane and ethane.
• Natural gas is used for electricity generation, heating, and cooking and as a fuel for certain vehicles.
• Natural gas and oil are often found together in the same reservoir that's why natural gas is released when crude oil is brought to the surface. This natural gas is called associated natural gas.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that both the given statements are related to natural gas. 

• Nonconventional and renewable source of energy is constantly refilled by a natural process that's why can be used again and again.
• Biogas is produced under anaerobic conditions. The process is denominated anaerobic digestion. The major constituent of biogas is methane, CO_2, and some traces of gases such as H₂S and ammonia.

India is a signatory to the Antarctic Treaty and to the Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty on Environmental Protection and has two research stations in Antarctica: Bharati (commissioned in 2012) and Maitri (since 1988).

Maitri Research Station:

• India's second research station 'Maitri' is located in 'Antarctica'.
• It was built and finished in 1989, shortly before the first station Dakshin Gangotri was buried in ice and abandoned in 1990–91.
• Maitri Research Station is in the rocky mountainous region of Antarctica, called Schirmacher Oasis.
• It is equipped with modern technology and facilities which are used to research in various fields such as earth science, meteorology, glaciology, etc.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that India's research station 'Maitri' is located in Antarctica.

Important Points

• India's first research station 'Dakshin Gangotri' (in Antarctica) is currently used as a supply base and transit camp.
• India's new and third research station 'Bharati' was also established in 'Antarctica' in 2013.

Mineral, naturally occurring solid with definite chemical composition and a highly ordered atomic arrangement. A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been formed as a result of geological processes.

• Minerals are naturally occurring substances.
• All minerals are not non-metallic. Some minerals have metal properties.
• All minerals have unique and definite chemical compositions.
• They are formed in different types of geological environments.
• It has crystalline and shiny forms of structure Like table salt, Gold, etc.
• Some minerals are hard in a structure like a diamond.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that all minerals are not non-metallic.

Types of Minerals: The mineral is of two types:

Early people started settling at the river banks. Agriculture was their main occupation.

Key Points

Let's understand in brief:-

Hence, the correct answer is (3) a-ii, b-i, c-v, d-iii, e-iv

There are many major religions of the world like Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, and Judaism, etc. are different in many respects, including how each religion is organized and the belief system each upholds.

Key Points

Periodization is a process of categorizing the past into a distinct block of times to facilitate the effective study of history. 

• The Periodisation like 'Hindu - Muslim - British' is inappropriate because the religion of the rulers has not been the only important historical change but there were also social, economic, and cultural changes.
• The assigning of the precise date and time spans to historical processes is problematic because economic and social changes keep taking place, hence precise date and time can't be assigned easily.

Hence, the correct answer is (4) A) is wrong, but B) is right.

The modern Indian art movement in Indian painting is considered to have begun in Calcutta in the late nineteenth century. The old traditions of painting had more or less died out in Bengal and new schools of art were started by the British.

The given statements are related to Kalighat artists. They used to produce paintings on social and political themes.

• Often the Kalighat artists mocked the changes they saw around, adopted Western habits, dressed like sahibs, smoked cigarettes, Westernized baboo, criticized the corrupt priest, and warned against women moving out of their homes.
• The religious paintings of Kalighat artists were used to express nationalist ideas and inspire people against British rule.
• Their paintings mainly depict social life under British rule and the anger of common people against the rich.
• In the nineteenth century, new to the art scene was photography.

Hence, the correct answer is (2) Both A) and B) are correct but B) is not the correct interpretation of A)

In the history of art, prehistoric art is all art produced in preliterate, prehistorical cultures. The earliest human artifacts showing evidence of workmanship with an artistic purpose.

Key Points

The study of human origins has become an intense scientific discipline at a global level, resulting in numerous discoveries as well as debates.

• Rock paintings of Madhya Pradesh may be considered a primary source for understanding early humans in India.
• An archaeological excavation carried out in the trenches upper Son river valley in central India has found evidence of human occupation in this area almost 80,000 years ago.
• Primary sources refer to the sources which are experienced by the creator and rock paintings refers to the carving on natural rocks which is used to:
• know the lives of the people who created them.
• study the culture, rituals, and lives of the ancient community.
• reflect creativity, emotions, kindliness, and imagination of early people.

​​Hence, the correct answer is (4) Rock paintings of Madhya Pradesh. 

Additional Information

• Kangra style painting is one of the schools of Pahari paintings along with Guler, Basholi, Mandi, Chamba, and Bilaspur.
• Girnar Rock inscription is a Sanskrit prose inscribed on a rock by the Indian Satraps. It is located near Girnar hill near Junagadh, in Gujarat state.
• Padshahnama painting is a group of works written as the official history of the reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. Unillustrated texts are known as Shahjahannama, with Padshahnama used for the illustrated manuscript versions.

Cultural and traditional education was started from the beginning of human civilization.

Key Points

• Education in ancient India was influenced by religion.
• Education aimed at many-sided development of the personality of the student of course with a religious orientation.
• Children in pre-British times were taught throughout the year except for harvest time when they worked in the fields as the classes remain closed during harvest season.
• The classes used to start once again when the crops had been ripped and stored.
• This arrangement was made so that even children of peasant families could study and learn.

Hence, the correct answer is (3) Throughout the year except for harvest time when they worked in the fields.

Nation-states refer to the states where the majority of people share a collective identity and a common culture.

Key Points

A nation, in the sense of common ethnicity, may include a diaspora or refugees who live outside the nation-state, some nations of this sense do not have a state where that ethnicity predominates.

• Till the 18^th century, people in Europe didn't see themselves as nation-states. Even they used to speak different languages and belonged to different ethnic groups.
• In the early 19^th century nation-states emerged in Europe in the place of multi-national dynastic empires of Europe and they started to share common culture and languages.
• A consciousness was created in the early 19^th century among the people that each linguistic community was a separate nation.
• The modern, integrated nation-state became clearly established in most of Europe during the nineteenth century.
• Europe witnessed common patterns but these developments must be assessed in terms of nation-state divisions and, even more, of larger regional differences.

Hence, the correct answer is (4) A) is wrong, but B) is correct.

The idea of counting years has been around for as long as we have written records, but the idea of syncing up where everyone starts counting is relatively new. 

Key Points

The international standard is to designate years based on a traditional reckoning of the year Jesus was born.

• BCE stands for 'Before Common Era'.
• It is a modern way to indicate if a year is before or after year 1.
• Before Common Era is used in many countries and in a number of fields like science, academics, etc.

​Hence, the correct answer is (2) Before Common Era.

Additional Information

• AD stands for Anno Domini, Latin for “in the year of the Lord”
• BC stands for Before Christ.

Palaeolithic is the earliest period. This comes from two Greek words, ‘palaeo’, meaning old, and ‘lithos’, meaning stone.

Key Points

Ostrich, the flightless bird native to Africa, inhabited India about 25,000 years ago. 

• Though it is native to Africa, several geologists and archaeologists have over time found ostrich eggshell pieces in India, mostly in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh.
• Ostriches were found in India during the Palaeolithic period as large quantities of ostrich eggshells were found at Patne in Maharashtra.
• Designs were engraved on some pieces of eggs and these were used to made beads.
• In Patne, There is evidence of the Stone Age inhabitants of Patne through archaeological finds including ostrich eggshells, some tools, etc.

​Hence, the correct answer is (2) Large quantities of ostrich eggshells were found at Patne in Maharashtra.

​

Additional Information

• Palaeolithic:
• It is the earliest Stone age period dating 2.6 million years ago.
• The age is distinguished by most primitive stone tools. Humans during the era grouped together in small “bands” and were involved in gathering plants, fishing, and hunting.
• The paleolithic period is the longest in human history.
• The age can be divided into lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic, and Upper Paleolithic.
• During the end of the age, people developed spiritual and religious beliefs as depicted in some of the excavations.
• Mesolithic:
• The start and end of the age vary by geographical region. It is a transition period from hunting and gathering as in Paleolithic to domestication as in Neolithic.
• The tools used were the mode V chipped stone tools (microliths).​
• Neolithic:
• It is the 3^rd period of the stone age and is often referred to as the “New stone age”.
• Its time period is considered to be around 10,200 BC to 4,500BC, which ended with the beginning of the “Bronze Age”.
• Megalithic:
• ​It is a small tool made up of flint or chert, used to form the points of hunting weapons.

The Harappan Civilization is dated between 2600 and 1900 BC.

Key Points

• There were earlier and later cultures, known as Early Harappan and Later Harappan.
• The Harappan period characterized by seals, beads, weights, stone blades, and baked bricks is called the Mature Harappan culture.
• The Reasons for the Ending of Harappan Civilization:
• deforestation in the area
• climate change
• drying up of nearby rivers
• rulers lost control
• flood
• invasion of Aryans
• overuse of landscape

Hence, the correct answer is All of the above.

Resource: https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/fess103.pdf

Buddhism is an Indian religion based on a series of original teachings attributed to Gautama Buddha. It originated in ancient India as a Sramana tradition sometime between the 6^th and 4^th centuries BCE, spreading through much of Asia.

Key Points

• Mahayana Buddhism can be defined as a major movement in the history of Buddhism which has its origins in northern India.  Around 1900 years ago a new form of Buddhism, called 'Mahayana Buddhism' developed.
• Mahayana uses Sanskrit as its main language, and monastic and lay followers work for the liberation of all sentient beings, making compassion and insight its central doctrines.
• In this modern form of Buddhism, the statues of Buddha were started made in Mathura and Taxila.
• Bodhisattvas were accepted as the persons who had attained enlightenment.
• It was supposed that after attaining enlightenment Bodhisattvas can live in isolation.

Note: Before the formation of Mahayana Buddhism Buddha's presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs.

Hence, the correct answer is (2) Statues of Buddha were made.

Khalji and Tughlaq were the Muslim dynasties of the Indian subcontinent. 

Key Points

Administration and Consolidation under the Khaljis and the Tughlaqs:

• The Khaljis or Khilji dynasty, founded by Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khalji ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent between 1290 and 1320.
• The use of slaves by the Delhi Sultans was criticized by the elite in the kingdom.
• Unity in the vast kingdom of the sultanate depended on reliable administrators and governors.
• To keep a check on them, they were assigned 'iqtas' only for periods of time, and accountants were appointed to check the revenues they collected.
• It was difficult to control distant provinces like Bengal from Delhi.
• Sultanate forces could not penetrate the forested areas of Gangetic plain.
• Large parts of the subcontinent remained outside the control of the Delhi Sultans.
• Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughlaq forced their control in the Gangetic plain in the context of administration and consolidation under the Khaljis and Tughlaqs.

​Hence, the correct answer is (3) It was difficult to control distant provinces like Bengal from Delhi.

A Tribe is a social division in a traditional society consisting of families linked by social, economic, religion, with a common culture. Tribes are also known by the name ‘Adivasis’ in India. 

Key Points

A tribe possesses certain qualities and characteristics that make it a unique cultural, social, and political entity:

• The Constitution of India has recognized tribal communities in India under ‘Schedule 5’ of the constitution.
• Hence the tribes recognized by the Constitution are known as ‘ Scheduled Tribes’.
• Contemporary historians and travelers give scanty information about tribes.
• Tribal people preserved rich customs and oral traditions.
• In the Indian subcontinent, the societies that didn't follow the social rules and rituals prescribed by the Brahmanas, are called tribes.
• Tribal societies depended on each other for their diverse needs.
• A few exceptions apart, tribal people didn't keep written records.

Hence, the correct answer is (2) Most tribal groups kept written records.

Revolt of 1857: The main reason for this was the ruthless exploitation of the Indian people by the British. The British rule which was formally established after the Battle of Plassey in 1757 in Bengal, strove to fill the coffers of the East India Company at the expense of the Indians.

Key Points

After the revolt of 1857, the British passed new laws and policies for convicted the rebels and consolidate their control over the country.

• The British regained their control in 1859.
• To ensure responsible management of affairs, the British transferred the powers to the East India company. So that they could easily rule over India.
• They decided to recruit most of the army personnel (soldiers) from Gurkhas, Sikhs, and Pathans.
• They reduced the proportion of Indian soldiers and increased the number of European soldiers in the army, so there would be no chances to make people rebel.
• Policies are also made to protect the property rights of landlords and zamindars.
• The Britishers had a suspicious eye for Muslims and they confiscated their properties.

Hence, the correct answer is (1) By transfer of powers of the East India Company to the British crown for more responsible management of Indian affairs.

Representative democracy is a type of democracy in which all eligible citizens vote to elect officials to represent them. It founded on the principle of elected officials representing a group of people, as opposed to direct democracy.

Key Points

Features of Representative Democracy:

• Franchise rights to people.
• Existence of political parties.
• Free, fair, and regular elections.
• Representatives are chosen through elections.
• Decisions reached on the basis of the majority.
• Decision-making in the hands of the representatives.

​Note: Direct participation of people in decision-making is not a feature of Representative Democracy as people delegate powers to their representatives to make decisions on their behalf.

Hence, the correct answer is (3) Direct participation of people in decision making.

Tibet is a region in East Asia covering much of the Tibetan Plateau. Tibet is located in the southwest of China, also bordering India, Nepal, Myanmar (Burma), and Bhutan. 

Key Points

The historical territory of Tibet would make it the world's 10^th largest nation by geographical area:

• Ladakh is that particular region in India which is known as 'Little Tibet' because the Tibetan culture is dominant in this region.
• Ladakh is a primary Buddhist district as it has many famous monasteries like Alchi, Hemis, etc which display common architectural designs of Tibetan construction.
• Ladakh is called "Little Tibet" as it has been strongly influenced by Tibetan culture.
• Historically, Ladakh was a Buddhist kingdom that included Baltistan and Aksai Chin which are now administered by Pakistan and China respectively.
• Ladakh is the highest plateau of the Indian state of Kashmir with much of it being over 3,000 m (9,800 ft).
• It spans the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges and the upper Indus River valley.

Hence, the correct answer is (1) Ladakh.

Appellate Courts are the part of the judicial system that is responsible for hearing appeals that have already been heard in a trial level or other lower court.

Key Points

• Appellate courts are present at the state and federal levels.
• These courts do not include a jury.
• In India, the appellate system provides people with the provision for appeal to a higher court against the decision of a lower court.
• It is a part of the judicial system which reviews the appeals of legal cases that have already been heard in lower courts.
• For example, Challenging the judgment of the lower court in the High court or Supreme court.
• In the Trial Courts, the lawyers present evidence and legal arguments to persuade the jury in a jury trial or the judge in a bench trial.
• In Appellate Courts, the lawyers simply argue legal and policy issues before the judge or a group of judges.

​Hence, the correct answer is (4) Provision for an appeal to a higher court against the decision of a lower court.

The Peninsular Plateau is one of the oldest landforms of earth. The peninsular plateau is triangular in shape with highly uneven relief. It was formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land and thus, making it a part of the oldest landmass. 

Features of Peninsular Plateau:

• It lies to the South of the Northern plains.
• It is rich in minerals like coal and iron ore.
• it is bordered on the northwest side by the Aravali Hills.
• It has two important ranges named 'Vindhyas' and 'Satpuras'.
• Rivers Narmada and Tapi are some of the west-flowing rivers in the plateau.
• Rivers Mahanadi and Krishna are some of the east-flowing rivers in the plateau.
• It is bordered on the west side by 'Western Ghats' or 'Sahyadris'.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that Mahanadi and Krishna's rivers are not some of the west-flowing rivers of Peninsular Plateau.

So, option 4 is the correct answeer.

Africa is the second-largest continent that lies in the south of Europe and southwest of Asia and surrounded by the Mediterranean sea, red sea, Indian ocean, and Atlantic ocean. 

• Africa's continent covers deserts like the Sahara desert, the Namib desert, and the Kalahari desert.

• The Sahara desert is the largest hot desert in the world. It has the longest river in the world named the Nile.

• The Savanna is a grassy plain found in this continent which covers nearly half of Africa. The savanna has scattered trees among a landscape of grasses and shrubs.

• It is the only continent through which the Tropic of Cancer, Equator, and Tropic of Capricorn pass. This is the reason it experiences a sunny climate.

• Two-thirds part of Africa lies in the northern hemisphere and one-third part lies in the southern hemisphere.

• ​Gobi desert is located in the region of central Asia. It lies in the north of China and south of Mongolia.

• The European continent is separated from Asia by the Ural mountains on the west.

• The combined landmass of continental Europe and Asia in the northern part of the earth is known as Eurasia.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that Africa is the only continent through which the Tropic of Cancer, Equator, and Tropic of Capricorn pass.

So, option 2 is the correct answer.

The climate of India is described by the tropical monsoon. India hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from desert in the west, to alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, to humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories.

Rainfall during the post-monsoon season:

• The southern parts of India particularly Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa coast receive rainfall in Autumn because the winds move back from the mainland to the Bay of Bengal.
• That is why these regions experience monsoons in the Autumn season.
• Most of the tropical cyclones are originated from the Bay of Bengal and the Indian ocean.
• These cyclones cause heavy rainfall and thunderstorm and hit Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and the Orissa coast.
• When the wind blows from the Arabian sea to the Bay of Bengal towards the land, it carries moisture with them and the south-west part experiences the monsoons.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh receive rainfall in Autumn because winds move back from the mainland to the Bay of Bengal.

So, option 1 is the correct answer.

Costa Rica is a country in Central America bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the south, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and the Caribbean Sea to the east.

• Costa Rica is generally regarded as having the most stable and most democratic government.
• It has one of the highest literacy rates in the Western Hemisphere and a solid educational system.
• Costa Rica is considered to be one of the healthiest countries on the continent.
• The Costa Rican approach in the area of public health refers to the state of not having an army to maintain to be able to spend more on public health.
• Actually, Costa Rica is a North American country that gives priority to the health of its people.
• It saves money by not possessing any army and uses this money on the health of the people.
• The Costa Rican government believes that a country has to be healthy for its development and they give attention to the health of its people.

Hence, the correct answer is (3) Not having an army to maintain to be able to spend more on public health.

The supreme court is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts in many legal jurisdictions. Other descriptions for such courts include court of last resort, apex court, and high court of appeal.

Key Points

Supreme Court in India:

• The Supreme Court in India was established under the Regulating Court, 1773.
• The Regulating Act of 1773 established a Supreme Court at Fort William, Calcutta.
• In 1997, the Supreme Court in India formulated the Vishakha guidelines to protect women from sexual harassment at workplaces.
• The Supreme court made it mandatory for all institutions to follow the Vishaka guidelines across the country.
• So that country takes some measures to redress these harassments at workplaces.
• The Vishakha guidelines gave rise to the foundation to redress the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act, 2013.
• Eve-teasing at public or private places is criminal and made punishable under the Indian Penal Code (IPC).
• In the Marital relationship, Indian law has made some acts to empower women including domestic violence and dowery cases.
• Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005.

​Hence, from the above, it is clear that in 1997, the Supreme Court in India formulated the Vishakha guidelines to protect women from sexual harassment at workplaces.

The Governors of the states of India have similar powers and functions at the state level as those of the President of India at the Union level.

Key Points

The Governor of the State in India:

• The governor of State is appointed by the President of India by warrant under his hand and seal for a term of five years, Governor is selected or nominated by the ruling central government.
• No bills in the state can pass unless they are signed by him.
• The Attorney-general is also appointed by the President of India and holds office during the pleasure of the President.
• The Attorney-general acts as a legal advisor of the government.
• Members of Parliament are the elected or nominated (by the President of India) members of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
• Lok Sabha members are directly elected by the Indian public while Rajya Sabha members are elected by members of all State Legislative Assembly.
• Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) are the elected or nominated (by the governor of State) members of Vidhan Sabha.
• MLA of Vidhan Sabha is directly elected by the Indian public who acts as representative for their respected constituency.

Hence, the correct answer is (3) Central Government.

The integrated management of the rural areas with several divisions and authorities is known as rural administration. 

Key Points

Municipal Ward Councillor:

• The municipal ward councilor is an urban administration officer which is elected by representatives of the municipal area and each representing the specific ward.
• Maintenance of Land Records is their function in which assessment of the land and record keeping is the primary job.
• Ward councilors receive complaints from the public and advice the public on how to resolve their issues.

​Hence, the correct answer is (2) Municipal ward councilor.

Additional Information

Types of Rural Administration Officer:

• Lekhpal is a rural administration officer who handles village accounts. Maintaining and recording various village accounts like revenue account and village land records are done by Lekhpal.
• Patwaris are the officers who maintain the ownership of the transfer, sale, and purchase of land in villages. He is also responsible for the collection of land taxes. The Patwari system was initially introduced by Sher Shah Suri.
• The land record officer is responsible for collecting the land revenue from the village. They are known by various names in different parts of the country.
• Tehsildar or Talukdar are also known as revenue office who looks upon the work of Patwari. The head of those areas is respectively known as Tehsildar or Talukdar.
• District Collector is the head of a district in a state who supervises the overall functioning of the district. The Tehsildar works under the supervision of the District Collector.

The Supreme Court of India is the supreme judicial body of India and the highest court of India under the constitution.

Key Points

D. K. Basu Guidelines: 

• Guidelines related to the procedures to be followed by police for arrest, detention, and interrogation laid down by the Supreme court in D.K. Basu Vs State of West Bengal Case.
• Clear Police identification
• Memos and Attesting
• Friends and Relatives to be told
• Law Assistance
• Communication to other Headquarters
• Guidelines are related to the procedures to be used by various agencies for the arrest, detention, and interrogation of any person.
• Guidelines are related to the prevention of sexual harassment at the workplace. (Vishaka Guideline in 1997, Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal Act, 2013)
• Guidelines are related to the protection of children from hazardous employment. (The Child Labour Protection and Regulation Act 1986 under the recommendation of Gurupadswamy Committee)
• Guidelines are related to the protection of women from domestic violence. (The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005).

​Hence, the correct answer is (4) Guidelines related to the procedures to be followed by police for arrest, detention, and interrogation.

The Forest Rights Act results from the struggle by the marginal and tribal communities of our country to assert their rights over the forestland over which they were traditionally dependent.

Important Points

The Forest Rights Act, 2006:

• The Forest Right Act, 2006 in its title recognizes the rights of 'Scheduled Tribes' as it is also known as the 'Tribal Rights Act' and 'Tribal Land Act'.
• This act recognizes and transfers to them the rights of Scheduled Tribes as other forest dwellers who have been living in and earning their livelihood from the forest land since time immemorial.
• This Act has been enacted to recognize and vest the forest rights and occupation of forest land in forest-dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers, who have been residing in such forests for generations, but whose rights could not be recorded.
• This Act also provides for diversion of forest land for public facilities managed by the Government, such as schools, dispensaries, fair price shops, electricity and telecommunication lines, water tanks, etc.
• As per the provisions of the Act and the rules framed thereunder, the forest right related to the conversion of forest villages into revenue villages is to be adjudicated by the Gram Sabha, Sub-Divisional Level Committee and the District Level Committee as per the laid down procedure, like any other forest right specified in the Act.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that the Forest Rights Act, 2006 in its title recognizes the rights of Scheduled Tribes.

Primary sources refer to the documents or records of an event that are experienced by the author. For example, case studies, interviews, autobiographies, etc.

Our Parts (I) - NCERT textbook in history for class 6 is an example of the secondary source as secondary sources refer to the documents or records of an event which are:-

• created by the person who hasn't participated in that event.
• not first-hand experience by the author or writer.
• produced by analyzing, interpreting, and evaluating the primary sources.
• written for a large population and included a history of major events related to the topic.
• consisted of textbooks, dictionaries, bibliographies, reviews, encyclopedias, articles, etc.

Textbooks are generally written by the author by interpreting the prescribed theories of topic hence the textbook of history is an example of a secondary source.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that Our Pasts I) - NCERT textbook in history for class 6 is an example of a secondary source.

Examination is an exercise designed to examine progress or test qualification or knowledge. It is used for the assessment of a person.

• Examinations are artificial situations created for the convenience of the system and not the individual learner by given the time-bound & ‘one short’ nature.
• Exam systems need to be more flexible. It is not surprising that exams in their current form will induce anxiety.
• The inflexibility and excessive length of the question paper make the examination inconvenient for the learners by increasing their stress level. It tests the memorization skills of the learners rather than logical thinking skills.
• Competencies make learners able to learn and do a task effectively while rote memorization doesn't provide students a quality experience of learning and prevents them to learn the subjects thoroughly and deeply.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that both the given statements are correct.

Social Science is a branch of science that deals with human behaviour and social relationships, which rely primarily on empirical approaches.

• Developing an awareness of connections between all elements that shape society should be the main aim of a social science teacher so that a civilized society could be founded on this basis.
• A social science teacher should use a variety of teaching techniques, not just large group lectures and discussions.
• A social science teacher uses several methods and techniques in teaching various contents of social sciences.
• The choice of these methods and techniques depends on the nature of contents to be taught to students.
• A social science teacher needs to make a sincere attempt to bring these changes in your traditional classrooms and move towards the construction of knowledge in the classroom situation.

Other Aims of the Social Science Teacher Should be to Make Students:-

• understand the society in which they live.
• respect the diversity in cultural practices.
• grow up better to become a responsible citizen.
• assimilate norms, beliefs, and cultures of society.
• knowledge about civilization and social behaviour.

Note: Remaining options are irrelevant in the context of the question. 

Hence, it becomes clear that the main aim of a social science teacher should be to develop an awareness of connections between all elements that shape society.

Assessment is integral to the teaching-learning process which helps in facilitating student learning and improving instruction. The methods of assessment can be either formal or informal. 

• Assessment is a process of collecting, receiving, and using data for the purpose of improvement in the learning process.
• The primary purpose of assessment in social science is to give learners feedback and setting standards for them to strive towards so that better learning outcomes could be achieved.

Other Purposes of Assessment in Social Science:-

• making reliable decisions about educational planning.
• determining the effectiveness of the learning process or program.
• laying emphasis on thought processes and de-emphasize memorization.
• assessing both scholastic and co-scholastic aspects of a child's growth.
• helping teachers in evaluating their teaching methods to meet expected learning objectives.

Note: Remaining options are inappropriate in the context of the question.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that the primary purpose of assessment in social science is to give learners feedback and setting standards for them to strive towards.

Pedagogy refers as study of teaching methods, including the aims of education and the ways in which such goals may be achieved. The appropriate mix and match of technology and pedagogy make technology better than another.

• Pedagogical tools are used to learn or teach. Pedagogical tools include items such as worksheets, films, textbooks, storytelling, handouts, and hands-on models, etc.
• These tools are designed to convey important lessons and allow people to improve their understanding of a problem or undertaking.
• Films refer to the stories which are created by the combined impact of both images and sounds. Films are used as an audiovisual aid in the teaching-learning process.

Key Points

Films can also be Used as an Effective Pedagogic Tool in the Social Science Classroom because:

• films can bring the world into the classroom.
• films maximize learning with the help of the auditory and visual systems.
• films inspire us with the power of discovering unseen and unheard contexts.
• films bring stories, voices, and images that in life may be fr removed from office.
• films activate the sense of both hearing and vision to enrich learners' knowledge.
• films introduce such complex concepts that can't be introduced by other pedagogical tools.

Note: Films encourage learners to frame their views in various ways rather than the singular one. 

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear A, B, C is correct.

The Map is a visual representation of an area, drawn on a flat surface. It is used as an effective teaching tool for developing the idea about relative position and orientation in learners. 

• A map is a symbolic depiction which denotes relationships between elements of some space such as objects, regions, and themes.
• Maps attempt to represent various things, like political boundaries, physical features, roads, topography, population, climates, natural resources, and economic activities.
• There are many kinds of maps, static, two-dimensional, three-dimensional, dynamic, and even interactive.

In the context of using a Map in a Classroom:-

• It is an aid to develop a sense of distance and direction in learners.
• It is a socio-political construct.
• It helps to illustrate specific and detailed features of a particular area.
• It helps learners to develop the ability to comprehend places and spaces.

Note: Historically, the map has not always been oriented North but also East, West, and South oriented maps were available during the medieval age. 

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that in the context of the classroom, Map is a socio-political construct.

Social Science is a branch of science that deals with human behaviour and social relationships, which rely primarily on empirical approaches.

Teachers play an interactive role in fostering the potential of young seedlings to grow and bloom.

• A social science teacher should use a variety of teaching techniques, not just large group lectures and discussions.
• A social science teacher uses several methods and techniques in teaching various contents of social sciences.
• The choice of these methods and techniques depends on the nature of contents to be taught to students.
• A social science teacher needs to make a sincere attempt to bring these changes in your traditional classrooms and move towards the construction of knowledge in the classroom situation.

To Connect Learning with Learner's Life, the Social Science Teacher Needs to:

• give learners the opportunity to share their examples and experiences in the class.
• organize an educational field trip to give learners concrete learning experiences.
• invite doctors, farmers, and others as the community's human resource in schools.
• intentionally and explicitly includes diverse cultural perspectives in the subject content.
• involve them in learning through the survey method as it connects learners with real situations.

Note: In the context of connecting learning with learner's life doesn't require to point out the personal and family background of the learners.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that to connect learning with learner's life, it is not required to point out the personal and family backgrounds of the learners in the class.

Genealogy chart: 

• These charts are also used by the fieldworker to prepare as part of his data depending upon his research interests.
• Genealogy also facilitates the process of rapport establishment with people.
• Genealogy charts are used to represent the growth and development of an empire and dynasty. Such charts are used to show the functional blood relationships among families. These Charts present information about family relations in chronological order.
• It shows sequence and functional relationships.

Teaching Through Genealogy Charts:

• It helps to point out the similarities and differences in the content.
• Develop a sense of investigating their own ethnic and cultural heritage (Cultural Diversity).
• Develop a research attitude among learners.
• Develop Organization skills.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that the Genealogy chart is not used to develop a sense of space in learners.

In the teaching-learning process, visually challenged learners suffer from an issue with sight or vision but when they are facilitated with the right training and tools, they develop a good literacy ability.

Adaptions that a social science teacher should make while engaging with visually challenged learners include:

• providing learning with the help of the auditory system.
• giving verbal clues to create opportunities to imagine.
• introducing tactile materials during classroom discussions.
• speaking clearly and loudly with appropriate pauses and reiterations.
• using the braille system as it's raised dots help in studying words through the pattern.

Note: In the context of using a variety of visually appealing worksheets for visually challenged learners could lead to low self-esteem and a feeling of failures in them.

• Tactile Materials: It refers to the inputs which children receive through the receptive sensors of their skins.
• Braille System: It refers to a pattern of raised dots called "Braille"  to represent letters, numbers, and punctuation marks, that can be felt with a finger.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that use a variety of visually appealing worksheets is not appropriate for learners who are visually challenged.

Social Science is a branch of science that deals with human behaviour and social relationships, which rely primarily on empirical approaches. Teachers play an interactive role in fostering the potential of young seedlings to grow and bloom.

• There are various kinds of teaching methods in fashion to facilitate learning and the 'Project method' is one of them. It was propounded by John Dewey and was later popularized by W.H. Killpatrick.
• The project method is inspired by a pragmatic perspective as it emphasizes active learning by association and mutual co-operation of a group of peers to complete a specific project.

The project method of teaching imparts practical knowledge to the students because the basis of knowledge of the student is his personal experiences.

In Ensuring the Effective Teaching-Learning of Social Science, the project method:-

• relates learning with real-life.
• turns learners into a discoverer.
• imparts practical knowledge to learners.
• allows learning through self-directed activity.
• develops abstract and concrete scientific skills.
• ensures both individual and collective development.
• promotes active and voluntary participation of students.

Note: In the context of the project method, the child-centered method as it gives primacy to learner's needs and experiences.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that project method is not entirely a teacher-centered method.

Social Science is a branch of science that deals with human behaviour and social relationships, which rely primarily on empirical approaches. Teachers play an interactive role in fostering the potential of young seedlings to grow and bloom.

The Constructivist Perspective is based on the idea that meaningful learning takes place when learners actively construct their own knowledge.

A Social Science Teacher Willing to Enquire with a Constructivist Perspective Would View the Learners as:

• imaginative on the basis of sources.
• curious to explore social processes.
• little scientists and markers of meaning.
• trying to suggest solutions to problems.
• creator of knowledge through social interaction.
• builder of new knowledge by activating the previous one.

Note: In the context of the constructivist perspective, it never postpones discussion on controversial issues for higher education levels.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that constructivist perspective never postpones discussion on controversial issues for higher education levels.

Inclusive Education refers to an education system that accommodates all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic, or other conditions. It provides a provision to include disabled children along with normal children in a regular classroom environment.

• Inclusive curriculum is a part of 'inclusive education' that refers to the inclusion of all children in the education system, regardless of their differences and disabilities.
• Inclusive curriculum values the diversity each child brings to the classroom and facilitates all with equal opportunities to learn and grow.

Social Science Curriculum could be Made more Inclusive by:

• engendering the curriculum.
• ignoring traditional subject barriers.
• arranging content around familiar themes.
• Including familiar area language as the medium of instruction
• engaging with different sources - official as well as of subaltern contexts.

Note: Remaining options are irrelevant in the context of inclusive curriculum as it emphasizes using varieties of teaching methods and assessment tools to ensure better academic outcomes.

To be critical means to be able to perceive and understand any issues effectively to come up with the best possible inference.

Students should Learn to be Critical:-

• to approach an issue with an open-ended mind.
• to look at any issues from different points of view.
• to understand how issues are related to their own lives.
• to make logical connections between ideas by thinking rationally.
• to increase their own insight into the functioning of several things.
• to assess information and draw conclusions from the given raw data.

Note: Remaining options are inappropriate in the context of the question.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that students should learn to be critical in understanding how issues are related to their own lives.

"Diversity" means more than just acknowledging and/or tolerating differences. Diversity refers to the existence of variations of different characteristics in a group of people. 

• It means understanding that each individual is unique, and recognizing our individual differences.
• It is about understanding each other and moving beyond simple tolerance to embracing and celebrating the rich dimensions of diversity contained within each individual.
• Diversity is created by individuals and groups from a broad spectrum of demographic and philosophical differences.
• These can be along the dimensions of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socio-economic status, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs, language beliefs, political beliefs, or other ideologies.

Example: Paritosh known good Bangla, whereas Suchita speakes Hindi.

Explanation: The given example depicts the two different individuals who are good and fluent in two different languages.

NOTE: Other given examples do not represent diversity, they nearly depict a contrasting situation where one individual has been shown to have certain privilege while the other individual lacks those privileges.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that the example, "Paritosh known good Bangla; whereas Suchita speakes Hindi." represents diversity.

Social Science Excursion Trips make the learning experience of students more interesting and assist students in fully comprehending the various topics related to social sciences.

From the given information, it transpires that students could be asked to mark 'Arunachal Pradesh' and 'Manipur' on a map as the above-mentioned places belong to those very states.

Let's understand in brief:

• Tawang Town: A district in Arunachal Pradesh.
• Leisang Village: A village in the Kangpokpi district of Manipur.
• Bombdila: one of the 60 constituencies of Arunachal Pradesh.
• Namdapha National Park: A Tiger Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh.
• Ziro National Park: A park in Changlang district of Arunachal Pradesh.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that in the social science excursion trip, the students had visited in Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur.

Pedagogy refers to the study of teaching methods, including the aims of education and the ways in which such goals may be achieved. The appropriate mix and match of technology and pedagogy make technology better than another.

Social Science Pedagogy is the set of principles that influence the approaches to teaching-learning in social science. It consists of a learning environment, teaching-learning arrangements, methods, general educational principles, etc.

Contemporary Understanding of Social Science Pedagogy Encourages the Teacher to:

• Link classroom to real-life situations to facilitate effective learning.
• Involve children in constructing their own knowledge through hands-on activities.
• Encourage learners to learn by reading the local experiences of others and finding of their own.
• Give opportunities to learners to use their knowledge developed in the classroom in concrete situations.
• Appreciate learners ability to make questions on the given subject content and accepting it as a valid test of learning.

Note: Pedagogy doesn't encourage teachers to promote learners to give identical answers as each child learns and progresses at different pace and style.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that contemporary understanding of social science pedagogy does not promote learners to give identical answers to questions so that all improve.

Gender refers to the socially constructed differences between men and women. It refers to the masculine and feminine qualities, behaviour, roles, and responsibilities that society upholds. Gender can be changed / re-oriented.

• Gender Stereotyping refers to the relatively fixed and overgeneralized attitudes and behaviors that are considered normal and appropriate for a person in a particular culture based on his or her biological sex.
• It is an unfair idea that refers to a generalized view or characteristics that ought to be possessed by women and men.
• It can limit the development of the natural talents and abilities of girls and boys, women and men, as well as their educational and professional experiences and life opportunities in general.

Examples of Gender Stereotyping:

• Only boys being encouraged to participate in the football tournament.
• Only the girls in the class are asked to decorate the class boards.
• Boys and girls are made to sit in separate rows for ensuring discipline in class.

Hence, the given example, "While boys try to monopolise the class discussions, attention is given to both girls and boys to encourage participation." is not an example of gender stereotyping.

Hint

• In the above example, the activity will remove the stereotype from the mind of students that certain activities are only meant to be done by the girls and not by the boys and vice versa. It will also promote the sense of gender equality among them.

Social Science is a branch of science that deals with human behaviour and social relationships, which rely primarily on empirical approaches. The teacher of social science has different roles to play. For example, developing personality values, and attitudes, and civic responsibility to live together in a democracy. 

Effective Teaching of Social Science would Require:

• Use of non-textual sources like diagrams, maps, etc.
• Giving primacy to the triangulation of sources.
• Critical analysis of literary texts, howsoever old they may be.
• Addressing social issues and making plans to bring improvements.
• Studying human behaviour and enhancing vision or perspective about society.

Note: Triangulation of sources implies the idea of collecting data from multiple sources to ensure authentic learning.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that effective teaching of social science would require critical analysis of literary texts and giving primacy to the triangulation of sources.

Social Justice is a fair concept of providing equal, social, economic, and political rights and opportunities to all. Social justice tends to focus more on just relations between groups within society as opposed to the justice of individual conduct or justice for individuals.

In a Classroom, Sensitivity on Social Justice can be Encouraged by:

• Promoting basic values such as loyalty, truth, honesty, love, peace in learners.
• Engaging in classroom discussions on the constitutional provisions on social justice.
• Incorporating contemporary excerpts from people's struggles and stories of advocacy during classroom discussions.
• Keeping the understanding of the historical context of the Indian social milieu in the context of unequal power equations.
• Organizing debates on social-moral issues and discussions on current social affairs as it will make learners able to form their opinions.
• Scheduling workshops on issues of violence prevention, bullying, conflict resolution, etc, as it will make learners able to take a suitable stand on social issues.

Note: Corporal punishment refers to the punishment that causes physical pain to the children and it could result in anxiety and aggression in them.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that sensitivity on 'social justice' in a classroom can not be encouraged by corporal punishment on the defaulting children.

Pedagogy refers to the set of principles that influence the approaches to teaching-learning.

• It consists of a learning environment, teaching-learning arrangements, methods, general educational principles, etc.
• It refers to the study of teaching methods, including the aims of education and the ways in which such goals may be achieved. The appropriate mix and match of technology and pedagogy make technology better than another.

Pedagogy of History: 

• It describes various teaching-learning strategies and learning resources in social sciences.
• It also discusses the planning and organization of teaching-learning experiences, and means of assessing and evaluating students’ learning outcomes at the end of the teaching-learning activities.
• History is a narrative account of the past. It is the story of changing human cultures, beliefs, and lifestyles and helps to build up a sense of what could happen in the future.

Pedagogy of history would try to:

• Build a sense of historical diversity.
• Construct history on the basis of sources.
• Trace continuity and change in the social processes in history.
• View events by situating them within the socio-political context of a particular period.
• Focus on encouraging students to imagine living in the past and relate to their experiences.
• Encourage learners to learn by reading past experiences of others and finding their own.

Note: History accepts the views of all communities, not the dominant one. 

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that the pedagogy of history would not try to engage with differences in interpretations and accept the dominant community's views.

Fundamental rights are the rights that grant individuals equality in every aspect irrespective of race, colour, caste, religion, birthplace, or gender.

• These rights are mentioned under Articles 12 to 35 of the Indian Constitution.
• There are pre-defined punishments in case of violation of these rights upon the discretion of the judiciary.
• The Constitution of India provides for six Fundamental Rights:
• Right to equality (Articles 14–18)
• Right to freedom (Articles 19–22)
• Right against exploitation (Articles 23–24)
• Right to freedom of religion (Articles 25–28)
• Cultural and educational rights (Articles 29–30)
• Right to constitutional remedies (Article 32)

Important Points

Right to Freedom: It stated that everyone has the freedom to share or express their thoughts, beliefs, and opinion publically without any threat. This right gives:​

• Protection of 6 Rights: Article 19 guarantees to all citizens the six rights of freedom including:
• Speech and expression
• Assembly
• Association
• Movement
• Residence
• Profession
• Protection in Respect of Conviction for Offences
• Protection of Life and Personal Liberty: Article 21 declares that no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law. This right is available to both citizens and non-citizens
• The right to life is not merely confined to animal existence or survival but also includes the right to live with human dignity and all those aspects of life which go to make a man’s life meaningful, complete and worth living.
• Under Art. 21 of the Constitution and it include the right to the enjoyment of pollution-free water and air for full enjoyment of life.
• Right to Education
• Protection Against Arrest and Detention

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that the Right to Life gives the right to pollution-free air.

'Unity in diversity' is a popular phrase that is used to denote the idea of unity in (spite of) differences in cultures, language, religions, etc. 

Important Points

Unity in Diversity term coined by Jawaharlal Nehru, the First Prime Minister of India.

• He used this term in his book "The Discovery of India" In 1946.
• In his book, he described the strength and unity of the whole nation.

Additional Information

• B. R. Ambedkar was elected as the chairman of the drafting committee that was constituted by the Constituent Assembly to draft a constitution for independent India.
• M. K. Gandhi wrote his autobiography "My Experiments With Truth". He started the satyagraha movement and Dandi march.
• Rajendra Prasad was the first president of India. He was awarded as Bharat Ratna award in 1962.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that Jawaharlal Nehru coined the phrase 'Unity in Diversity' to describe India.

Parliament, also called the Sansad, is the legislature of the Union.

• It has the President, and two houses- the Upper House and the Lower House.
• The Upper House is also called the Rajya Sabha or the Council of States while the Lower House is called the Lok Sabha or the House of the people.

Important Points

 Between 1952 and 2020, two seats were reserved in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India, for members of the Anglo-Indian community.

• These two members were nominated by the President of India on the advice of the Government of India.
• In January 2020, the Anglo-Indian reserved seats in the Parliament and State Legislatures of India were discontinued by the 126^th Constitutional Amendment Bill of 2019, when enacted as the 104^th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2019.

Hence, we conclude that the maximum 0 members in Lok Sabha are nominated and not elected.

Additional Information