CTET Paper 2 Social Science 31st Dec 2021 (English-Hindi-Sanskrit) (Previous Year Paper)

Development describes the growth of humans throughout their lifespan, from conception to death. It refers to development as patterns of change over time. It does not just involve the biological and physical aspects of growth, but also the cognitive and social aspects associated with development. Very broadly the stages of development may be categorized into two main types: 

• Prenatal development: The development of a person begins much before his/her birth and the stage of development before birth is the prenatal development stage.
• Postnatal development: Postnatal development refers to all the stages that follow after birth till the very end of life. It has 4 stages of development of a child these are:
• Infancy
• Early childhood
• Later childhood
• Adolescence

Key Points Adolescence: Adolescence literally means 'to grow to maturity. It is an intermediary stage between childhood and adulthood characteristically possessing qualities of both stages, although not fully in either of them. The age range is from 12-19 years. It is the threshold to adulthood. There are rapid physical changes taking place including sexual maturity which is attained during adolescence.

Characteristics of Adolescence age of development:

• Coming to terms with one's own body and accepting the changes.
• Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes.
• Selecting and training for a career.
• Options of their friends and peer groups are more suitable for them instead for their family.
• Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible behavior.
• Achieving emotional and economic independence.
• Gaining self-identity.
• An important change that takes place during adolescence is sexual maturity which occurs at the property.

Important Points

• Infancy period: During this stage, adjusting to the new non-uterine environment becomes the major goal or focus in the life of the neonate. Adjusting to room temperature. Breathing independently, sucking and swallowing the milk, eliminating body, and waste are prime areas that the newborn needs to master.
• Early childhood period: The period from birth to six years is a time for rapid development. In this stage, the absence of experience and deprivation can be detrimental to growth. Care and stimulation are critical during early childhood or the first three years.
• Later childhood: During this stage children develop marked negativism and because of their desire for independence seldom obey their parents. The child begins going to school and learns the rudiments of knowledge essential for successful adult life. The peer group assumes great significance and children of this age 'crowd together, thus earning the name gang age'.

The term 'development' refers to a progressive series of changes that occur in an orderly, predictable pattern as a result of maturation and experience. There is a natural arrangement of changes in the individuals, and each change is dependent upon the preceding ones, and also affects the following ones. The changes within the development are called 'progressive' because they enable an individual to adapt to and adjust to his/her environment - physical, social, emotional, etc.  

Key Points According to Woodworth, "Development is the product of heredity and environment".

• Providing a relevant environment according to the interest of the student enhances the performance of the students.
• If the parents of students encourage them, then they are well motivated and try to give their best.
• In the given Question parents provide the books because their Son is interested in reading so that he can get an advanced reading level as per his age.

Hence we can conclude that **Development is a result of the interaction between heredity and the environment.**​

Hint

• ​Proximodistal: The development moves from the centerline of the body outward towards the distant or peripheral parts referred to as 'proximodistal' or 'near to far'.
• The middle part of the body develops quicker than the outer part of the body.​
• ​Cephalocaudal: Development of the upper portions of the body precedes the development of the lower portions. The Cephalocaudal tendency exhibits that the development proceeds in the longitudinal direction. This is known as the 'cephalocaudal' or "head to toe" sequence. 
• That is the reason why the child first gains control overhead before s/he starts walking.
• Path of development is common in some contexts such as body growth, but in the case of skill gaining, activity, and activeness path of development varies from person to person.

Development describes the growth of humans throughout their lifespan, from conception to death. It refers to development as patterns of change over time. It does not just involve the biological and physical aspects of growth, but also the cognitive and social aspects associated with development. Basically, the development of a child is considered in five stages-

• Pre-natal period (conception period)
• Infancy period (0 to 2 years)
• Early childhood period (2 to 6 years)
• Later childhood (7 to 11 years)
• Adolescence ( 12 to 19 years)

Key Points  Adolescence: Adolescence literally means 'to grow to maturity. It is an intermediary stage between childhood and adulthood characteristically possessing qualities of both stages, although not fully in either of them. The age range is from 12-19 years.

 It is the threshold to adulthood. There are rapid physical changes taking place including sexual maturity which is attained during adolescence. Consequently, there are also psychological and social changes. Adolescence is a crucial stage for the person.

Characteristics of Adolescence age of development:

• Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible behavior.
• Achieving emotional and economic independence.
• According to Erikson, adolescence is known as an Identity crisis, in this stage teenagers actively search for identity.
• Gaining self-identity.
• Abstract thinking, Critical thinking, divergent thinking, and hypo-deductive thinking approaches come in the students.
• An important change that takes place during adolescence is sexual maturity which occurs at the property.
• So by all these references, we can conclude that the establishment of independence, development of identity, and abstract thinking are the characteristics of the age of adolescence.

Important Points

• Infancy period: During this stage, adjusting to the new non-uterine environment becomes the major goal or focus in the life of the neonate. Adjusting to room temperature. Breathing independently, sucking and swallowing the milk, eliminating body, and waste are prime areas that the newborn needs to master.
• Early childhood period: The period from birth to six years is a time for rapid development. In this stage, the absence of experience and deprivation can be detrimental to growth. Care and stimulation are critical during early childhood or the first three years.
• Later childhood: During this stage children develop marked negativism and because of their desire for independence seldom obey their parents. The child begins going to school and learns the rudiments of knowledge essential for successful adult life. The peer group assumes great significance and children of this age 'crowd together, thus earning the name gang age'.

The process of learning to internalize the values and norms into itself or the mode of learning to live in society is called the process of socialization. It may be defined more comprehensively as a life-long process of inculcation whereby an individual learns the principles, values, and symbols of the social system in which he participates and the expression of those values and norms in the roles he enacts.

Key Points There are many sources of socialization such as School, College, Friends, Society, Neighbourhood, Religion, Caste, Media, newspapers, Meetings, Events, etc.

• Media: Media is the source in which observational skills are considered, media such as Television, magazines, Mobile phone, reality shows, newspapers, etc.
• Educational institutions: In educational institutions students socialized by learning various subjects,  interacting in different activities, Peer groups, teachers, textbooks, TLMs, etc.
• Neighbourhood: Children learn many skills by interacting with their neighbourhood, Neighbours play an important role in the socialization of the child.
• Religion: Religion makes child socially active, it gives them knowledge about religions, and Gods, and make them familiar with them.

Thus**, socialization is a complex process in which several agencies influence children during various times in their lifespan is a correct statement.**

Important Points  Some important characteristics of socialization:

• It is a lifelong process.
• The roles a person enacts are the expressions of his social nature.
• The nature of what one communicates in society is determined by the influence of one's interaction with society.

Additional Information Socialization can be classified into two broad groups:

• Primary socialization
• Secondary socialization.
• Primary socialization- Inculcation of norms and values within the family is called primary socialization. Here children want to know themselves and try to find their identity and learn the daily routine tasks of humans.
• Example: Family.
• Secondary socialization- The process of imbibing norms, values, and behaviour patterns of school may be called secondary socialization.
• Example: Church, School, Media, etc.

Piaget's theory of moral reasoning: Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, explored how children developed moral reasoning. He rejected the idea that children learn and internalize the rules and morals of society by being given the rules and forced to adhere to them. Through his research on how children formed their judgments about moral behavior, he recognized that children learn morality best by having to deal with others in groups. 

Key PointsAccording to the Piaget's theory of moral reasoning:

• Piaget found two main differences in how children thought about moral behavior. Very young children's thinking is based on how actions affected them or what the results of action were. For example, young children will say that when trying to reach a forbidden cookie jar, breaking 10 cups is worse than breaking one.
• They also recognize the sanctity of rules.
• The child’s moral reasoning is closely linked to the decline in egocentrism and growth.
• Piaget felt that the best moral learning came from these cooperative decision-making and problem-solving events. He also believed that children developed moral reasoning quickly by using the cognitive-developmental approaches and at an early age.
• Piaget called this "moral realism with objective responsibility." It explains why young children are concerned with outcomes rather than intentions.
• A morality based on cooperation and mutual understanding, the child’s conception of rules changes from their being absolutely fixed to their being mutually agreed upon.
• Older children look at the motives behind actions rather than the consequences of actions. They are also able to examine rules, determining whether they are fair or not, and apply these rules and their modifications to situations requiring negotiation, assuring that everyone affected by the rules is treated fairly.
• Hence by all these references, we can conclude that Piaget uses cognitive-developmental approaches to explain moral reasoning.

Jean Piaget made a systematic study of cognitive development among children of different age groups and he categorized it into different developmental stages. Jean Piaget, Theory of Cognitive Development, proposes that the development of the child is done in various stages. Piaget thought that the development of a child regarding thoughts, learning, and cognition is done by age.

Key Points Beliefs of Jean Piaget:

• Cognitive development is much more than the addition of new facts and ideas to an existing store of information.  According to Piaget, our thinking processes change radically, though slowly, from birth to maturity because we constantly strive to make sense of the world.
• Piaget thinks that children's activity constructs their understanding of the world, and as much they engaged in activities as much they can understand the world.
• Piaget believes that the curriculum should be developed on the bases of creativity, and activities, by which children can learn the concepts of the problem.
• Children develop an understanding of interaction with the surrounding environment.
• Piaget identifies four factors namely biological maturation, active exploration, social experiences, and equilibration that interact to influence thinking.
• Learning should be done in the interest and needs of the children, there is no place for rewards and punishment to be given.
• So by all these references, we can conclude that the mentioned statement in the question is given by Jean Piaget.

Hint

Additional Information  ​Piaget identified four factors that influence the development of a child-

• Maturation- Child growing up and biological processes change the thinking pattern.
• Activity- Children tend to act on the environment as they explore, test, and observe.
• Social experiences- Children learn from others through transmission.
• Equilibration-  The tendency to search for balance between the basic tendencies in thinking.

Lev Vygotsky is a Russian Psychologist who proposed the theory of Socio-cultural development. In this theory, Vygotsky emphasizes the role of society and culture in the development of the child. According to him, there are three main needs for the development of the child and these are- Social interaction, Culture, and Language.

Key Points  Vygotsky also proposed three basic needs of students during learning, these are:

• ZPD (zone of proximal development):  The difference between the learning of a child by self and the learning of a child with the help of others(society, culture, etc).
• Scaffolding: Scaffolding is the term, given by Vygotsky, in which he proposed that the temporary help given by the teachers, family, friends, etc. to the children in his learning.
• MKO (more knowledgeable others)- Vygotsky defined the “More Knowledgeable Other” (MKO) as anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, particularly in regards to a specific task, concept, or process. MKO could be teachers, parents, tutors, and even peers.
• All these three types of needs during learning are based on cooperative learning, scaffolding, and assisted learning (MKO). Hence we can conclude that Expository learning was discouraged by Lev Vygotsky in the context of the teaching-learning process.​

Hint

• Expository teaching is a lecture presentation or telling strategy used during instruction. The teacher is in control of presenting the subject matter and directs the students through the lesson.
• Lev Vygotsky totally opposes lecture-based teaching methods.

Additional Information  According to Vygotsky, there are three main factors that affect the learning of the child and these are- Social interaction, Culture, and Language:

• Social interaction: ​​Children try to interact with people.
• Example: Peer groups, family members, etc.
• Culture: ​Children adopt the culture by interaction.
• Language: Children can easily intimate their primary language through interaction or communication.

Lev Vygotsky is a Russian Psychologist who proposed the theory of Socio-cultural development. In this theory, Vygotsky emphasizes the role of society and culture in the development of the child. According to him, there are three main needs for the development of the child and these are- Social interaction, Culture, and Language.

Key Points Lev Vygotsky also proposes three types of speech in the development of children as social speech, private speech, silent speech.

Lev Vygotsky refers to the use of language for self-regulation as private speech. Vygotsky believed that children are active seekers of knowledge, but he felt, it was a collaborative effort of the child and the socio-cultural environment.

• According to Vygotsky, children use private speech for self-guidance, self-direction, and self-regulation.
• With age, however, private speech becomes transformed into silent inner speech or verbal thought.
• The origin of private speech is traced to social interaction between the child and more mature members of society.
• Thus we can conclude that Meethi is doing private speech because she is saying it aloud for herself.

Important Points

• Social Speech: In no way is this speech related to intellect or thinking. In this stage, a child uses speech to control the behavior of others. A child uses speech to express simple thoughts and emotions such as crying, laughter and shouting. This speech begins when a child is about 2 years or above.
• Private Speech: Private speech is speech spoken to oneself for communication, self-guidance, and self-regulation of behavior. It is between the ages of two and seven that children can be observed engaging in private speech. Although it is audible, it is neither intended for nor directed at others.
• Silent/Inner Speech: This is a speech in which the use of words or word images in thinking without audible or visible speaking. The ability of this type of speech comes when a child is about 7 years or above.
• Egocentric speech consists of repeating words and syllables for the pleasure of monologue (talking to oneself) and of collective monologue (two or more talking at each other with no communication).

The gradual formation of an individual's concepts of right and wrong, conscience, ethical and religious values, social attitudes, and behavior is called moral development.​ The theory of a child's moral development is proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg in 1958. he describes the theory on 3 different levels and these 3 levels are further classified into 6 stages.

• Pre conventional level:
• Stage-1 Punishment-obedience orientation.
• Stage-2 Instrumental-exchange orientation.
• Conventional level:
• Stage:3 Good-boy-nice-girl orientation
• Stage-4 Law and order orientation.
• Postconventional Level:
• Stage-5 Social-contract situation
• Stage-6 Universal-ethical-principles orientation.​

Key Points

Post conventional level: At this level, there is a clear effort to define moral values and principles that have validity and application apart from the authority of the groups or persons.

• Stage 6: The Universal Ethical Principle Orientation: Right is defined by the decision of the conscience in accordance with self-chosen ethical principles appealing to logical comprehensiveness, universality, and consistency. These are universal principles of justice, reciprocity, quality of human rights, and respect for the dignity of human beings as individual persons.
• So **we can conclude that right action by self-chosen ethical principles of conscience is included in the Universal-ethical-principles orientation stage of Kohlberg's moral development theory.**​

Important Points

• Stage-I: The Punishment and Obedience Orientation: The physical consequences of an action determine whether the action is good or bad regardless of the human value or the meaning of these consequences. Avoidance of punishment and deference to power are valued in their own right, not in terms of respect for the underlying moral order.
• Stage-2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation: Right action consists of that which instrumentally satisfies one's own needs and occasionally the needs of others.
• Stage 3: Good boy - Nice Girl Orientation: Good behavior is that which pleases or helps others and is approved by them. Behavior at this stage is frequently judged by intentions - "he means well", becomes important for the first time. One earns approval by being good to others.
• Stage 4: The Law and Order Orientation: There is an orientation towards authority, fixed rules, and maintenance of social order. Right behavior consists of doing one's duty, showing respect for established or lawful authority, and maintaining given social order for its own sake.
• Stage 5: The Social Contract, Legalistic Orientation:  in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society

A progressive classroom is a part of progressive education that believes in the capability and potential of every child. It emphasizes enhancing the skills and understanding of the learners by engaging with the contents and experiences. It promotes 'learning by doing to make children self-reliant and productive to use their knowledge and talents effectively. 

Cooperative learning is a synchronized process in which students attempt to learn something together. They work as a team which develops the team spirit and feeling of collaboration.

Key Points Characteristics of Progressive education:

• Progressive education emphasizes enhancing the skills and understanding of the learners by engaging with the content and experiences.
• Education for society and democracy.
• It emphasizes Collaborative and cooperative learning.
• Learning as opposed to rote knowledge.
• De-emphasize textbooks, and emphasize multiple resources.
• In a progressive classroom, a teacher facilitates the children to work in groups to achieve a common learning task. This will promote cooperative learning among students.
• Progressive education is based on learning by doing. Everything learned by the children should be related to their curriculum and activities.
• Emphasis on problem-solving and critical thinking.
• Flexible timetable and seating arrangement.Emphasis on lifelong learning and social skills.
• Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units.
• So by all these references, we can conclude that progressive education facilitates cooperative learning.

Hint

• Competition: Competition is the process that makes an environment where every individual shows their performance and compete each other.
• Rivalry: The rivalry between the jealousy leads to resentment, jealousy, etc.
• Frustration: Frustration: Frustration is a common emotional response to opposition, related to anger, annoyance, and disappointment. Frustration arises from the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of an individual's will or goal and is likely to increase when a will or goal is denied or blocked.

Howard Gardner proposed a theory of multiple intelligence. Gardner defines intelligence as "a biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture.

Key Points Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that people are not born with all of the intelligence they will ever have. It includes eight types of intelligence

• Linguistic Intelligence:- This intelligence includes the ability to effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically, and as a means to remember information.
• For Example, word games, reading, stories/poetry
• Logical-mathematical Intelligence:- This intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically.
• For Example, logic games and puzzles, mysteries, experiments, etc
• Musical Intelligence:- This intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns.
• For example, music, speaking rhythmically, music, instruments, etc.
• Thus we can conclude that Linguistic, Logico-mathematical, and Musical are the intelligence of the multiple intelligence theory proposed by Howard Gardner.​

Important PointsOther intelligence of Multiple intelligence theory are:

• Visual-spatial: Learners think about physical space and their surrounding environments.
• For example puzzles, maps, charts, videos, etc. In this class, students use a graphic organizer to map out the differences between facts and opinions.
• Bodily Kinaesthetic: Learners use the body effectively and have body awareness. In this class, students are using their body parts to show their expressions to pronounce the new words and perform various actions in activities.
• For example movement, role-playing, hands-on learning, and using real objects.
• Interpersonal Intelligence: In Interpersonal Intelligence, Learners understand people’s moods and intentions.
• Example: interacting with others, group activities, writing, etc.
• Intrapersonal: Learners understand themselves and their own goals.
• For Example independent learning, creative materials, and private time.
• Naturalistic:  Learners can identify plants, animals, etc.
• For example, animals, nature, being outside, gardening, etc.

Hint

Gender refers to the socially constructed differences between men and women. It refers to the masculine and feminine qualities, behavior, roles, and responsibilities that society upholds. Gender can be changed / re-oriented.

Gender stereotype is an oversimplified and unfair belief or idea that groups of people have particular characteristics or that all people in a group are the same.

Key Points Gender stereotypes can be reduced by-

• Engagement of every student in all the activities without distinguishing them.
• The sitting arrangement of all the boys and girls should not be separated.
• Promoting flexibility in the classroom.
• Promoting Non-stereotypical sex roles, such as a girl riding the bike, or a boy cooking in a kitchen.
• Treating the girls and the boys equally.
• Avoid generic utterances for girls and boys that only girls can cook food, make arts, etc.
• Gave the same and equal opportunity to all the students without making any difference between them.
• So by all these references, we can conclude that avoiding the generic utterance for boys and girls can reduce gender stereotyping.

Hint

• "Joint endeavors with children of other genders" can not be avoided it makes flexibility in gender gaps.
• "Engaged in no stereotypical activities" also can not be avoided it also makes flexibility in gender stereotyping.

John Dewey, an American philosopher has proposed the concept of 'Progressive Education' which emphasizes that learning takes place only through a 'hands-on' approach so the students must interact with their environment to adapt and learn.

Key Points

• A teacher should always cater (accept) to the individual differences of the children in the class.
• individual differences can be defined as personal characteristics that distinguish learners from each other in the teaching and learning processes.
• The main goal of progressive education is to get students to have a hands-on learning experience, i.e. learn by doing. Also known as experiential learning, this method sees active participation by students in hands-on projects.
• Hence by all the above references, we can conclude that Both (A) and (R) are false.

 Important Points Key features of progressive education: 

• Focusing on learning by doing: This includes working on hands-on projects thereby paving the way for experiential learning, aka learning by experience.
• Integrated curriculum: This is a curriculum that covers a broad spectrum of themes.
• Problem-solving and critical thinking: They are the cornerstones of progressive education; the whole idea is to have students take on problems and solve them thus helping them hone their critical thinking.

The progress card of all students for school-based assessment, which is communicated by schools to parents, will be completely redesigned by States/UTs under guidance from the proposed National Assessment Centre, NCERT, and SCERTs.

Key Points

• The progress card will be a holistic, 360-degree, multidimensional report that reflects in great detail the progress as well as the uniqueness of each learner in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.
• It will include self-assessment and peer assessment, and progress of the child in project-based and inquiry-based learning, quizzes, role plays, group work, portfolios, etc., along with teacher assessment.
• The holistic progress card will form an important link between home and school and will be accompanied by parent-teacher meetings in order to actively involve parents in their children’s holistic education and development.

Thus, it is concluded that In the context of assessment, 360-degree multi-dimensional report card for students has been proposed in National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.

Critical thinking means one looks at the available evidence and evaluates it. It is not possible to find an answer to a question just on the basis of the opinions of one’s friends and family which may be quite misleading. Instead, it is important to consider all possible evidence: data gathered through primary research, information available in existing research, and perspectives of different experts and stakeholders.

• For example, if the government has to consider how to prepare for an epidemic.

Key Points Characteristics of critical thinking:

• It encourages divergent thinking among the students, student covers all the possible aspects related to solving the problem.
• Direct involvement of the students in the problem related to critical problems.
• Critical thinking develops the logic to solve the problem so that a student can learn conceptually by critical thinking.
• Solutions for the problem are taken out by a complete analysis of its pros and cons.
• Critical problems are not factual they are based on concepts that can be solved by thinking critically.
• The learner reaches the solution by involvement in different aspects, such as searching, finding, etc.
• So that we can say that "What could be the various reasons for the shortage of food?"  this question is critical thinking based, this can be solved when all the positive-negative aspects cover logically.

Hint

• 'What is the formula for (a + b)2?' is a simple mathematical-based problem, it requires abstract thinking.
• "Write the chemical formula of methane." this is a factual question and critical thinking is never based on facts so this is an irrelevant option.
• 'What is the depositional feature of a glacier called?', this is also a fact-based problem, this type of question is the example of the Question-Answer method of the teaching-learning process given by Aristotle.

Learning Disability: It is a neurological disorder that prevents a person from learning a skill and using it effectively. Generally, it occurs in childhood and is characterized by difficulty with certain skills such as reading, writing, speaking, etc.

Dyslexia: It is a Reading disability, which is not due to mental retardation, brain damage, or a lack of intelligence. It is caused by an impairment in the brain’s ability to translate images received from the eyes or ears into understandable language.

Key Points Dyslexia should be avoided by applying the following -

• Make the environment of the classroom accessible for the student in that they can enjoy their learning with their interest.
• By providing opportunities for reading and writing at individual pace as per their capability.
• Engaged the students suffering from dyslexia in different types of activities among other students.
• Using Multisensory pedagogical approaches.
• Allow voice recorder instead of note-making in the classroom.
• Teachers should allow printed material for learning instead of handwritten.
• Using different types of pedagogical approaches as per the student's abilities.
• By setting individualized goals.
• Using different teaching-learning materials makes the curriculum relevant to the students.
• So by all these references, we can conclude that Dyslexia can not be avoided by strict behavior on handwritten work.

Additional Information  Some Other Common Learning Disabilities in Children:

Learning Disability: It is a neurological disorder that prevents a person from learning a skill and using it effectively. Generally, it occurs in childhood and is characterized by difficulty with certain skills such as reading, writing, speaking, etc.

Key Points

 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder(ADHD) is a brain disorder that affects how you pay attention, sit, still, and control your behaviour. 

• It happens in children and teens and can continue into adulthood.
• Children with ADHD may have trouble paying attention and controlling impulsive behaviours.
• ADHD is the most commonly diagnosed mental disorder in children.
• So by all these references, we can conclude that ADHD is marked by a low span of attention, impulsiveness, and a low tolerance for frustration.

Important Points The main symptoms of ADHD include the following: 

• Physical movement: Lack of muscle coordination, so a person who is ADHD-disabled can not move easily.
• ​Inattention: Short attention span for age (difficulty sustaining attention) Difficulty listening to others.
• Impulsivity: Has difficulty waiting for his or her turn in school and/or social games, Takes frequent risks, and often without thinking before acting.
• Hyperactivity: Has difficulty remaining in his/her seat even when it is expected, Fidgets with hands or squirms when in his or her seat; fidgets excessively.

Additional Information Some Other Common Learning Disabilities in Children:

An intellectual disability that is also known as mental retardation (M.R.) is the most common disability found among children with special needs. It is considered a substantial limitation in present functioning.

• It starts before the age of 18, the intellectual functioning level of a child becomes below average and that can be measured by the standardized tests used for measuring the intelligence quotient.

Key Points Characteristics of intellectual disability:

• People with intellectual disabilities can and do learn new skills, but they learn them more slowly.
• People have Limited interests.
• People face limitations in particular areas of higher-level skills such as organization, time planning, abstract reasoning, problem-solving, long or short-term memory, and attention.
• Faces lack muscular coordination.
• The main symptom is difficulty thinking and understanding.
• Neurologically-based processing problems.
• So, by all these references we can conclude that limitations both in reasoning, learning, problem-solving and adaptive behavior including social and practical skills are the characteristic of intellectual disability.

Hint

• The term 'visual impairment' is used to refer to not only those who are blind but also those who have low vision.
• Hearing impairment is defined as the inability of an individual to hear sounds appropriately or suitably.
• Locomotor Disability refers to a person’s inability to execute distinctive activities associated with the movement of self and manipulation of objects resulting from affliction of the musculoskeletal and/or nervous system.

Inclusion in education means education for all children in school as it refers to the inclusion of all children in the education system, regardless of their differences and disabilities. The main objective of inclusive education is to educate and help them in learning every child not label them by different names.

Key Points Characteristics of inclusive education: 

• Inclusive education means all children are learning under the same roof.
• It means real learning opportunities for groups who have traditionally been excluded-children with disabilities.
• Inclusive systems value the unique contributions students of all backgrounds bring to the classroom and allow diverse groups to grow side by side, to the benefit of all.
• It aims for education for all.
• Inclusive education promotes students' engagement in various activities, societies, etc.
• The fundamental principle of the inclusive school is that all children should learn together.
• Inclusive education means creating effective classrooms where the educational needs of all children are addressed irrespective of ability or disability.

Hence, we can conclude that both (A) and (R) are false.

Important Points Role of the teacher in inclusive classrooms:

1. Accepting children with disabilities.
2. Developing a positive attitude between normal and disabled children.
3. Placing the children in the classroom in proper places so that they feel comfortable and are benefiting from the classroom interaction.
4. Removing architectural barriers wherever possible so that children with disabilities move independently.
5. Involving the children with disabilities in almost all the activities of the classroom.
6. Preparations of teaching aids/adaptation of teaching aids that will help the children with disabilities learn.

Creativity is the ability to come up with or generate creative ideas and possibilities. It involves thinking in new and original ways to reach a solution.

Key PointsCharacteristics of creativity:

• Creativity involves divergent thinking and is not restricted by any pre-established rules.
• The mind of creative learners must have complete freedom (flexibility) to wander around to create a new idea.
• Creativity promotes fluency in work, the creative learners work more efficiently and fast than others.
• Creativity involves the production of novel and original ideas or solutions to problems.
• Creativity is a cognitive ability to produce something original by offering a fresh perspective.
• It is related to divergent thinking which refers to a way of solving problems with more than one approach.
• Creativity thus refers to the originality and uniqueness of ideas or solutions that did not previously exist.

Thus, by all these references we can conclude that convergent thinking is not an important factor in creativity.

Hint

• Originality: refers to the uniqueness or novelty of ideas. It is the ability to produce ideas that are unusual, statistically infrequent, and not obvious.
• Convergent thinking: Convergent thinking is the type of thinking that focuses on coming up with a single, well-established answer to a problem. It is oriented toward deriving the single best, or most often the correct answer to a question.
• Fluency: refers to how rapidly a person comes up with ideas. It can be in respect of words, ideas, expressions,s or associations.
• Flexibility: refers to the ability to produce a large variety of ideas such as thinking of varied uses of a particular object.

Socio-constructivism focuses on the collaborative nature of learning. Knowledge develops from how people interact with each other, their culture, and society at large.

Socio-constructivist frame: Students have also to include the social and cultural settings, in which they learn and which also have an impact on students as they change their ideas. From this perspective, sometimes referred to as ‘situated cognition, the cultural and the social background of students, use of language, and how meaning is derived from various contexts play a role in the students’.

Key Points Characteristics of Socio-constructivist classroom:

• Elicit students’ existing ideas, including any alternative conceptions.
• Encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning, and this includes reflecting on their own thinking and learning processes.
• Rote memorization, learning based on recalling, and repetition are not allowed in a socio-constructivist classroom,
• Different methods and techniques are used for the teaching-learning process.
• It allows learners to foster their own strategy of learning to perform an activity.
• There are many ways to gain knowledge such as TLMs, newspapers, Peers, teachers, textbooks, folktales, etc.
• The classroom should be child-centered, not teacher-centered so that students are allowed to ask questions freely.
• It emphasizes collaboration with others for learning, work, performance, problem-solving, etc.
• So by all these references were can conclude that newspapers, Peers, teachers, textbooks, and folktales, all are important sources to gain knowledge in a socio-constructivist classroom.​

Important Points

• Social-constructivist classroom gives primacy to:
• peer tutoring.
• group activity.
• Challenging environment.
• Emphasis on students to think divergently and critically.
• cooperative learning among the students.

Learning is a process of continual adaptation to the environment and assimilation and accommodation of new information and knowledge to fit in with pre-existing knowledge structures. It is a process by which behavior is either modified or changed through experience or training. 

• Active learning is a situation where children construct their knowledge by their active engagement in the learning process. It is in contrast to objectivism, where knowledge was supplied by a teacher or a more learned person to a young learner or less knowledgeable person.

Key Points Active learning involves the following:

• Active learning is a student-centered approach in which students are considered the center of the class.
• ensuring active engagements of learners in various contexts, such as questioning and inquiry.
• providing the opportunities for learners to foster their own strategy of learning.
• allowing students to make some decisions about what and how to learn.
• making learners able to share ideas and create a learning community.
• making engagement of the students in reflections and applications.
• promoting participation, cooperation, and collaboration for the construction of knowledge.
• The presentation of facts, so often introduced through straight lecture, is deemphasized in favor of class discussion, problem-solving, cooperative learning, and writing exercises
• Other examples of active learning techniques include role-playing, case studies, group projects, debate, classroom discussion, inquiry, and questioning.
• **​Thus we can conclude that the engagement of the students in such activities as Questioning, discussions, reflection, application, and inquiry helps them to learn actively.**​

Important Points

​Benefits of Active learning :

• Active learning helps students to become 'lifelong learners.
• Active learning encourages success.
• Active learning is engaging and intellectually exciting.
• Improves critical thinking

Hence, we can conclude that all the elements are equally important for the active learning process. (debate, questioning, reflection, application, discussion, and inquiry)

Additional Information

• Debate: Debating is an excellent tool to encourage higher-order and critical thinking skills. It teaches students to structure and organize their thoughts while also developing their analytical and research skills.
• Questioning: Effective questioning involves using questions in the classroom to open conversations, inspire deeper intellectual thought, and promote student-to-student interaction. Effective questions focus on eliciting the process, i.e. the 'how' and 'why,' in a student's response.
• Reflection: Reflection is about students becoming aware of their thinking processes, and being able to make those transparent to others.
• Application: It refers to an educational approach whereby students learn by engaging in the direct application of skills, theories, and models.
• Discussion: Discussion-based teaching is an instructional approach that prioritizes learner acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes through discourse rather than passive approaches that focus on lecture, reading, or viewing.
• Inquiry: It is a form of active learning that starts by posing questions, problems, or scenarios.

Learning is a continuous life-long process that is not inherited but can begin right from birth by providing constant interaction and stimulation received from the physical, social, and cultural environment and it does not stop till the end.

Discovery learning: Discovery learning is the type of learning in which students can learn by finding the correct approach for the problem through their cognition.

• Example: Finding the types of plants while going on a visit.

Key Points Characteristics of Discovery learning:

• Discovery learning helps students to think critically.
• Children learn through observing things and then make a synthesis about the problem.
• It is based on child-centered learning instead of teacher-centered.
• There are a lot of resources to gain knowledge in discovery learning because they are free to move in the knowledge-rich environment.
• Discovery learning helps to make commands of the problem conceptually.
• Discovery learning improves the skills of the students and makes their thinking divergent.
• It de-emphasis rote learning or learning based on memorization.
• Discovery learning is mostly based on activities, experiments, and critical thinking.
• Students can learn by making guesses or concepts through their cognition.
• Hence we can say that discovery learning has maximum freedom to construct knowledge within a resource-rich environment.

Important Points

• Expository teaching is a lecture presentation or telling strategy used during instruction. The teacher is in control of presenting the subject matter and directs the students through the lesson.
• Text-book centered learning: Text-book centered learning is that type of learning in which teachers teach only whatever is mentioned in the textbook, they do not engage their students in different activities, it de-emphasis learning by doing.
• Behaviouristic teaching : Behaviorists look at learning as an aspect that if a teacher motivates students, and provides them reinforcement, and rewards, then they will automatically learn the behavior they have to perform

Misconceptions or Alternative conceptions refer to a wrong or inaccurate idea that takes place due to the mismatch in previously assimilated and the newly accommodated knowledge. 

• Alternative conceptions in students' life are playing important role in the teaching-learning process. They are necessary for the learning process to give insight into students' thinking.

Key PointsAlternative conceptions: 

• The ideas that children and adults use to explain various scientific concepts which do not match with the generally accepted scientific explanation of those concepts.
• Intuitive means having the ability to understand or know something without any direct evidence or reasoning process. So learner with misconception represents intuitive theories.
• These concepts are a normal part of learning.
• Through this process, the teacher recognizes that children are capable of thinking and their thinking is different from that of adults.

Hence, we can conclude that alternative conceptions just represent their previous knowledge or intuitive theories.

Important Points  Education Implication:

• Teachers must accept that alternative conceptions exist and respect them.
• teachers should not rely solely on lectures.
• labs or hands-on activities.
• demonstrations can work.

Hint

• Alternative conceptions are not purely illogical students present them by their cognitive according to their thinking about the problem.
• The teacher should not ignore students' views toward the problem whether their views are irrelevant to the concept. The teacher should pay respect to all the views of the students.

Learning is a continuous life-long process that is not inherited but can begin right from birth by providing constant interaction and stimulation received from the physical, social, and cultural environment and it does not stop till the end.

Collaborative learning is a method of teaching and learning in which students team together to explore a significant question or create a meaningful project. A group of students discussing a lecture or students from different schools working together over the Internet on a shared assignment are both examples of collaborative learning.

Key PointsCharacteristics of the collaborative learning approach:

• It emphasizes direct or face-to-face coordination.
• collaborative learning refers to a situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn together in a group.
• Positive interdependence.
• There are many varieties of learning in collaborative learning such as activities, teamwork, group discussions, etc.
• Individual and group accountability.
• Adolescents provide many opportunities in the classroom to share their views and have much involvement in group discussions.
• A heterogeneous group of mixed abilities.
• in collaborative learning, a Group-oriented reward system should be implemented.
• Group learning to master academic materials.
• So, we can conclude that collaborative learning provides many opportunities for adolescents to share their views in multiple ways.

Conceptual understanding is the understanding in which learners get the knowledge of the roots of the problem. Conceptual learning is easy to get if a learner has any prior experience in the related problem because experience (old ideas) helps them to get the concept (new ideas) in the best manner. 

• Schemas: A schema is a packet of knowledge. that we have stored for a particular thing or object. basically, they are different packets for every different concept.

Key Points  A teachers should always try to build conceptual learning among the student, some of the ways to build concepts are:

• Make the child's thinking progressive, cultured, and civilized.
• Stimulating such methods which help in developing students' thinking process to analyze and integrate facts.
• By establishing the inter-relation between the previous knowledge of the students and the concepts (Schemas).
• A teacher should always hear the student's point of view.
• In conceptual understanding, knowledge is constructed by the learners on the basis of their prior experiences.
• Provide children opportunities for sharing ideas and encourage discussion.
• Categorizing, naming, and sporting activities,

Hence, we can conclude that presenting content that challenges the student's previous knowledge and requires a modification of schemas leads to a conceptual understanding.

Important Points Characteristics of Conceptual learning:

• Conceptual learning makes learners thought processes divergent, by which students can think about all the possible positive and negative aspects related to the problem.
• It opposes rote memorization.
• It improves the analysis and observational skills of the learners.
• The path of conceptual learning is from simple to complex, first students have to learn simple concepts, and then they have to learn complex concepts on the basis of simple concepts.
• Conceptual learners always think divergently, they cover all the possible ways to solve the problem,

Incremental belief: It motivates people to learn and develop their abilities well. It is a decision-making approach. incremental beliefs are given by Charles E. Lindblom. 

Key Points​

• For effective learning to take place, a teacher should activate incremental belief of ability among children as individuals with incremental as opposed to entity beliefs differ in motivational orientation and behavioral pattern.
• Incremental beliefs are the ones that encourage people to develop their abilities. This encouragement helps the learners to work on their abilities which in turn helps them in learning new things as they progress.
• Hence by all these, we can conclude that incremental beliefs imply meaningful efforts to achieve success.

Important Points Other Characteristics of incremental beliefs are:

• It was completely against and critical of Simon's Rational model.
• The actual process of decision-making is entirely different from the theoretical one.
• It includes continuously building out from the current situation, step by step.
• It means continuing the existing programs and policies with little modification.
• Also known as, BRANCH TECHNIQUE.​​

Hint

• Entity belief of ability among students, sense of competition among students, and sense of inferiority among students should not activate while teaching because this will not lead to effective learning rather it could hinder the learning process.

Constructivism: Constructivism is centered on the idea that human knowledge and learning are actively constructed by the learner, not passively received from the environment. Constructivist views learning as the result of mental construction. It is created or constructed by the experiencing individual. It is not impersonal or absolute.

Key Points In a constructivist classroom, however, the materials would be used by the children as an aid for them to explore the world and discover ideas through contexts that they relate to. This alternative was presented as the constructivist view of learning. Two essentials of this model of learning are the active participation of the child and the role of the teacher as a facilitator and encourager.  

• Learners are active participant in constructivist classrooms.
• A constructivist classroom always promotes group work and collaborative and cooperative learning.
• Tasks in the constructivist classroom are moderately difficult, which can be done by the involvement of all the learners.
• It doesn't promote rote learning or memorization.
• Learners of constructivist classrooms, learn by interacting with others.
• Thus we can conclude that group work and moderately difficult tasks are the features of the constructivist classroom.​

Hint

• Constructivist classrooms would not include repetitive tasks. the learners want to engage in various tasks with curiosity in constructivist classrooms.
• Recalling based, memorization based tasks should be avoided in socio-constructivist classrooms, the learners want to engage actively in their work.

Emotions play an essential role in an individual's life. Emotion is a psychological state with four components, a positive or negative subjective experience, bodily arousal, the activation of specific mental processes and stored information, and characteristic overt behavior”.

• Example: A parent might display emotions of happiness as their child receives a gold medal.

Key Points There are many types of emotions some of these are- Anxiety, Pride Happiness, Sadness, Frustration, Boredom, Fear, Anger, Shame, etc.

 Pride: Pride is an emotional response or attitude to something with an intimate connection to oneself, due to its perceived value.

• It is an emotion that encourages students to put effort into learning.
• This emotion is experienced by students while achieving goals, success, etc.
• This emotion necessarily requires a sense of self and the ability to reflect on one’s actions.

 Anger is an emotion characterized by antagonism toward someone or something you feel has deliberately done you wrong. Anger is the synonym of angriness which is emotion. So, anger is relation to emotion. 

• This emotion comes when students fail in something, having something irrelevant or not according to them.

Hence by all these, we can conclude that a student experiences pride while success and anger while failure.

Additional Information Some of the other emotions which are seen in daily life are:

• Hope: Hope is an emotion characterized by positive feelings about the immediate or long-term future. Often hope is coupled with high motivation, optimism, and a generally elevated mood.
• Frustration: Frustration is a common emotional response to opposition, related to anger, annoyance, and disappointment. Frustration arises from the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of an individual's will or goal and is likely to increase when a will or goal is denied or blocked.
• Pleasure: Pleasure or happiness is a positive emotion that gives satisfaction to the person who experiences it. Pleasure is the reaction to the satisfaction of a need or the attainment of a goal. When we are happy we smile and laugh and there is a clear expression of satisfaction on our faces.
• Anxiety: Anxiety is a state of painful discomfort in the mind. During anxiety, a vague fear or apprehension occurs. You may feel anxious if you don’t know the exact cause.
• Enjoyment: A feeling of taking pleasure in what is going on around you, especially in situations like a leisure activity or social gathering.
• Boredom: ​The state of feeling disinterested in one's surroundings, having nothing to do, or feeling that life is dull.
• ​Fear: Fear is caused by situations that are perceived as physically threatening. The situations that produce fear change with age. During early childhood, we are afraid of strange objects and persons, loss of support, darkness and devils, etc. During adolescence, fears are mostly social in nature.
• Affection: It is a pleasant emotional reaction directed towards a person, an animal, or an object. It is built up as a result of the pleasant experience. The most primitive basis of affection is associated with the warmth of the mother’s body, and being fondled and cuddled.

Conceptual learning: Conceptual learning is that type of learning in which the learner covers all the aspects related to the problem, they get the logic behind the problems by analyzing, observing, etc.​

Key Points Teaching strategies to be followed when teaching a new concept to the middle-grade students:

• While teaching any concept, the teacher should first know the level of previously acquired knowledge of students.
• The teacher should relate the theoretical knowledge with practicality and its applications in real life as this will enable them to know the relevance of the learned concept.
• The teacher should teach the simple concepts first so that students will get confidence in their learning and then gradually the difficult concepts should be taught by using effective teaching techniques.
• The teacher should always choose the way of teaching from concrete concepts to real, abstract, and complex concepts.
• The teaching must be done from known to unknown concepts.

​Hence, we can conclude that connecting a new concept with the previous knowledge of the child will help in better understanding.

Hint

• Teachers should not emphasize rote learning or learning based on memorization, teachers should emphasize conceptual or meaningful learning.
• Students learn more by engagement in the environment, and by social interaction, so teachers should provide the opportunity to the student to engage in society, social activities, etc.

The Harappans Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization that existed in the northwestern part of South Asia from 2500-to 1700 BCE. 

• The Bronze Age is characterized by the use of tools made from bronze, an alloy of copper and tin.
• This civilization is known for its development of techniques in Metallurgy and the use of bronze, copper lead, and tin for utensils, sculptures, vessels, and Jewellery.​

Key Points

• In the Harappan civilization iron was not discovered by the Harappan people that's why Harappan civilization doesn't belong to Iron age.
• Iron age (1200BC to 600BC) marks the period of development of technology, when the working of iron came into general use, replacing bronze as the basic material for implements and weapons.
• Copper Age- 
• The  Chalcolithic Age is known as the copper age
• It was a transition period between the Neolithic and the Bronze age which saw the first use of metals as tools and weapons

Additional Information 

• The Harappan Civilization is also known as Indus Valley Civilization that was spread from North-East Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.
• The Civilization flourished in the river basins of the Ghagger, Harkra river, and the Indus.
• It is well known for its organized planning based on the grid system.
• Important Sites of Harappan Civilization

History is the study of change over time, and it covers all aspects of human society. Political, social, economic, scientific, technological, medical, cultural, intellectual, religious and military developments are all part of history. 

• Historians do not see time just as a passing of hours, days, or years-as-  a Clock or a Calendar.
• For the historian, time reflects changes in the social and economic organization in the persistence and transformation of ideas and beliefs.

Hence Statement A is false but B is true. 

Additional Information

• Historian is a person who reads and collects information based on primary sources such as manuscripts, inscriptions, and archaeology.
• Historians are connected with the continuous, methodical, interpretation and observation of historical data as they relate to humankind.

"Kitab al-Hind" was written by Al- Biruni in 1301 in Arabia language.

• Kitab al-Hind is also known by the name of "Tarikh-Ul-Hind".

Additional Information

• Al-Biruni is a Iranian scholar. who wrote the book " Kitab Al-Hind"
• This book is divided into 80 chapters.
• In this book Al- Biruni extensively compared the Indian culture with other culture also highlighted the Indian Religion, Philosophy, Customs, Traditions.

As construction activity increased between the eighth and eighteenth centuries there was also a considerable sharing of ideas across regions; the traditions of one region were adopted by another.

• Because kings built temples and buildings to demonstrate their devotion to God and their power and wealth, it is not surprising that when they attacked one another's kingdoms, they often targeted these buildings.

Hence the creation of large empires brought different regions together resulting in the cross-fertilization of forms and styles.​

Additional Information

• Cross-fertilization means interaction or interchange between different cultures or different ways of thinking that is mutually productive and beneficial.

Acharya Charaka was a  famous physician who wrote a book on medicine known as a Charaka Samhita about 2000 years ago.

• He stated that the human body has 360 bones which was a much larger number than the 200 bones that are recognized in modern anatomy.
• He arrived at the figure by counting the teeth, joints, and cartilages.​

Additional Information

• Acharya Charak was born in 300 BC and he was a native citizen of Kashmir.
• He was a physician who wrote of Charak Samhita.
• Charak Samhita is considered an Ayurvedic Encyclopedia.
• It is divided into 8 parts and contains 120 chapters.​​ Charaka Samhita along with Sushruta Samhita is considered the foundational text of Ayurveda.
• According to Charak life can not be pre-determined and can be lived in a disease-free state by following a healthy lifestyle.

The Sangeet Natak Akademi recognizes the eight dances as a Classical dance in India Bharatnatyam, Kathak, Kuchipudi, Odisha, Sattriya, Manipuri, Mohiniyattam.

Important Points 

Classical dance forms of India-

Chronological of revolts:

Additional Information

The Tribal chief had a considerable amount of power before the arrival of the British.

• After the arrival of British rule, they lose their administrative power and were forced to follow laws made by British officials in India.
• But they are allowed to keep their land titles over a cluster of villages and rent outlands but they lost much of their administrative power and were forced to follow laws made by British officials in India.
• They also had to pay tribute to the British and discipline, the tribal groups on behalf of the British.
• They lost the authority they had earlier enjoyed amongst the people and were unable to fulfill their traditional functions.

Hence statements A and B are correct.

Women and Reform:

• The knowledge of ancient texts helped reformers promote new laws during British rule.
• They used the ancient texts to convince people about the need for abolishing certain social evils like widow burning, caste distinctions, child marriage, etc.
• They believed that if they take the help of the ancient religious texts to support their ideas, it will surely put an impact on people's minds.
• Thus they used quotation from ancient texts to give weight to their arguments.
• The reformers discarded ancient texts in order to go in for reforms in social practices. For example:
• Periyar was an outspoken critic of Hindu scriptures, especially the Codes of Manu, the ancient lawgiver, and the Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana.
• He said that these texts had been used to establish the authority of Brahmans over lower castes and the domination of men over women.

Thus, both the statements A and B are true.

Erode Venkatappa Ramasamy revered as Periyar was an Indian social activist and politician who started the self-respect movement in 1925 for the dignity of the untouchables.

• He is known as the father of the Dravidian movement.
• He rebelled against Brahminical dominance and gender and caste inequality in Tamil Nadu.
• He was an outspoken critic of Hindu scriptures- Codes of Manusmirti, Bhagwad Gita, Ramayana.

Confusion Points ‘Ore jati, ore madam, ore devam manushyan’ (Human has one caste, one religion, one God) slogan given by Shri Narayan Guru.

Additional Information

• Temple entry movement- started by B.R.Ambedkar in 1927. It was a  movement to allow lower caste people to enter temples.
• Veda Samaj- was established by the efforts of Keshav Chandra Sen and K Sridharalu Naidu in1864 at Madras.
• Ved Samaj was inspired by the Brahmo Samaj.

Jyotirao Phule attacked the brahmans, claim that they were superior to others because they were Aryans.

• Phule argued that the Aryans were outsiders. they came from outside the sub-continent and defeated and subjugated the true children of the country- those who had lived here before the Aryans.
• Phule argued that Aryans established their dominance began looking at the defeated population as low caste people.

Additional Information

• Jyotirao Govindrao Phule, also known as Mahatma Jyotiba Phule.
• Jyotirao Phule was an Indian social activist, thinker, anti-caste social reformer, and writer from Maharashtra.
• His Ideology was based on: Liberty; Egalitarianism; Socialism.
• He established Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873 which meant ‘Seekers of Truth’ in order to attain equal social and economic benefits for the lower castes in Maharashtra.
• He wrote many famous books like Gulamgiri in 1873, and Shetkarayacha Aasud in1881.

Mahatma Gandhi launched a Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922) against the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.

• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre also called the Massacre of Amritsar was an incident held on 13 April 1919 in which British troops fired on a large crowd of unarmed Indians in an open space known as Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar in Punjab.
• When many villagers gathered in the park for the celebration of Baisakhi.
• The gatherers wanted to do also peacefully protect the arrest and deportation of two national, leaders, Satyapal and Saifuddin Kitchlew.

Additional Information 

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)- The non-cooperation movement was a political campaign launched in 1920, by Mahatma Gandhi to have Indians revoke their cooperation with the British government, with the aim of inducing the British to grant self-governance.

• ​In support of this movement, thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges.
• Many lawyers such as Motilal Nehru, C. R.Das, and Asaf Ali gave up their practices
• British titles were surrendered and the legislature was boycotted.
• But Gandhi Ji called off this movement when in February 1922 a crowd of peasants set fire to a police state in Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh.​

Rowlett Satyagraha-

On 6 April 1919, Mahatma Gandhi started a non-violent Satyagraha against the unjust Rowlatt Act passed by the British government.

• The Rowlatt Act was the popular name for the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919 passed by the British Indian government.
• The Act gave the government the power to imprison any person suspected of revolutionary activities for a maximum period of two years without trial.

Khilafat Movement 1920- The Khilafat movement was launched under the leadership of the Ali Brothers (Maulana Mohammed Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali).

• It got the support from Mahatma Gandhi to persuade the British government not to abolish the caliphate.

Civil Disobedience Movement- began with Gandhi's it is well-known as Dandi-March.

• it led a large group of people from Sabarmati ashram on 12 March 1930 till Dandi to break the salt law by producing salt from seawater under the leadership of Gandhiji.​

Moderates are those leaders who believed in liberalism and Moderate politics. They considered that Britishers to be just and unaware about the conditions of the Indians, if they become aware they would improve the conditions.

• Moderates aimed at adminstrative and constitutional reforms they just wanted more Indians in the administration ,not to an end of British rule.
• Moderates were secular in their attitudes, though not forthright enough to rise above their sectarian interests.
• They knew the  exploitative nature of British rule but wanted reforms and not expulsion.
• They believe in the efficacy of peaceful and constitutional agitation.
• they follow the principles of 3P; Petition, Prayer, Protest.
• W.C. Banerjee,Dadabhai ,Naoroji,Feroz shah mehta, Gopalakrishna Gokhale are some important moderate leaders.

Additional Information The Indian national congress which was established in 1885 ,divided into two groups in 1907 mainly by extremists and moderates at the Surat session of congress.

• Moderates were those people who wanted to resolve issue with government through deliberations wheraes extremists believed in strikes, agitations, and boycott to force their demands.
• Extremists believed in self-reliance as a weapon against domination.
• They believed in militant methods.
• Lala Lajpat rai, Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar tilak, Bipin Chandra pal are some important extremists leaders.

Indians needed a common language throughout the country after independence but Hindi was not able to do this because south Indians didn't know it well and English was prevailing in southern India.

• hence English continued to be used in India after independence because there was demand from non-Hindu-speaking states for a language that was understood by them.​

Additional Information

• The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution consists of the following 22 languages:​

​Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Bodo, Santhali, Maithili and Dogri.

Both A and B statements are true.

But we are do not feel their heat or light because they are very very very far from us.

• Star are celestial bodies made up of gases.
• They have their own heat and light, which they emit in large amounts.
• Sun is the closest star of earth.
• Proxima Centauri is the closest star to the sun.

​

Additional Information 

Composition of Sun- The sun is a huge ball of hydrogen and helium held together by its own gravity.

• ​By mass the composition of the sun is 92.1% hydrogen and 7.9% helium.
• Various metals makeup less then 0.1% of the mass of the sun.

Panama of Isthmus connects the continent of North America to the continent of South America.

• Isthmus is a narrow strip of land joining two landmasses.
• It separates the north Atlantic from the pacific ocean.
• it is 30 miles wide the narrowest point.
• it was the first prehistoric hunter- gathers who migrating from north America
• today, tourism, and numerous industries are growing faster due to isthmus of panama

Additional Information

Mountain Ranges- is a series of mountains or hills ranged in a line and connected by high ground.

• Andes range in the south America is the world's longest mountain range .

​Canal- is a artificial waterways built for drainage management or for conveyancing water transport vehicles.

• Suez Canal is a example of canal.​​

​Strait-  is a narrow passage of water connecting two large waterbodies like seas and oceans.

• Strait of Gibraltar, the only link between Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.

Tropical deciduous is the monsoon forests found in the largest part of India, northern Australia, and Central America.

• These regions experience seasonal changes.
• They spread over regions that receive rainfall between 70-200 cm.
• They shed their leaves in the dry season to conserve water.
• The hardwood trees found in these forests are sal, teak, neem, and shisha.
• These trees are extremely useful for making furniture, transport and construction materials.
• Tigers, lions, elephants, langurs, and monkeys are the common animals of this region.
• These forests are found in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and some parts of Maharashtra.

Additional Information

Tropical rainforests- are also called tropical evergreen forests.

• They are the thick forests occur in the regions near the equator and close to the tropics.
• These regions are hot and receive heavy rainfall throughout the year.
• As there is no particular dry season, the trees do not shed their leaves together that's why they are called evergreen forests.
• Rosewood, ebony, and mahogany are a common examples of this forests tree.

Mangrove forests- are coastal trees that can be found in tropical and subtropical areas.

• They are unique because they grow in saltwater.
• Mangroves provide a numbers of benefits, including as a natural barrier against storms and floods.
• Sundarbans forests in the West Bengal is an example of Mangrove forests.

Mountain forests- are found in the mountain slope.

• These forests are influenced by the colder climate at moderate elevations.
• These are found between 1000 and 2000 meters in elevation
• Tibetan antelope, yak, Kashmir stag, rare red panda common animals are found in these forests.
• Pines, birches, junipers, silver fir are common trees of these areas.

The type and thickness of natural vegetation varies from place to place because of the variation in these factors:

• There is a close relationship between height of land and the character of vegetations. With the change in height, the climate changes and that changes natural vegetation. Thus, latitude and altitude is an important factor.
• For example, let's look into a story for a better understanding:
• Salima was excited about the summer camp she was attending. She had gone to visit Manali in Himachal Pradesh along with her class mates.
• She recalled how surprised she was to see the changes in the landform and natural vegetation as the bus climbed higher and higher.
• The deep jungles of the foothills comprising sal and teak slowly disappeared.
• She could see tall trees with thin pointed leaves and cone shaped canopies on the mountain slopes. She learnt that those were coniferous trees.
• She noticed blooms of bright flowers on tall trees. These were the rhododendrons.
• From Manali as she was travelling up to Rohtang pass she saw that the land was covered with short grass and snow in some places.
• The growth of vegetation depends on temperature and moisture.
• It also depends on factors like slope and thickness of soil.

Block Mountains are created when large rocks are broken and displaced vertically.

• The upliftment blocks are termed as horsts and the lowered blocks are called graben.
• The Rhine Valley in the Germany and The Vosges Mountains in Europe are the example of Block Mountains

Additional Information  Fold Mountains-are those who formed by folding of earth’s’ crust due to the plate’s collision.

• when two or more of the earth’s tectonic plates are pushed together with these colliding ,compressing boundaries, rocks and debris are wrapped and folded into rocky Hills,Mountains.
• There are Two types of fold mountains on the bases of the time occurrences:

Volcanic Mountains-are those who formed due to volcanic activities.

• These mountains are formed due to accumulation and solidification of lava on the surface of the earth.
• Mt Kilimanjaro in Africa, Mt Fujiyama in Japan, and Mt Etna in Italy are the example of volcanic mountains.

Glacier- is a large, perennial accumulation of crystalline ice, snow, rock, sediment, and water that originates on land and moves down slope under the influence of its own weight and gravity. They are sensitive indicators of changing climate.

• The Gangotri Glacier, one of the largest glaciers in the Himalayan Mountains.

Ladakh is a cold desert lying in the great Himalayas, on the eastern side of Jammu and Kashmir.

• Ladakh is madeup of two words-"La" meaning' mountain pass' and " Dak" meaning 'country'
• The altitude in Ladakh varies from about 3000m in Kargil to more than 8000m in the Karakoram.
• Due to its high altitude, the climate is extremely cold and dry.
• The air at this altitude is so thin that the heat of the sun can be felt intensely.
• The day temperatures in summer are just above zero degree and the night temperatures well below -30 degree.
• Ladakh lies in the rain shadow of the Himalayas, there is little rainfall, as low as 10 cm every year.

Additional Information 

Desert- is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently, living conditions are harsh for living organism.

• There is a two type of deserts one being is a cold deserts and the other being hot deserts.
• Ladakh is a example of cold desert and Sahara is a example of hot desert.

Sunderbans - is a mangrove area in the delta formed by the confluence of the Padma ,Brahmaputra, and Meghna river in the Bay of Bengal.

• The regions is densely covered by mangrove forests .
• It is the home of royal bengal tiger.
• The Sunderbans is UNESCO's world heritage site.

Eastern Ghats- The Deccan Plateau is one of the landmasses of india it is boardered by the eastern Ghats on the eastside and by the Western Ghats on the west.

• The Eastern Ghats are lower in elevation.
• Their average elevation is 600 Metres.
• In the Eastern Ghats mountain chains are not continuous and are denuded by the rivers which flow into the Bay of Bengal.

Sahyadris- is also known as Western Ghats.

• The Ghats lie on the western margin of the deccan plateau.
• They are higher in elevation.
• Their average elevation is from 900 to 1600 meters.
• They have a continuous chains of mountains and can be crossed through passes only.

The temperature of air at any place is influenced by

• the latitude of the place
• the altitude of the place
• distance from the sea, the airmass circulation
• the presence of warm and cold ocean currents
• local aspects

Key Points Distance from the sea :

• Another factor that influences the temperature is the location of a place with respect to the sea.
• Compared to land, the sea gets heated slowly and loses heat slowly.
• Land heats up and cools down quickly.
• Therefore, the variation in temperature over the sea is less compared to land.
• The places situated near the sea come under the moderating influence of the sea and land breezes which moderate the temperature.

Thus, the statement C is correct.

Confusion Points Air-mass and Ocean currents :

• Like the land and sea breezes, the passage of air masses also affects the temperature.
• The places, which come under the influence of warm air-masses experience higher temperature and the places that come under the influence of cold airmasses experience low temperature.
• Similarly, the places located on the coast where the warm ocean currents flow record higher temperature than the places located on the coast where the cold currents flow.

Our atmosphere is divided into five layers starting from the earth's surface. These are Troposphere. Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere, Exosphere.

Troposphere-

• It is considered as the lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere.
• Its average height is 13km.
• The troposphere starts at the surface of the earth and goes up to a height of 8 kms (poles) to 18 kms (equator).
• The main reason of higher height at the equator is due to presence of hot convection currents that push the gases upward.
• All kinds of weather changes occurs within this layer.
• This layer has water vapor and mature particles.
• Temperature decreases with increasing height of atmosphere at the rate of 1 degree Celsius for every 165 m of height. This is called Normal lapse rate.
• Tropopause, the transitional zone, separates Troposphere and Stratosphere

Stratosphere-

• It is the second layer of the atmosphere found above the troposphere.
• It extends up to a height of 50 km from the earth’s surface.
• This layer is almost free from clouds and associated weather phenomenon.
• This layer is very dry as it contains little water vapour.
• This layer provides some advantages for flight because it is above stormy weather and has steady, strong, horizontal winds.
• The ozone layer is found in this layer.
• The ozone layer absorbs UV rays and safeguards earth from harmful radiation.
• Stratopause separates Stratosphere and Mesosphere.

Mesosphere-

• The Mesosphere is found above the stratosphere.
• It is the coldest of the atmospheric layers.
• The mesosphere starts at 50 km above the surface of Earth and goes up to 80 km.
• The temperature drops with altitude in this layer.
• By 80 km it reaches -100 degrees Celsius.
• Meteors burn up in this layer.
• The upper limit is called Mesopause which separates Mesosphere and Thermosphere.

Thermosphere-

• This layer is found above Mesopause from 80 to 400 km.
• Radio waves that are transmitted from the earth are reflected by this layer.
• The temperature starts increasing again with increasing height in this layer.
• Aurora and satellites occur in this layer.

Ionosphere-

• The lower Thermosphere is called the Ionosphere.
• The ionosphere consists of electrically charged particles known as ions.
• This layer is defined as the layer of the atmosphere of Earth that is ionized by cosmic and solar radiation.
• It is positioned between 80 and 400 km above the Mesopause.

Exosphere-

• It is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere.
• This layer has very thin air, light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the space from here.
• The zone where molecules and atoms escape into space is mentioned as the exosphere.
• It extends from the top of the thermosphere up to 10,000 km.

Thus we can conclude that Stratosphere contains a layer of ozone gas.

The human body works best at atmospheric pressure. This is because the inside of the body is kept at a similar pressure, mostly thanks to the blood pressure that your heart maintains by pumping.

• Atmospheric pressure is especially important for keeping the right amount of oxygen in your blood.

Additional InformationAir pressure- is defined as the pressure exerted by the weight of air on the earth's surface. The air pressure decreases as height increases and is the highest at the sea level.

Transport is the means by which people and goods move. The four major means of transport are roadways, railways, waterways and airways.

• Roads
• India has the second-largest road network in the world.
• Roadways are most commonly used means of transport especially for short distances.
• ​Waterways
• Waterways are the cheapest for carrying heavy and bulky goods over long distances.
• They are mainly of two types – inland waterways and sea routes
• Airways
• This is the fastest way of transport developed in the early twentieth century.
• It is also the most expensive due to high cost of fuels.
• It is the only mode of transport to reach the most remote and distant areas especially where there are no roads and railways.

Thus, statement A, B and D are correct.

Additional Information

 Railways:

• The railways carry heavy goods and people over long distances quickly and cheaply.
• The invention of the steam engine and the Industrial Revolution helped in speedy development of rail transport.
• Diesel and electric engines have largely replaced the steam engines.
• In places super fast trains have been introduced to make the journey faster.
• The railway network is well developed over the plain areas.
• Advanced technological skills have enabled laying of railway lines in difficult mountain terrains also. But these are much fewer in number. Thus, statement C is incorrect.
• Indian railway network is well developed. It is the largest in Asia.

Migration is the physical movement of people from one place to another; it may be over long distances, such as moving from one country to another, and can occur as individuals, family units, or large groups.

• When referring to an international movement, migration is called immigration.

Hint ​Reasons for Migration:

• Employment opportunities
• To escape a violent conflict
• Environmental factors
• Educational purposes
• Marriage or to reunite with family.

Hence, given above the statements are correct.

Odisha is the largest producer of steel in India. Odisha supplies iron ores to the steel plants at Jamshedpur and Bokaro in Jharkhand.

Key Points

• The Iron and steel plants of Karnataka are Bhadravati and Vijayanagar, West Bengal, Durgapur, and Burnpur. the Iron and steel factory of Karnataka was established at Bhadravati. Visvesvarayan Iron and steel plant at Bhadravati was established in 1923.
• Visakhapatnam Steel plant is located in Andhra Pradesh.
• It is located along the Salem — Bangalore National Highway 44 in the foothills of Kanjamalai in Salem district, Tamil Nadu, India.

Hence we can say that the above all comes under the steel-producing centers in India except Aligarh.

Both the statements are false.

• Pisciculture is the breeding, hatching and rearing of fish in pond tanks and artificial reservoirs under controlled conditions.
• The rearing of silkworms to produce raw silk is called sericulture or silkworm rearing.
• Sericulture, or silk farming, is the cultivation of silkworms to produce silk. Although there are several commercial species of silkworms, Bombyx mori (the caterpillar of the domestic silkmoth) is the most widely used and intensively studied silkworm.
• The rearing of silkworms to produce raw silk is called sericulture.

Hence we can say that the above two statements are false.

The correct answer is Ladakh.

• Pashmina is a fine type of wool which were first woven in Ladakh.

Key Points

• Pashmina is a Persian word Pašmina which means “ Made from Wool”.
• Pashmina was first encountered by the Europeans in Kashmir.
• Later it came to be known as the 'Cashmere'.
• The Iranians, who came to Kashmir through the Ladakh route, gave the fabric its name, ‘Pashmina’.
• The wool comes from a Changthangi goat or a Pashmina goat which are a special breed of goats found in the high-altitude regions of Nepal and India.
• The Changpa tribe, from the Changthang region of Ladakh, are the traditional producers of Pashmina Wool.

Here is the definition of all terms:

• Socialism is, broadly speaking, a political and economic system in which property and the means of production are owned in common, typically controlled by the state or government. Socialism is based on the idea that common or public ownership of resources and means of production leads to a more equal society.
• Secularism is the principle-based in secular humanism that seeks to conduct human affairs based on secular, naturalistic considerations.
• Diversity is about what makes each of us unique and includes our backgrounds, personality, life experiences and beliefs, all of the things that make us who we are. It is a combination of our differences that shape our view of the world, our perspective and our approach.
• Social justice is the view that everyone deserves equal economic, political and social rights and opportunities. Social workers aim to open the doors of access and opportunity for everyone, particularly those in greatest need.

Hence we can say that the above statement expresses the diversity in nature.

The governor acts as the nominal head whereas the real power lies with the chief ministers of the states and his or her councils of ministers.

Key Points

• The Head of State is the Governor. The Indian President appoints Governor for each state by warrant under his hand and seal. Central Government is responsible to nominate the governor for each state. Commonly the word government refers to government departments and various ministers who head them.
• The Governor of a State is appointed by the President for a term of five years and holds office during his pleasure. Only Indian citizens above 35 years of age are eligible for appointment to this office. The executive power of the State is vested in Governor.

Hence we say can that Statement A is correct but Statement B is incorrect.

It comes under the category of Large farmers.

Key Points

Large Farmers-

• A farmer with own big plots of land and who does not cultivate their land and instead, hires landless labourers to work on their fields is called a large farmer.
• A large farmer owns more than 5 acres of land.
• They obtain capital for farming from their own savings or from the banks as loan.
• They retain a part of their farm produce for family’s consumption, and the surplus farm produce is sold in the market and they reap the profits.

Thus, Preeti belong to a large farmers family.

Confusion Points

• Small farmer means a cultivator with an un-irrigated land holding up to two hectares (five acres) or with an irrigated land holding up to one hectare, but more than the holding of a marginal farmer.
• Most small farmers have to borrow money to arrange for the capital.
• They borrow from large farmers or the village moneylenders or the traders who supply various inputs for cultivation.
• The rate of interest on such loans is very high. They are put to great distress to repay the loan.

Additional Information 

• Agricultural workers maintain crops and tend livestock. They perform physical labour and operate machinery under the supervision of farmers, ranchers, and other agricultural managers.
• Small shopkeepers- Someone who owns or manages a small store: They claim that the law favours big supermarket chains whilst disadvantaging small shopkeepers.

The Hindu Succession Amendment Act 2005 provides an Equal share in a father's property to sons and daughters.

Key PointsThe Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 (39 of 2005) was enacted to remove gender discriminatory provisions in the Hindu Succession Act, 1956. 

• Under the amendment, the daughter of a coparcener shall by birth become a coparcener in her own right in the same manner as the son.
• The daughter shall now have the same rights in the coparcenary property (ancestral property of the Hindu undivided family) as a son.
• It was essentially meant for removing gender-discriminatory provisions regarding property rights in the Hindu Succession Act, 1956.

Additional InformationThe Hindu marriage act was enacted in 1955 by an Act of Parliament.

• The main objective of this Act is to amend and codify the Hindu marriage laws. It also contains provisions relating to separation and divorce. It brought uniformity of law for all sections of Hindus.

Thus, we can conclude The Hindu Succession Amendment Act 2005 provides an Equal share in a father's property to sons and daughters.

In a weaver's cooperative, the weavers form a group and take up certain activities collectively. 

• Weavers are paid very little by the merchant under the putting out system. The arrangement between the merchant and the weavers is an example of putting-out system. Thus, statement C is correct.
• Weaver’s cooperatives are one way to reduce the dependence on the merchant and to earn a higher income for the weavers. Thus, statement A is correct.
• In a cooperative, people with common interests come together and work for their mutual benefit.
• In a weaver’s cooperative, the weavers form a group and take up certain activities collectively.
• They procure yarn from the yarn dealer and distribute it among the weavers.
• The cooperative also does the marketing. So, the role of the merchant is reduced, and weavers get a fair price on the cloth. Thus, statement D is correct.
• At times, the government helps the cooperatives by buying cloth from them at a reasonable price.
• For instance, the Tamil Nadu government runs a Free School Uniform programme in the state. The government procures the cloth for this programme from the powerloom weaver’s cooperatives.
• Similarly, the government buys cloth from the handloom weaver’s cooperatives and sells it through stores known as Co-optex.

The term Universal Adult Franchise means that all citizens the age of 18 and above have the right to vote and elect their representatives.

Key Points 

• Universal Adult Franchise means the right to vote to every adult in the country. The right to vote is not restricted by race, sex, belief, wealth, or social status in India it was granted in 1950.
• All citizens above a fixed age have the right to vote. All citizens have the right to education. All citizens have the right to life.
• No person can be denied voting rights on grounds of caste, creed, religion, gender etc. The feature is an essential part of democracy as it exhibits political equality.
• According to the universal Adult Franchise, all citizens who are 18 years and above have the right to vote.
• Everyone irrespective of their caste, religion, colour, educational background, race and financial conditions is free to vote. In a democracy, a universal adult franchise is the most important element.

Hence we say that it is about free to vote.

Boys and girls are socialized to choose certain subjects for their higher education not because she/he has an aptitude for it, but because they are internalized and meant to select specific disciplines as per their gender.

• This is an example of stereotype because this beliefs lacks a rational basis. Also, this is an over-simplified and unjustified opinion about others.
• It is problematic because it ignores diversity among individuals.
• This belief is developed out of experiences with individuals of other community and are then extended to apply to all members of that community.

Additional Information

• Stereotype:
• The process of fixing people into an image is called stereotype.
• When we fix people into one image, we create a stereotype.
• Problems created by stereotypes:
• They stop us from looking at each person as a unique individual.
• They fit large number of people into only one pattern or type.
• They prevent us from doing certain things we are good at.
• Stereotype Statements about boys:
• They don’t cry.
• They are brave
• Stereotype Statements about girls:
• They are soft spoken and gentle.
• They are well behaved.
• Discrimination happens when people act on their prejudices or stereotypes.
• If you do something to put other people down, if you stop them from taking part in certain activities and taking up jobs, or stop them from living in certain neighbourhoods, prevent them from taking water from the same well or hand pump, or not allow them to drink tea in the same cups or glasses as others, you are discriminating against them.

A child is every person under the age of 18 years. Parents have the primary responsibility for the upbringing and development of the child. The State shall respect and ensure the rights of the child. 

Important Points

• Dignity and Expression
• I have the Right to express my views freely which should be taken seriously, and everyone has the Responsibility to listen to others. [Art.12,13]
• I have the Right to make mistakes, and everyone has the Responsibility to accept we can learn from our mistakes. [Art 28]
• I have the Right to be included whatever my abilities and everyone has the Responsibility to respect others for their differences. [Art 23]
• Development
• ​I have the Right to a good education, and everyone has the Responsibility to encourage all children to go to school. [Art. 23, 28, 29]
• ​Care & Protection
• I have the Right to be loved and protected from harm and abuse, and everyone has the Responsibility to love and care for others. [Art.19]
• I have the Right to live without violence and corporal punishment (verbal, physical, emotional), and everyone has the Responsibility not to be violent to others. [Art. 2, 28,37, 39]

Thus, Article 28 and 12 of the Indian Constitution are complementary to the above Child Rights.

The feature of fundamental rights is the 'conscience' of the Indian constitution. These rights protect citizens against the arbitrary and absolute exercise of power by the government as well as against other individuals.

Important Points 

• Federalism is a mixed or compound mode of government that combines a general government (the central or "federal" government) with regional governments (provincial, state, cantonal, territorial or other sub-unit governments) in a single political system, dividing the powers between the two.
• The six fundamental rights include the Right to Equality, Right to freedom, Right against exploitation, Right to freedom of Religion, Cultural and Educational Rights and Right to constitutional Remedies. Originally Right to property (Article 31) was also included in the Fundamental Rights.
• To ensure a separation of powers, the U.S. Federal Government is made up of three branches: legislative, executive and judicial. To ensure the government is effective and citizens' rights are protected, each branch has its own powers and responsibilities, including working with the other branches.
• parliamentary system, a democratic form of government in which the party (or a coalition of parties) with the greatest representation in the parliament (legislature) forms the government, its leader becoming prime minister or chancellor.

Hence we can say that it is a feature of Fundamental Rights.

Judicial Review: As the final interpreter of the Constitution, the judiciary also has the power to strike down particular laws passed by the Parliament if it believes that these are a violation of the basic structure of the Constitution. This is called judicial review.

Key Points

• Dispute resolution generally refers to one of several different processes used to resolve disputes between parties, including negotiation, mediation, arbitration, collaborative law, and litigation.
• Judicial review allows the Supreme Court to take an active role in ensuring that the other branches of government abide by the constitution. The text of the Constitution does not contain a specific provision for the power of judicial review.
• An independent judiciary is necessary to carry out the function of 'upholding the law and enforcing Fundamental Rights'. It intends to shield the judicial process from external influences and provide full legal protection to all individuals going to court for whatever reason.
• judicial independence, the ability of courts and judges to perform their duties free of influence or control by other actors, whether governmental or private.

Hence we can say that this is called Judicial Review.

The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 is the disability legislation passed by the Indian Parliament to fulfill its obligation to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which India ratified in 2007.

• The Act replaced the existing Persons With Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995.

Important Points 

1. The RPWD Act, 2016 provides that “the appropriate Government shall ensure that the PWD enjoy the right to equality, life with dignity, and respect for his or her integrity equally with others.” The Government is to take steps to utilize the capacity of the PWD by providing an appropriate environment.
2. The acts encourage the government to establish more special schools for disabled persons.
3. These acts mandated the government to build and equipped all its offices with Ramp and disabled persons friendly.

Mistake Points 

1. As per this act, The union government shall reserve not less than 5% seats for physically challenged persons in educational institutions.

Hence, The RPWD act 2016, provides various rights to the disabled. And mandate the government to build a ramp for them.

The Bhopal disaster, also referred to as the Bhopal gas tragedy, was a gas leak accident on the night of 2–3 December 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.

• The industrial disaster is considered the world's worst in history. Over 500,000 people were exposed to methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas.

Important Points 

1. On December 3, 1984, about 45 tons of the dangerous gas methyl isocyanate escaped from a pesticides plant that was owned by the Indian subsidiary of the American firm Union Carbide Corporation.
2. The gas drifted over the densely populated neighborhoods around the plant, killing thousands of people immediately and creating a panic as tens of thousands of others attempted to flee Bhopal.
3. The final death toll was estimated to be between 15,000 and 20,000. Some half a million survivors suffered respiratory problems, eye irritation or blindness, and other maladies resulting from exposure to the toxic gas;
4. Investigations later established that substandard operating and safety procedures at the understaffed plant had led to the catastrophe.

Hence, In the Bhopal gas tragedy in 1984, there was a leakage of poisonous gases from a pesticide plant.

History is the study of life in society in the past, in all its aspects, in relation to present developments and future hopes. History aims at helping students to understand the present existing social, political, religious, and economic conditions of the people.

Key Points

• History to be studied at a particular level depends upon its aims and objectives.
• They decide at what level what portion is to be studied.

Following are the general aims and objectives of teaching history:-

• To promote self-understanding.
• To give a proper conception of time, space, and society.
• To enable the pupils to assess the values and achievements of their own age.
• To foster national feelings.
• To give training for handling controversial issues.

Thus, it is concluded that portion of history is to be studied at a particular level depend upon its aims and objectives.

The National Curriculum Framework 2005 (NCF) says that studying the social sciences provides learners with the social, cultural, and analytical skills required to adjust to an increasingly interdependent world.

• According to the NCF, social science content should aim at raising students’ awareness through critically exploring and questioning familiar social realities.

Key Points According to NCF 2005, The primary objective of teaching social sciences at the secondary stage is to:- 

• develop an understanding about social and economic challenges faced by the nation.
• develop a holistic understanding of the environment with emphasis on the institutions of the natural and the social environment.
• critically examine social and economic issues and challenges like poverty, child labor, destitution, and illiteracy.
• understand the rights and responsibilities of citizens in a democratic and secular society.
• understand the roles and responsibilities of the state in the fulfillment of constitutional obligations.
• understand the processes of change and development in India in relation to the world economy and polity.

Thus, it is concluded that Only B and D statements are true.

Hint

• Assist students to explore their interests and aptitudes in order to choose appropriate university courses and/or courses:- This is the objective at the higher secondary stage
• Develop skills of observation, identification, and classification: This is the objective at the primary stage.

A map is a representation of the earth on a flat surface. Maps are very much used by motorists, defense personnel, tourists, and so on. 

• To use a map, it is necessary that one knows how to read a map as the map has its own language.
• The map cannot be meaningful unless the reader is able to make out what the map contains.

Key Points​ Mapping skills help us to read maps and deduce information from symbols and scales.

While introducing students into mapping skills, a teacher can begin with the following activities:- 

• The teacher can ask the students to identify the geographical setting by looking at the colors of the map.
• The teacher can introduce them with directions, scales, and symbol and ask the students 
• To locate different places and identify symbols used on a map.
• To identify the scale of a given map and ask them to calculate the distance between any two places.
• To identify directions through a map.

Thus, it is concluded that While initiating students into mapping skills you would begin by engaging students with directions, scale, and symbols.

Social science teaching needs to be revitalized towards helping the learner acquire knowledge and skills in an interactive environment.

• The teaching of social sciences must adopt methods that promote creativity, aesthetics, and critical perspectives and enable children to draw relationships between past and present, to understand changes taking place in society.

Key PointsThe teacher is using the narrative approach strategy as she is telling a story about a girl to teach the concept of water.

• The narrative is an interpretive approach in the social sciences and involves using storytelling methodology.
• The story becomes an object of study, focusing on how individuals or groups make sense of events and actions in their lives.
• This method is best suited as students would be able to know about the importance of water through the story which helps them in understanding the concept.

Thus, it is concluded that the teacher is using a narrative approach strategy.

Diversity means more than just acknowledging and/or tolerating differences. It refers to the existence of variations of different characteristics in a group of people.

Key Points Attitudes and values are very important in the life of the student as it displays their character and how to deal with everyone.

• Here**, displaying attitudes of appreciation and respect for people of different religions, communities, occupations, and languages description** shows that students have understood the concept of diversity.
• As diversity is about understanding each other and moving beyond simple tolerance to embracing and celebrating the rich dimensions of diversity contained within each individual.
• These can be along the dimensions of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socio-economic status, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs, language beliefs, political beliefs, or other ideologies.
• To respect and shows appreciation toward different cultures and religions displays that they have understood the concept of diversity.

Thus, it is concluded that displaying attitudes of appreciation and respect for people of different religions, communities, occupations, and languages description (attitudes and values) suggest that students have understood the concept of ‘diversity’.

The teaching of social science must adopt methods that promote creativity, aesthetics, and critical perspectives.

Key Points

• The term document is generally associated with written or printed records as evidence of historical facts.
• The documentary is defined this way, it is a form directed towards presenting a factual record about real people, things, and events.
• It sets out not just to 'entertain' but to explore.
• It gives a first-hand account of an event.
• Documentaries bring the world to the students in real ways.
• Documentary films depict content in cinematically interesting ways. They present stories in terms of human beings and human interests. They may be used to illustrate a subject, generally to introduce or revise it.

Thus, it is concluded that the use of documentaries is useful in the teaching social science as it gives first-hand account of an event.

Social Sciences include a body of knowledge, that deals with social and cultural aspects of human life. Social Sciences have emerged as distinct disciplines in order to be taught at different levels of the education system (starting from school level to higher education level) across the globe because of their immense importance for achieving better social cohesion, solidarity, and development.

Key Points There are different approaches to teaching social sciences. While some approaches to teaching are subject-oriented and teacher-centered, others are learner-centric in nature.

Here, the teacher is using a social-constructivist approach.

• The social constructivist approach is an approach of learning which gives primacy to collaborative learning by involving learners in discussion and projects related to real-life situations.
• In this approach, the teacher provides opportunities as well as the necessary resources to enable students to experiment, explore and analyze for themselves.
• It allows learners to foster their own strategy of learning to perform an activity.
• It views learners as makers of meaning and creators of knowledge through social interaction.
• It emphasizes collaboration with others for learning.

Thus, it is concluded that by providing opportunities as well as the necessary resources to enable students to experiment, explore and analyze for themselves, a teacher is using the socio-constructivist approach.

Additional Information

• The textbook-centered approach puts more emphasis on texts in the books over the needs and interests of the learners. This approach is divorced from the realities and demands of life, suggesting a sort of discontinuity between the subject matter and the learner.
• The behavioral approach suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and external stimuli in the environment. Behaviorism is a theory of learning, and learning theories focus on how we are conditioned to respond to events or stimuli.
• A teacher-centered approach is one where activities in the classroom are controlled by the teacher. In teacher-centered education, students put all of their focus on the teacher. The teacher leads the activity in the classroom and provides necessary information.

Social Science textbook refers to a tool to be used in the Social Science teaching process to facilitate effective learning. It organizes the subject matter in a meaningful and logical way.

Key Points

• NCERT social science textbooks use several narratives, both fiction and non-fiction, to enable the child to understand ideas and institutions.
• These narratives should be used to encourage introspection as well as discussion, with the effort being to have the student identify as much as possible with the story.
• The student should be encouraged to be as creative as possible while writing and narrating these stories. The teacher is also encouraged to look for linkages that can be made with concepts that are being taught in the other subjects.

Thus, it is concluded that A and B are correct, B explains A.

Critical thinking is the ability to apply reasoning and logic to new or unfamiliar situations, ideas, and opinions. It refers to the process of judging or analyzing facts, events, etc. It requires proper analysis, evaluation, inference, and explanation.

Key Points

• The given question, "Why was a number of Bombay films about the lives of migrants?" provides greater scope for developing critical thinking as students would be able to think in multiple ways before answering the question and analyzing facts about it.
• Critical thinking is just deliberately and systematically processing information so that you can make better decisions and helps to develop several ideas in multiple respects.
• Another given options are the direct question with only a one-word answer and factually based.

​Thus, it is concluded that Why were a number of Bombay films about the lives of migrants? the question provides greater scope for developing critical thinking.

The correct answer is to examine the reach and limitations of the legal safeguards in attaining equality.

Key Points

• Social Equality is a state of affairs in which all individuals within a specific society have equal rights, liberties and status.
• Article 15 of the Indian Consitution states that the discrimination among the citizens on the basis of race, caste, religion, place of birth, or any other grounds shall not be done by the state.
• The question " Are the existing legal safeguards enough to ensure social equality of women?" expects you to examine the reach and limitations of the legal safeguards in attaining equality.

 Thus, we can say that the above statements are correct.

Social Sciences include a body of knowledge, that deals with social and cultural aspects of human life. Social Sciences have emerged as distinct disciplines in order to be taught at different levels of the education system (starting from school level to higher education level) across the globe because of their immense importance for achieving better social cohesion, solidarity, and development.

Key Points

• There are different approaches to teaching social sciences. While some approaches to teaching are subject-oriented and teacher-centred, others are learner-centric in nature.
• Inductive and deductive approaches are scientific approaches to the acquisition of knowledge.
• Inductive and deductive approaches are two opposing but complementary approaches to teaching-learning.

Important Points

• ​The inductive approach helps to develop a theory or formula from examples.
• One proceeds from particular instances to a general principle or conclusion.
• In induction, one studies a number of examples relating to a particular task; finds out the commonalities and/or differences among the examples, and draws the general principle(s) about the task from the examples.

Thus, it is concluded that if you have to follow an inductive approach to social science knowledge acquisition, you would find commonalities between different examples and arrive at general principles.

The social sciences encompass diverse concerns of society and include a wide range of content, drawn from the disciplines of history, geography, political science, economics, and sociology.

Key Points

• The social sciences carry a normative responsibility to create and widen the popular base for human values, namely freedom, trust, mutual respect, respect for diversity, etc. Thus, social science teaching has long been seen as a means of inculcating ideologies or value systems.
• The teaching should be aimed at investing in a child's moral and mental energy so as to provide her with the ability to think independently and deal with the social forces that threaten these values, without losing her individuality. Hence, Statement A is correct.
• Pedagogy of social science aims at acquainting you with objectives, issues, concerns, and challenges of teaching Social Sciences. It will enable you to make use of different teaching-learning strategies, learning resources, and different forms of evaluation in providing learning experiences in different content areas of Social Sciences. Hence, statement B is incorrect. There are various learnings or focuses in the pedagogy of social sciences.

Thus, it is concluded that A is true but B is false.

The word ‘History’ is of Greek origin which means ‘ information’ or ‘ an inquiry designed to elicit truth’. The term ‘history’ is used to indicate the process of human development through the ages.

 Key Points

• While teaching history in a classroom, it is necessary to understand the nature and scope of history and how it is related to other disciplines in an integrated manner.
• Sources i.e. records from and of the past, form the basis of historical research by providing historians with the evidence which enables them to make claims about the past.
• So, while teaching history a teacher must focus on source analysis.
• History provides a rich ground for correlation with other subjects.
• It gives a good insight into the present and tells the experiences of the past in dealing with the present problems.

Thus, it is concluded that while teaching history, a teacher must focus on source analysis.

The sources from where we get information are called information sources and these comprise documents, humans, institutions as well as mass media like newspapers, radio, and television. We can group information sources into two broad categories as follows:

• Documentary Sources:- All recorded sources of information irrespective of their contents and forms come under documentary sources. These may be published or unpublished, in print or in electronic form. These may be books, periodicals, magazines, and others.
• Non-documentary Sources:- Non-documentary sources of information are those sources that are not recorded in any form.

Key PointsSources can be grouped into primary, tertiary, and secondary.

• Secondary source:- A source that is more or less dependent on primary sources for its existence is a secondary source. Information in secondary sources is organized and arranged according to a definite plan.
• Examples of secondary sources include textbooks, dictionaries and encyclopedias, biographies, dissertations, etc.
• The following are the purposes of secondary sources:-
• Gain background information on the topic.
• Gather information that you cannot access directly.
• To interpret, or explain the meaning of the information in primary sources.

Thus, it is concluded that B and D are the correct options.

A project is an activity-based method that provides learners with real-life experiences. It is a problematic act carried out in a natural setting. This method provides an opportunity to integrate the features of many other methods like field visits, activity-based methods, cooperative learning, concept mapping, map-based learning, etc.

Key Points

• A project is student-centered rather than teacher-directed.
• The students plan, execute and evaluate the entire undertaking.
• Projects may be driven by a certain issue based on realities.
• It connects learning at school with social realities. The learned knowledge must serve the immediate needs of the students in their present life.

​Thus, it is concluded that project work is given in social science courses mainly to connect learning at school with social realities.

Assessment is the second step of evaluating students’ performance. It makes student performance more meaningful and plays a significant role in the teaching-learning process.

Key Points Formative assessment is typically conducted during the development or improvement of a programme or product (or person, and so on) and it is conducted, often more than once, for in-house staff of the programme with the extent to improvement.

Following are the features of formative assessment:- 

• It is carried out from the very beginning of instruction and continues till the end of the course.
• Is diagnostic and remedial. It should be noted that since evaluation happens at regular intervals, hence a teacher focuses on the identification of the minor learning difficulties of a student.
• Offers opportunity to improve work after feedback.
• Formative assessment is also known as assessment for learning because the assessment for learning is a process of looking for and interpreting evidence for use by learners and their teachers to decide where the learners are in their learning process.
• Provides feedback enabling teachers to adjust their classroom interaction strategies to the emerging needs of the students.
• Recognizes the need for students to be able to assess themselves and understand how to improve.

Thus, it is concluded that A and B are the correct options.

Hint

• Summative assessment is conducted after completion of the whole course. Feedback provided in summative assessment is terminal in nature and can not be used for modification of learners’ behaviour because it is conducted at the end of a term. Summative assessment is also known as assessment of learning.

B.S. Bloom has proposed a taxonomy which is a set of three hierarchical models that refers to the classification of educational learning objectives.

 Bloom's Taxonomy identified three domains of learning:

1. Cognitive Domain: It involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills.
2. Affective Domain: It includes how we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, etc.
3. Psychomotor Domain:  It includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas.

Key PointsThe cognitive domain involves mental skills which are categorized into six levels of learning that serve in the development of intellectual skills and acquisition of power. 

The correct order of the revised Bloom Taxonomy of the cognitive process:-

• Remember:- Remembering**,** Recalling information Recognizing, listing, describing, retrieving, naming, finding.
• Understand:- Explaining ideas or concepts. Interpreting, summarising, paraphrasing, classifying.
• **Apply:-**Using information in another familiar situation Implementing, carrying out, using, executing.
• Analyze:- Breaking information into parts to explore understandings and relationships. Comparing, organizing, deconstructing, interrogating, finding
• Evaluate:- Justifying a decision or course of action. Checking, hypothesizing, critiquing, experimenting, judging.
• Create:- Generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing things. Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing

Thus, it is concluded that Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyse, Evaluate, Create arrangements reflect the correct order of the revised Bloom Taxonomy of the cognitive process.

Teaching methods are means of a procedure that a teacher follows to organize teaching-learning and make learning easy and effective. It is composed of several important steps which are logically and systematically arranged by the teacher.

Key Points

• Teachers often use the debate to effectively increase students’ interests, involvement, and participation during tutorial/seminar sessions.
• Here, the teacher wants to know about the awareness and perspectives of students on contemporary events, so everyone is having different opinions, so the debate is the most suitable technique.
• When a teacher uses the debate as a framework for learning, she/he hopes to get students to conduct comprehensive research into the topic, gather supporting evidence, engage in collaborative learning, delegate tasks, improve communication skills, and develop leadership and team skills- all at one go.
• It must have a topic that has scope for argument, i.e. the arguments should be both in favor and against the topic.
• It is a form of experiential learning which helps students remember well as they are active participants in the learning process.

Thus, it is concluded that debate technique is best suited for knowing the awareness and perspectives of students on contemporary events.

Evaluation refers to the value judgment made on the phenomenon, taking into consideration the quantitative and/or qualitative information collected on it over a particular period of time.

• Evaluation, based on the collected evidence, determines the standard met and the levels of success or failure in meeting these standards.

Key PointsEvaluation provides an opportunity for teachers to know the following about their lessons:- 

• ​What they learn:- It helps the teacher to determine what students learn and helps to improve academic achievements and students' motivation levels.
• What their interests are:- It helps to identify students' interest in learning.
• What they did not learn:- It helps the teacher to determine what students have not learnt and enhance learning through diagnostic and remedial teaching.

​Thus, it is concluded that A, C, and D are the correct options.

The term 'assessment' usually refers to the process of allotting a quantitative value to students' achievements.

Key Points

• Diagnostic assessment is an assessment made before the learning of a unit commences in order to determine what a student does and does not know about a topic. This form of assessment helps to identify where your students are in their learning and what course of action is appropriate to the learning levels of the students are needed to be taken for continuing or improving their learning.
• Formative assessment is an assessment through which you can gather data during the learning process when the class progresses through a unit of study to determine a student’s knowledge and skills, including learning gaps.

Thus, it is concluded that a teacher uses diagnostic and formative methods of evaluation to identify the problem areas of students in the learning process.

Additional Information

• Summative assessment is conducted at the end of a course or a unit of a course. It does not provide feedback instead it provides the overall results of the teaching-learning process.
• Placement assessment is conducted before the organization of teaching-learning activities to measure the entry behavior or previous knowledge of the learners.

The correct answer is 'A March 8-14 had more than 2.51 lakh count cases is true but R This was the lowest weekly count in more than six months is false.'

Key Points 

• Refer to the lines from the passage:
• ​**'1. India experienced a 15% drop in fresh Covid - 19 cases detected in the week ending Sunday, the lowest weekly count in more than six months with Kerala numbers declining by a steep 21%. The country reported over 2.14 lakh new cases in the week (September 13-19), down from 2.51 lakh in the previous seven days. This was the lowest number of cases reported in **27 weeks since March 8-14 (for weeks ending Sunday).'
• Upon the perusal of the above lines, it can be concluded that it is given that 2.14 new cases in the week (September 13-19) are down from 2.51 lakh in the previous seven days means it can be inferred that March 8-14 has more than 2.51 lakh count cases. So, A is correct.
• R is false as more than 2.51 lakh counted cases is not the lowest weekly count in more than six months instead 2.14 lakh new cases in the week (September 13-19) is the lowest weekly count in more than six months. So, it can't be considered true.

Hence, option 3) A March 8-14 had more than 2.51 lakh count cases are true but R This was the lowest weekly count in more than six months is false is the correct answer.

The correct answer is 'Kerala.'

Key Points 

• Refer to the lines from the passage:
• '3. Meanwhile, on Sunday, India reported 30,814 fresh cases, nearly the same as the number on the previous day (31,242) as Kerala logged 19,653 new infections. The state had recorded 19,352 cases the previous day.'
• 4. There were 295 deaths from the virus with Kerala reporting 152 fatalities, Maharashtra 49, Tamil Nadu 27, Karnataka 16, and Bengal 11.'
• Upon the perusal of the above lines, it can be concluded that Kerala reporting 152 fatalities means death and is the maximum death recorded recently.

Hence, option 1) Kerala is the correct answer.