CTET Paper 1 - 1st Jan 2022 (English-Hindi) (Previous Year Paper)

Development refers to qualitative changes in an individual. It involves the processes that are genetically programmed as well as those that are influenced by the environment.

• Development takes place in all aspects such as physical, cognitive, language, social, emotional, and others.
• Development is governed by certain principles which are applicable to all individuals.

Key Points

Direction of development is proximodistal and cephalocaudal:-.

• Each child may have a different rate of development. In some areas, the body growth may be rapid, while in others relatively slow. However, the development of all human beings follows a similar pattern, similar sequence, or direction.
• Sequential pattern of development can be seen in two directions:
• Cephalo-caudal sequence: It means that development spreads over the body from head to foot, i.e. individual begins to grow from head region downwards.
• For example, The child first gain control on her head, then she could catch hold of objects, sit, crawl, and later she could stand and walk.
• Proximodistal sequence: It means that the development proceeds from the central part of the body towards the peripheries. In this sequence, the spinal cord of the individual develops first, and then outward development takes place.
• For example, Functionally, the child could use her arms before her hands and use her hands before she could control the movement of her fingers.

Thus, it is concluded that 'Direction of development is proximodistal and cephalocaudal' principle suggests that different body parts develop at different rates at various stages of development.

Hint

• Development is Multidimensional: Multidimensionality refers to the fact that development cannot be described by a single criterion such as increases or decreases in a behavior. It occurs in the biological, cognitive, and social-emotional domains.
• Development is Multidirectional: The principle of multidirectional maintains that there is no single, normal path that development must or should take. In other words, healthy developmental outcomes are achieved in a wide variety of ways.
• Development is a continuous process: No development whether physical, mental, or speech, occurs suddenly. It takes place at a slow, regular pace. Growth starts from the time of conception of the baby and continues till maturity. Physical and mental traits continue to develop until they reach their maximum level of growth.

Development reflects the qualitative changes in the individual. It may be defined as a progressive series of orderly, coherent changes. The term progressive denotes that changes lead forward. Orderly and coherent assume that there is a definite relationship between the changes occurring and those that precede or will follow them.

Key PointsChildren's development takes place in a socio-cultural context:

• Socio-cultural context emphasizes the role of culture and social interaction in the process of child development. It focuses that a child’s thinking does not develop in a vacuum but rather is influenced by the sociocultural context in which s/he grows up.
• Vygotsky believed that the development of memory, attention, and reasoning includes learning to use the language, mathematical systems, and memory strategies that are prevalent in society.
• Thus, it is clear that each culture provides its members with certain tools of thought. The ways in which individuals in various cultures passed information to posterity are embodied in various languages; thereby shaping thoughts. Hence we may say that thinking varies across social and historical contexts.

Thus, it is concluded that 'children's development takes place in a socio-cultural context' statement is correct.

 Hint

• Childhood is a beautiful phase of life for most of us. It is a period associated with play, fantasy, and innocence. It is the crucial phase in life and involves important aspects of growth and development which are critical for the entire life span. The childhood period can be further classified into four sub-stages:
• • Infancy (birth to 2 years)
• Early childhood (2 to 6 years)
• Middle childhood (6 to 11 years)
• Adolescence (12 to 19 years)
• Children's thinking is influenced by social interactions as social contexts influence the way a person thinks. Sociocultural theories illuminate the point that learning and environment cannot be separated from their social context as the context influences how and what children think.
• An individual is the product of heredity and environment. The interaction takes place within and outside forces of the child. The individual is not the sole product of heredity rather it is due to the combination of what s/he is and what s/he receives from the environment.
• For example, if a child is deficient in mental capacity it is due to her/his genetic disposition but if she/he is capable of doing some household activities then it is possible due to the environment. In society also some people are successful enough but some are not. The reason behind it may be due to the differences in an individual’s environment. Thus, it can be said that development is the product of the interaction between the environment and heredity.

An understanding of human growth and development is important for every person interested in the care of children. The knowledge helps to determine whether or not a child is healthy, mentally alert, and well adjusted to the environment.

Key Points

• Nature refers to one‘s genetic makeup. It refers to traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited from one‘s parents. It encompasses any factor that is produced by the predetermined unfolding of genetic information – a process known as maturation.
• It is often defined as the course of becoming mature, or advances towards the mature biological state which varies with the biological system considered, whether endocrine, reproductive, skeletal, digestive, or immunological.
• Maturation refers to the unfolding or gradual opening-up of traits or potentials present in an individual because of genetic inheritance. It is the net result of what one possesses genetically.
• Maturation provides the raw material for learning, i.e. no amount of effort on the part of the individual can bring desired results if the inherited trait has limited potentialities for development.
• Thus all persons cannot become international athletes by effort alone unless the genes in the person contain the potential for outstanding physical abilities.

Thus, it is concluded that The process of predetermined unfolding of genetic dispositions is called Maturation.

Hint

• Adaptation is a genetically fixed condition of a species or subspecies or of a specific group of organisms, which favors survival in a particular environment. In other words, adaptation is something that has genetic endowment and the characters are transmitted generation after generation.
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in response potentiality that occurs as a function of reinforced practice. It takes place as a result of a child’s interaction with the environment which then brings about a change in his behavior.
• For example, when a baby begins to starts walking it is because of maturation. But, when a child acquires the skill of performing a specific dance or singing a particular song, it is an act of learning.
• Socialization is a process of learning the rules, habits, and values of a group to which a person belongs whether it is family, friends, colleagues, or any other group. It is the process by which a child slowly becomes aware of herself /himself as a member of a group and gains knowledge about the culture of the family and also the society into which she/he is born.

Socialization is the process through which communities transact or educate their members about the norms and values of society to be socially acceptable.

• It simply refers to acquire the socially approved ways of behavior and to take ideal expectations seriously.
• Socialization is the continuous process of negotiating identities and shaping one’s concept of self, identity, various attitudes, and behaviors.
• Socialization has 4 major agents namely family, school, peers, and mass media.

Key Points 

Types of Socialization: 

Primary Socialization: 

• It happens during infancy and childhood. It refers to the process where the child becomes socialized through the family in the early childhood years.
• This highlights that the key agent in the process of primary socialization is the family.
• For example, a very young child in a family has little knowledge of his culture. It is through the family that the child gets to know what is accepted and what is not in a particular society.

Secondary Socialization: 

• It occurs once the infant passes into the childhood phase and continues into maturity. It refers to the process that begins in the later years through agencies such as school and peer groups.
• During this phase more than the family, some other agents of socialization like the school and peers’ group begin to play a role in socializing the child.
• For example, Schools help children in learning the importance of social cohesion and unity and inculcating the informal cues about social roles through interaction.

Hence, it could be concluded that Family is a primary and School is a secondary agent of socialization.

Lawrence Kohlberg, an American psychologist, has propounded the 'Theory of Moral Development'. Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral development occurs in three-level and each level has two stages

• Preconventional Level
• Stage-1 Punishment-obedience orientation
• Stage-2 Instrumental-exchange orientation
• Conventional level
• Stage-3 Good-boy-nice-girl orientation
• Stage-4 System-maintaining orientation
• Postconventional Level
• Stage-5 Social-contract situation
• Stage-6 Universal-ethical-principles orientation

Key Points

• Preconventional Level: This is the stage for young children below the age of 9. At the pre-conventional stage, children learn right and wrong from the people around them.
• Their conduct is determined by external factors like approval and disapproval by authority figures or rewards and punishment. Thus, a child’s behavior is oriented towards obedience and punishment.
• At a young age, they believe that rules are meant to be followed and those in charge will undoubtedly follow through with punishment. As the child approaches middle childhood, the capacity to understand relationships and moral codes expands and it continues to grow in adolescence.

Thus, it is concluded that according to Lawrence Kohlberg punishment and obedience is the primary basis for 7-8-year-old children's moral decision.

Hint

• At the level of conventional morality (older children, adolescents, and most adults), children tend to believe that rules can be changed if they do not serve the common good of society.
• In the post-conventional stage(adults) of moral development, the sense of right and wrong is decided by one’s own conscience and nothing can be imposed from outside. One may keep certain universals like value for life at the highest order of values and may also break a law for the same.

Cognitive development involves cognitive processes such as knowing, thinking, remembering, recognizing, categorizing, imagining, reasoning, decision-making, and so forth.

• According to Piaget, children’s understanding of the world expands as they experience new ideas and challenges. Children construct their own knowledge through interaction with their surroundings.
• Cognitive development proceeds as children mature. Piaget divided cognitive development into four stages.
• Sensorimotor (Birth – 2 years)
• Preoperational (2-7 years)
• Concrete Operational (7-11 years)
• Formal Operational (11 years and above)

Key Points

• The concrete operational stage is the third stage that starts from seven years of age and continues till 11 years.
• In this stage, children gain the ability of conservation, reversibility, and seriation. Seriation refers to the ability to sort objects or situations according to any characteristic, such as size, color, shape, or type.
• In this stage, children can arrange objects in a serial order depending on the object’s defining features and can also arrange objects based on one dimension, for example 'length'. For example, they can arrange a set of pencils of different sizes in ascending or descending order.

Thus, it is concluded that Seriation in Jean Piaget's theory refers to the ability to order objects based on one dimension, for example 'length'

Additional Information

The 4 Stages of Cognitive Development:

• Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)
• The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations.
• Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence).
• Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years)
• Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
• Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
• Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years)
• During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events.
• They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass.
• Formal Operational Stage (12 and Up)
• At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems.
• Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning.

Cognitive development refers to the way children learn and process information. It includes improvement in attention, perception, language, thinking, memory, and reasoning.

• According to Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory, our thoughts and reasoning are part of adaptation. Cognitive development follows a definite sequence of stages. Piaget described four major stages of cognitive development.

Key Points

• 'Preoperational period' lasts around 2 to 6 or 7 years of age. In this stage, the child assumes that other people feel, see, and hear exactly the same as the child does.
• In this stage, the child faces problems with the irreversibility of thought, the concept of conservation, and struggles with the idea of centration.
• Due to the Centration in thought, the child can focus his attention only on one aspect of the situation at a time and cannot reverse the direction of his thought.

For example,

• A 5-year-old is certain that rolling out a ball of clay into a snake creates more clay.
• A 6-year-old child reasons that a taller glass has more water than a shorter and wider container even though the liquid has been poured from the container to the glass in front of her eyes.

Thus, it is concluded that according to Jean Piaget, this reasoning of Naseema is due to Centration.

Hint 

• Animistic thinking/Animism makes the child imagine that toys are living beings and wants them to talk, walk, sit and stand, and to do as s/he says. For example, a child talking to a doll or feeding the doll.
• Hypothetic deductive reasoning: In contrast to the trial and error approach used by children in earlier stages of development, adolescent thinking becomes more systematic in solving problems - they think of possible courses of action, why something is happening the way it is, and systematically seek solutions. Piaget called this type of logical thinking - hypothetical deductive reasoning.
• Transitive inference: It is a form of deductive reasoning that allows one to derive a relation between items that have not been notably compared before. In a general form, the transitive inference is the ability to deduce that if Item X is related to Item Y and Item Y is related to Item Z, then Item X must be related to Item Z.

Social constructivism is a learning theory propounded by Lev Vygotsky in 1968. The theory states that language and culture are the frameworks through which humans experience, communicate, and understand reality.

• He emphasizes social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interaction. Vygotsky recognizes that learning always occurs and cannot be separated from a social context.

Key Points 

• Social Constructivism (SC): SC emphasizes the role of culture and context in developing personal and shared interpretations of reality. It emerged largely from the work of Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner, and Bandura.
• Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, laid the foundation of social constructivism by adopting a socio-cultural approach to cognitive development based on the assumption that action is mediated and cannot be separated from the social milieu in which it occurs.
• The social constructivist model proposed by him emphasizes culture as the prime determinant of individual development. Learners are believed to be encultured into their learning community and learning is considered to be largely situation or context-specific activity.

Hence, we can conclude that Lev Vygotsky offered a theory of cognitive development along with the principle of social constructivism.

Additional Information

• Behaviourism or the behaviorist approach lays stress on the role of environmental stimuli in determining the way we act.
• Psychoanalysis focuses on the unconscious psychological processes that affect human behavior and explains how childhood plays a crucial role in shaping adult personality.​​

Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist and a social constructivist. He has propounded 'Socio-cultural Theory' which emphasizes the role of social interaction in cognitive development.

• Lev Vygotsky emphasized that the acquisition of speech is the major activity in cognitive development.
• Vygotsky embedded in this theory, the concept of 'private speech' which is a kind of speech directed to the self with no communicative function.

Key Points

Private Speech:

• It refers to the speech produced aloud by young children which seems to be addressed either to the self or to others, which sometimes cannot be easily conceived by a listener.
• It has a major role in the augmentation of the self and self-consciousness. It is the main aspect in the development of self and subjectivity.
• Children use private speech to guide their actions by speaking to themselves. This phenomenon starts in the early years of life and proceeds to the end of adolescence and even later.

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that 'private speech' is the term used by Lev Vygotsky to describe a child's act of speaking to herself.

Additional Information

• Scaffolding refers to a process through which temporary support is imparted to the learners to enhance learning to achieve goals.
• Piaget relates private speech to egocentrism among children, and also calls it egocentric speech. He says that such speech indicates that the child is unable to see others' points of view. S/he only talks about what s/he wants to. However, as s/he cognitively and socially develops such speech gradually disappears.

John Dewey, an American philosopher has proposed the concept of 'Progressive Education' which emphasizes that learning takes place only through 'hands-on' approach so the students must interact with their environment to adapt and learn.

Key Points

• Progressive education emphasizes enhancing the skills and understanding of the learners by engaging with the contents and experiences.
• It emphasizes Collaborative Learning which refers to a situation where two or more individuals attempt to learn something together.
• This type of learning is helpful in the development of critical thinking. It is believed that individuals are able to achieve higher levels of learning and retain more information when they work in a group rather than individually.
• It promotes 'learning by doing' to make children self-reliant and productive to use their knowledge and talents effectively.
• It ensures the active participation of students by working in a group and applying practical knowledge to complete an activity.

Important Points 

Feature of Progressive Education:

• Education for society and democracy.
• Collaborative and cooperative learning.
• Learning as opposed to rote knowledge.
• Emphasis on lifelong learning and social skills.
• Flexible time-table and seating arrangement
• Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units.
• De-emphasize textbooks, emphasize multiple resources.

Hence, it could be concluded that Collaborative Learning characterizes a progressive classroom.

Howard Gardner, an American Psychologist, proposed the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. In his book ‘Frames of Mind’, he pointed out that he did not believe there was “one form of cognition which cut across all human thinking. There are multiple intelligences with autonomous intelligence capacities.” So, intelligence cannot be viewed as a single entity.

• Gardner initially proposed eight types of intelligence which later on he increased to nine. Thus Gardner views each individual as a unique combination of various intelligence, hence we cannot say that one is more intelligent and another is less intelligent.

Key Points

The above-mentioned characteristic is related to the Interpersonal Intelligence of Howard Gardner’s theory as:

• Interpersonal intelligence deals with understanding and relating to others’ feelings.
• A person with interpersonal intelligence can understand the various emotional states of other people.
• Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, desires and intentions of others.

Hence, it could be concluded that if a child has the ability to understand the intentions and desires of others, the child has Interpersonal Intelligence. 

Additional Information 

The nine types of intelligence as given by Gardner:

• Linguistic Intelligence refers to the ability to use language. It is the capacity to use spoken and written words in a skilled way.
• Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to use logical reasoning and mathematical ability. Individuals high on this intelligence have good abstract reasoning, critical thinking, and good in dealing with numbers.
• Musical Intelligence is the ability to use rhythms, sounds, and patterns to create, compose and perform music. It involves sensitivity to music, and the ability to recognize and manipulate musical patterns.
• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the ability to use and control one’s body movements and actions. Dancers and sports persons are usually high in such intelligence.
• Spatial Intelligence is the capacity to perceive, understand and use spatial and visual information effectively. Such people are good at spatial orientation, forming visual images and patterns.
• Interpersonal Intelligence refers to the ability to understand others and social interactions. They can understand the emotions and the perspectives of others and relate well to others.
• Intrapersonal Intelligence is the ability to understand oneself and know one’s thoughts, emotions, feelings, motives, and desires, and how these influence their behavior.
• Naturalistic Intelligence is the ability to recognize and understand the various patterns in nature. It includes sensitivity to nature with all its features including flora, fauna, and all biodiversity.
• Existential Intelligence: Gardner added existential intelligence as the ninth intelligence which refers to the sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions beyond sensory data and about human existence. It concerns the ‘big picture’ in life and the ultimate truth of life. Cosmologists and philosophers are high on this aspect of intelligence.

National Education Policy 2020 is the first education policy of the 21st century and aims to address the many growing developmental imperatives of our country. This Policy proposes the revision and revamping of all aspects of the educational structure, including its regulation and governance, to create a new system that is aligned with the aspirational goals of 21st-century education.

Key PointsFeatures of NEP 2020:

• Teachers will be encouraged to use a bilingual approach, including bilingual teaching-learning materials, with those students whose home language may be different from the medium of instruction.
• Children will be exposed to different languages early on (but with a particular emphasis on the mother tongue), starting from the Foundational Stage onwards as multilingualism has great cognitive benefits for young students.
• Multilingualism aims at using languages of all children for teaching-learning and increasing the better innate understanding of how language works. It enhances creativity, divergent thinking, and appreciation of local languages.
• As per the new National Education Policy (NEP), the medium of instruction until at least Grade 5, but preferably till Grade 8 and beyond, will be the home language/mother-tongue/local language/regional language.
• The three-language formula will continue to be implemented while keeping in mind the Constitutional provisions, aspirations of the people, regions, and the Union, and the need to promote multilingualism as well as promote national unity.

Thus,it is concluded that 'multilingualism has great cognitive benefits for young students' statement is proposed in National Education Policy 2020.

In everyday life, the term gender generally refers to gender relations (relations between men and women) in households, communities, markets, and state institutions. It is more often used as a synonym for sex, referring to males and females according to genotypic differences and distinct primary sex characteristics. 

Key Points

• A gender role is a set of societal norms dictating the types of behaviors that are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for people based on their actual or perceived sex or sexuality.
• As the roles have been constructed by the patriarchal society to suit one specific sex group, these are learned behavior.
• Learned behavior is behavior that is learned through external sources with or without the help of a stimulus. This learned behavior has now become a stereotype that men and women have different roles.

Thus, it is concluded that gender roles are learned behavior.

Hint

• Innate behavior is a natural behavior that is not learned, genetically, or biologically constructed. It is a natural instinct that allows a being to perform some actions right at the first time. For Example, if you observe a puppy, it will move away if it sees someone or some object approaching it.
• Biological constructions determine the physical construction of a body which we define as the sex of a person as male/female/trans etc. These roles have been made to suit patriarchial society.
• Genetically determined behaviors are those which are transferred through genes and they can also affect the liking, disliking, and temperament of the baby. Suppose a family has stuffed flatbreads as a staple breakfast, it can be observed that the baby after growing would also develop the same liking for stuffed flatbreads.

Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation, commonly known as 'CCE' lays emphasis on the thought process and de-emphasize memorization as CCE includes all aspects of students' development.

• It is the latest development in the teaching-learning process introduced as a school-based system of evaluation by the CBSE in 2009 with the enactment of the Right to Education Act.

Key Points

• The primary goal of continuous and comprehensive evaluation is to assess children's understanding and modify the curriculum and pedagogy for students.
• It provides immediate feedback to the teachers who can then decide whether a particular unit or concept needs re-teaching in the whole class or whether a few individuals are in need of remedial instruction so that they can modify the curriculum accordingly.
• It creates interest among the learners for studies and ensures all-around development of students including cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains.
• CCE entails meticulous record-keeping by the teacher through Cumulative records, Anecdotal records, portfolios, etc., and entails integration with the teaching-learning process through diagnostic and remedial teaching.

Hence, it is concluded that the primary goal of continuous and comprehensive evaluation is to assess children's understanding and modify the curriculum and pedagogy for students.

Assessment is basically carried out by a teacher to ensure that teaching-learning objectives formulated for a given learning task have been achieved through the task of teaching and learning.

Key Points​While deciding an assessment method for a class, a teacher should focus on three things: 

• What is the best way to find out the learning curves of individual students? Learning curves are the important lessons that shape a particular skill through the lesson. A teacher should always keep in mind that learning curves are utilized in assessments to evaluate the capability of the student and understanding of the concept.
• Which method would help me to reflect on my pedagogy? Apart from judging the students, a teacher needs to self-evaluate to understand how effective the teaching-learning process has been so far. It allows the teacher to introspect and improve to help a maximum number of students to gain necessary skills through the subject.

Thus, it is concluded that before deciding an assessment method for her class teacher should keep the (ii) & (iii) questions in the mind.

Hint

• The purpose of assessment does not and should never include labeling of students. This would create discrimination among students and would demotivate them by highlighting the students' weaknesses. Assessment is not result-oriented, it mainly emphasizes on finding and diagnosing the learning gaps.

Additional InformationAssessment evaluation is used for the following purposes:

• To assist in student learning: A good evaluation provides information to teachers about the progress of students’ learning. For students also, it draws a road map to understand their learning progress.
• To identify students’ strengths and weaknesses: Identification and assessment of students’ strengths and weaknesses are necessary to structure and restructure the learning activities.
• To assess the effectiveness of a particular instructional strategy: It is important for a teacher to know how well a particular teaching strategy helps to achieve the learning objectives.
• To assess and improve the effectiveness of curriculum programs. Components of the curriculum are continually assessed through formative and summative assessments. To assess and improve teaching effectiveness.

Inclusive Education means education for all children (General and specific students) in school. It refers to the inclusion of all children in the education system, regardless of their differences and disabilities.

Key Points

• Inclusive education implies that all children, irrespective of their abilities be provided quality education as it values the diversity, each child brings to the classroom and facilitates all with equal opportunities to learn and grow.
• Inclusive education improves the quality and makes provisions for education for all. It welcomes and celebrates diversity.
• It provides a provision to include disabled children along with normal children in a regular classroom environment.
• It refers to an education system that accommodates all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic, or other conditions.

Additional Information 

Basic Principles of Inclusive Education:

• Equity and equal opportunities for all.
• Well constructed educational plan.
• Use of multilingualism as a resource.
• Use of specific pedagogical strategies.
• Sensitization towards individual differences.

Hence, it could be concluded that inclusive education implies that all children, irrespective of their abilities be provided quality education.

Teaching is the process that involves the transmission of knowledge, skill, and information in a manner that can be used by the learner to complete tasks.

Key Points

• A teacher's task in the classroom is not limited to the teaching of a subject or developing knowledge, skills, and understandings among students. Merely teaching facts does not help students to achieve their potential.
• Education should enable the students to think and solve problems. It should also enable them to understand the underlying meanings instead of memorizing facts for grades. As teachers, therefore, it is our duty to ensure that students think and reason on their own in a critical, creative and intelligent manner.
• In order to achieve this goal, a teacher should use a variety of ways to represent the context of teaching. This would help the students in visualization, understanding concept, and practical application.
• For example, a teacher can teach a science lesson in the classroom by allowing practical projects based on the lessons, and organizing field trips for effective learning.
• Required pedagogical adaptation​ is required because it is necessary for every learner to understand but not every learner has a common pace and way of understanding. Some may understand just by reading, some may be able to understand through visualization and some may get the understanding after the hands-on experience. So to cater to this diverse pace and needs of the learners, a variety of teaching methods needs to be used.

Thus, it is concluded that both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Learning disability refers to a neurological disorder that causes cognitive impairment. Dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, etc are the most common learning disability.

Key Points

• The above-mentioned characteristics hint toward Dysgraphia which refers to a learning disability that affects learners' ability to write coherently.
• It hinders in organizing letters, numbers, or words on paper and leads to problems with poor spelling, impaired handwriting, etc.
• Children will have difficulty in writing their ideas in well-structured form and in thinking and writing at the same time and experience a challenge in the formation of alphabets and spacing of words.

Important Points

Remedies useful for treating students with Dysgraphia:

• giving extra time for writing assessment, will reduce the copying activity and will emphasize the importance of writing original answers.
• dividing tasks into small steps will enable the learners to assimilate the idea easily and will help them in putting their thoughts on paper.
• providing low-stress opportunities will allow the learners to learn and write at their own pace and to foster their own strategy of learning and writing.

Hence, it could be concluded that the above-mentioned characteristics hint toward Dysgraphia.

Additional Information 

Other Disabilities in Brief:

Individual difference refers to the difference which distinguishes an individual from another on the basis of psychological characteristics. Individual differences could be seen in all domains of development such as physical, emotional, mental, etc.

Key Points

To cater to individual differences in her class a primary school teacher should use a variety of pedagogical approaches and mean of assessment as it will help in:

• selecting relevant prompts to be suitable for their ability level.
• combining different types of prompts to make them inculcate skills.
• catering to the range of learning needs and requirements of diverse learners.
• making learning effective for students who learn differently either visually, auditory, etc.

Hence, it could be concluded that to cater to individual differences in her class a primary school teacher should use a variety of pedagogical approaches and mean of assessment.

Additional Information 

Required steps to meet individual differences:

• Ability grouping.
• Enrichment of curriculum.
• Individualization of instruction.
• Identification of special talents.
• Adoption of modern method of teaching.
• Providing a variety of learning experiences.

Creativity is the phenomenon whereby imaginative and original ideas are turned into reality. 

• It is the ability possessed by people who are creative, persistent, and imaginative.
• Creativity is a cognitive ability to produce something original by offering a fresh perspective.
• It is the ability to understand, express, and appreciate the human mind as a fundamental product.

Key Points

• Divergent thinking is the primary identifying feature of creativity as it refers to a way of solving a problem by exploring many possible solutions.
• It emphasizes the idea that there is a limitless approach to any given problem.

Important Points 

Divergent thinking is an essential characteristic of creativity as it refers to:

• a way of solving problems by more than one approach.
• an act of working with open-ended questions using creativity and ingenuity.
• a process that includes brainstorming, imagination, and out-of-the-box thinking in it.

Hence, it could be concluded that divergent thinking is an essential characteristic of creativity.

We as adults may define knowledge gathering as a process that involves active participation of the teacher and the learner which is driven by the curiosity and motivation to learn something new.

• But for children, it is a natural process as their brain, as it starts growing right from birth, the children experience new things and everything they observe becomes a source of knowledge for them.

Key PointsYoung children construct knowledge and make meanings through:

• Active exploration: Natural instinct of curiosity is what drives the knowledge gathering process. This curiosity encourages the children to participate in active exploration. Children are highly active and are always trying to explore new things as they are always very excited about finding new things.
• Play: During playtime, children get the opportunity to interact with their friends. The exposure gained by other children has been shared during playtimes, which also aids in the knowledge-sharing process.
• Active on materials and experimenting: Being active on materials and experimenting is a great source of knowledge in any stage of life. Experimenting always allows a person to explore new information and provides exposure to new concepts which is a great source of knowledge.
• Peers and adults have their own life experiences and interaction with them can give children an insight into those experiences which may be very useful for the children as they may face similar situations in their life. So interaction with peers and adults is also a great source of knowledge.

Thus, it is concluded that young children construct knowledge and make meanings through Active exploration, Play, Active on materials and experimenting and Interaction with peers and adults.

Memory refers to the ability to retain information and reproduce it over a period of time when required to perform a cognitive task.

• Mnemonics is a method or technique of enhancing memory. There are basically two broad categories of mnemonics; one category of mnemonics uses images, while the other uses principles of organization to memorize information.

Key Points

• Mnemonics Using Organisation: It improves the ability to learn and retrieve information accurately by applying the principle of reorganization of the material to be learned.
• Here, to help children memorize phone numbers, a teacher suggested students to divide 10 digits of phone numbers into 3 - 4 smaller units and then the remainder. The strategy suggested by the teacher here is called chunking.
• Chunking is the process of remembering a large number in a group of smaller numbers that are easy to remember. A smaller number may also be correlated with some historical or personal events which become easy to memorize.

Thus, it is concluded that to help children memorize the phone numbers, a teacher suggested students to divide 10 digits of phone number into 3 - 4 smaller units and then the remainder, the strategy suggested by the teacher here is called chunking.

Hint

• Encoding is the process of converting sensory information into a form that can be processed further by the memory systems.
• Adaptation is a process through which living beings adjust with their environment.
• Assimilation takes place when people try to understand something new by fitting it into what we already know.

Learning is a continuous process and it continues to occur even after we grow old. But the most significant part of our learning occurs in schools. Schools not only provide us with the platform for conceptual learning, but it also provides the opportunity for moral learning and overall character development. So it is necessary that emphasis should be laid on the right strategies otherwise the effectiveness of the learning process would reduce.

Key Points

• It is necessary that emphasis on acquiring different skills and knowledge should be given through interaction with surroundings.
• Students should be given activities that involve the use of the natural environment to build something creative or a social activity that involves children getting an insight into the life experiences of other cultural groups.
• This learning will retain in their mind forever and build their understanding of the concept. It will nurture students' curiosity and interest in the learning process and will help to gain concrete experience by actively engaging with content.

Thus, it is concluded that acquiring different skills and knowledge through interaction with surroundings should be emphasized most in schools.

Hint

• Rote memorization is never helpful in learning anything. It only helps in memorizing the facts while the essence and the practical application of the concept are lost totally.
• Passive imitation of others is not effective in learning as, through passive imitation, one only acquires the style of another person while the knowledge, logic, and technique are left behind.
• Conditioning of behaviors through stimulus-response association is good for behavioral training but it misses out on the one statement that is the essence of learning. The statement of 'Why" is lost in this process as during conditional monitoring, the subject never asks why the behavior is being developed, the reasoning for the subject is absent.

Constructivism is a theory that regards learning as an active process in which learners construct and internalize new concepts, ideas, and knowledge based on past knowledge and experiences.

Key Points

• Social Constructivism (SC): SC emphasizes the role of culture and context in developing personal and shared interpretations of reality. It emerged largely from the work of Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner, and Bandura.
• Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, laid the foundation of social constructivism by adopting a socio-cultural approach to cognitive development based on the assumption that action is mediated and cannot be separated from the social milieu in which it occurs.
• The social constructivist model proposed by him emphasizes culture as the prime determinant of individual development. Learners are believed to be encultured into their learning community and learning is considered to be largely situation or context-specific activity.
• Language plays an important role in Vygotskian constructivism. Language is initially used as a means of communication between adults and children. Gradually it is internalized into a means of the child’s own thinking and control of his/her own activity.

Important Points

• ​Pramati has her students choose from a variety of books to read. Those students who read a particular book are made to discuss the book on a regular basis: 
• Here, the teacher focuses on reading and discussing the book so it increases their vocabulary and constructs their knowledge. It facilitates their reading and understanding of the text.
• Arundhati emphasizes the importance of using contextual material to help determine the meaning of new words:
• Here, the teacher emphasizes the use of contextual materials so the students could relate words in the context. Using such materials develop contextual understanding in depth.

Thus, it is concluded that (ii), (iii) set exemplify a social constructivist approach to facilitate reading among students. 

Hint

• Salma uses flashcards to help students learn new words and rewards them with candy for correct responses: It is a behavioristic view of learning as a reward strengthens the Stimulus-Response bond. It is both verbal such as praising, or awarding; and non-verbal such as nodding the head in appreciation, smiling, etc.
• Rekha has her students write each word they miss on a spelling test five times to help them remember the word: Here, the teacher is focusing on rote memorization.

Every day we face new problems and we try to overcome them to progress in our lives. It is obvious that to succeed in life, one needs to be a good problem solver.

• Problem-solving is not a genetic ability. It is developed over time through constant exposure to challenges. No one can develop this ability by staying in one's comfort zone. It is developed over time by facing challenges.

Key Points 

• ​As a teacher, it is necessary to facilitate problem-solving to help the children in becoming successful in life. To do so, a teacher should encourage the students to develop a habit of analyzing things.
• To solve a problem means to eliminate the source of problem generation. And this can only be done by analyzing each and every probable root cause of the problem, simulating the effect of the probable cause, and then concluding the solution by eliminating the source of the problem or by enforcing a regular check on the source of the problem so that the problem does not get out of control.
• Analysis helps a person predict the situations in advance and allows a person to take necessary action against the source of problem generation.

Thus, it is concluded that a teacher encouraging the use of analytics can facilitate problem-solving abilities in students.

Hint 

• Generating fear does not create a problem solver, it forces the learners to fear the problem and they try to escape the problem in any possible way.
• Each learner can perceive a problem in a different manner and it may even be observed that for one problem, children may come up with multiple solutions. It enhances their creativity. The teacher should not encourage a fixed way of solving problems. The teacher should allow the learners to think independently.
• Emphasizing on use of passive memorization strategies is not effective for problem-solving. Every problem is unique and for every unique problem, there are multiple unique solutions which are impossible to achieve through passive memorization.

Learning is a continuous process that helps us to develop competence and the ability to function in our environment. We acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes through the process of learning and develop competence and the ability to apply, whatever we have learned in one situation, to other similar situations.

Key Points 

• Learning occurs when the learners interact in meaningful ways with the world around them. The meaningful learning process pre-supposes two things - the learning task is potentially meaningful or it can be related substantively to the learner’s cognitive structure and the learner manifests a corresponding set to relate it.
• Encouraging multiple ways of working on a problem results in the facilitation of meaningful learning as it helps in developing thoughts and rationality in learners and helps them to evolve as Problem Solvers.
• To apply multiple ways to solve a problem the learners have to investigate the problem appropriately. While investigating the problems, it is often found that children break the problem into parts and analyze it, then they try solving the parts logically which shapes the child to be Scientific Investigators.

Thus, it is concluded that encouraging multiple ways of working on a problem will result in the facilitation of meaningful learning.

Emotion has been derived from the Latin term ‘emovere’ that means ‘stirred-up state'. Emotions are defined as “brief, acute changes in consciousness experience and physiology that occur in response to a personally meaningful situation”.

Key Points

• The process of attribution is an individual’s understanding of the reasons behind peoples’ behavior. Attribution theory is concerned with how individuals interpret events and how this relates to their thinking and behavior.
• An internal attribution is when an individual uses a personal reason as the cause for a situation or event instead of an external (or environmental) attribution.
• For example, students are likely to experience the emotion of pride when they attribute internal factors to explain their success at a task.
• Pride is a feeling of deep pleasure or satisfaction derived from one's own achievements and is a self-conscious emotion that occurs as a result of the extent to which an individual is able to meet his/ her own expectations, the expectations of others, or social norms.

Thus, it is concluded that students are likely to experience the emotion of pride when they attribute internal factors to explain their success at a task.

The Department for Education and Skills defines multi-sensory as: “using visual, auditory and kinaesthetic modalities, sometimes at the same time”. The multi-sensory approach is best to make use of all remaining sensory abilities of the child. All senses should form a part of the teaching moments for the child.

Key Points

• Multi-sensory approach is the use of strategies involving human senses including visual (what we see), auditory (what we hear), kinaesthetic and tactile (what we do or feel) to enhance learning.
• All these strategies make learning more effective by helping learners to retain information in their brains for the long term in their real sense through seeing, hearing, touching, and feeling.
• It should be encouraged because it makes learning more effective as it provides a fun learning experience to the children. When teachers use this approach to teach the learners, they will indirectly encourage the learners to gather information about a task.

Thus, it is concluded that at the primary level of education, the use of a multi-sensory approach should be encouraged because it makes learning more effective.

The human mind is a beautiful creation of god and is the most powerful tool in the world. It has the power to create, innovate, change and even destroy things in the world. The power of the mind has allowed humans to become the superior species.

• It is the virtue of the mind that we have the capability of creating our own thought process. As each individual presents their viewpoint, it is obvious that people will have a conflict of opinions amongst each other. This creates the ideology of conceptions and misconceptions.

Key Points

• Alternative conceptions are generated as a concept is understood from different aspects, while the misconception is a thought process that goes in the wrong direction due to a lack of complete information or just ignorance.
• Formation of alternative conceptions and misconceptions is very natural among children as well as adults because it is a natural thought process and no two minds can think alike exactly.
• A teacher should definitely attend to these alternative conceptions and misconceptions as they are significant in process of teaching-learning because they are very helpful; in developing critical thinking. Without this, a child would not be able to put forward one's own views and would end up mugging things.
• Alternative conceptions about misconceptions are not always baseless rather these represent children's intuitive ideas about the world around them​ as it shows their thinking and they can think and put forward their views.

Thus, it is concluded that alternative conceptions and misconceptions formed by students should be highly discouraged by the teacher statement is NOT correct in this context

Hint

• ​Alternative conceptions and misconceptions formed by students should not be discouraged by the teacher. Rather they should be encouraged, guided, and directed to develop a positive critical thinking environment.

All of us are engaged in the process of learning consciously or unconsciously. Learning is a continuous process that helps us to develop competence and the ability to function in our environment.

• We acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes through the process of learning and develop competence and the ability to apply, whatever we have learnt in one situation, to other similar situations.

Theories on human learning can be grouped into four broad perspectives. These are :

• Behaviourism- focus on observable behavior
• Cognitivism – learning as purely a mental/ neurological process
• Humanistic – emotions affect and play a role in learning
• Social – humans learn better in group activities

Key Points

• Behaviorists view learning as an association between stimulus and response. The organism responds to the stimuli present in the environment in several ways and when it gets a most satisfying result, the association between the stimulus and the particular response is established, which results in learning.
• Behaviorist theories of learning, thus, consider learning as a change in behavior of the organism through a conditioning process that occurs between a stimulus and a response. It is basically of two types- Classical Conditioning and Instrumental or Operant Conditioning.

Operant Conditioning (Role of Reward and Punishment in Learning):

• One of the significant contributions of behaviorism is the role of reward and punishment in the process of learning given by Skinner. Skinner believed that behavior is a function of its consequences.
• His theory of learning is known as Operant or Instrumental Conditioning as the consequences of behavior lead to changes. The learner repeats a behavior if the consequence is pleasant, and avoids the behavior having negative consequences.
• Skinner has explained learning with the help of reinforcement. Reinforcement is a reward or a stimulus condition that augments the frequency of behavior preceding it. It is both positive and negative.
• Positive reinforcement is a positive reward that strengthens the Stimulus-Response bond. It is both verbal such as praising, or awarding; and non-verbal such as nodding the head in appreciation, smiling, etc.
• Tangible rewards are like trophies, candies, stickers, pencils, etc. These rewards encourage or motivate students to learn and reinforce performance or behavior.

Thus, it is concluded that the behavioral view of learning explains that tangible incentives and rewards motivate students for learning.

Hint

• Humanistic is the philosophy in which the human being occupies a central place. The humanistic approach makes use of creativity, belongingness, self-development, co-existence, mental health, values, etc. It is comparatively a new approach to learning.
• Cognitive theorists emphasize experience, meaning-making, problem-solving, and the development of insight. Therefore, according to the cognitive perspective, learning is an active and dynamic process in which perceptions are processed through differentiation, generalization, and restructuring.
• Social perspective to understand learning was considered an important one by Bandura in his social learning theory as well as by Lev Vygotsky in his social constructivist approach.
• The socio-cultural context of the child is crucial as everything he/she learns takes place in a particular social context. Culture comprises the pattern of values, beliefs, and behaviors common to a particular group of people.

Given:

Number of school teachers = 96

High school teachers = 3/8^th

Mathematics teachers = 2/9^th of high school teachers

Calculation:      

Number of high school teachers = 3/8 of 96 = 36

⇒ Mathematics teacher = 2/9 of 36 = 8

⇒ Non mathematics teacher = 36 - 8 = 28

∴ The number of High school teachers who don't teach Mathematics are 28

The correct option is 3 i.e. 28

Solution:

1/2 - (2/3 - 4/5)

⇒ 1/2 - (-2/15)

⇒ 1/2 + 2/15

⇒ 19/30

Concept

• Place value is defined as the digit multiplied by wherever it is placed, either by hundreds or thousands.
• Face value is simply defined as the digit itself within a number.

For example: in 256, the place value of 2 is 200 and the face value of 2 is 2.

Calculation

The face value of 7 in 4782 is 7 

The face value of 7 in 32170 is 7

Difference = 7 - 7 = 0

Calculation:      

Let assume that 

a = 1

b = 2

c = 3

Option 1: 

a + b = b + a

⇒ 1 + 2 = 3

⇒ 2 + 1 = 3

⇒ 3 = 3

Option 2:

a – b = b – a

⇒ 1 - 2 = -1

⇒ 2 - 1 = 1

⇒ -1 ≠ 1

Option 3:

a × b = b × a

⇒ 1 × 2 = 2

⇒ 2 × 1 = 2

⇒ 2 = 2

Option 4: 

(a + b ) + c = a + (b + c)

⇒ (1 + 2) + 3 = 6

⇒ 1 + (2 + 3) = 6

⇒ 6 = 6

The  correct option is 2 i.e. a – b = b – a

Shortcut Trick

Original Number = (Incorrect Divisor × Quotient) + Remainder

Number = (9 × 21) + 3 = 189 + 3 = 192

New Calculation: 192 ÷ 6 = 32

Remainder = 192 − (6 × 32) = 0

∴ The correct answer is Quotient - 32, Remainder - 0.

Alternate Method

Given: Divisor₁ = 9, Quotient₁ = 21, Remainder₁ = 3, Divisor₂ = 6

Formula: Dividend = (Divisor × Quotient) + Remainder

⇒ Original Number = (Divisor × Quotient) + Remainder

⇒ Number = (9 × 21) + 3

⇒ Number = 189 + 3 = 192

⇒ New Quotient = 192 ÷ 6 = 32

⇒ New Remainder = 192 − (6 × 32) = 0

∴ The correct answer is Quotient - 32, Remainder - 0.

Additional Information

The Division Algorithm

For any integer (dividend) and a non-zero integer (divisor), the relationship is Dividend = (Divisor × Quotient) + Remainder.

Remainder Condition

The remainder (r) must always satisfy the condition 0 ≤ r < |divisor|. If r = 0, the dividend is exactly divisible by the divisor.

Verification

To verify a division result, multiply the quotient by the divisor and add the remainder; the sum must equal the original dividend.

Concept used:

The group of two or more fractions that have exactly the same denominator are called like fractions. Or we can say that the fractions which have the same numbers in the denominators are called like fractions. For example, 1/7, 2/7, 5/7, 6/7 are all like fractions, whose denominators equal to 7.

Solution:

The number which have same denominator is 1/4 and 3/4

∴ The correct answer is option 4

Calculation:      

729 = 9 × 9 × 9

1000 = 10 × 10 × 10 

333 = 3 × 3 × 37

216 = 6 × 6 × 6

∴ 333 is not a perfect cube

The correct option is 3 i.e. 333

Given:

1000 bricks can be purchased in = Rs. 2500

Calculation:      

In Rs. 2500 bricks can be purchased = 1000

⇒ In Rs. 1 brick can be purchased in = 1000/2500

⇒ In Rs. 4000 bricks can be purchased = $\frac{1000}{2500} \times 4000$ = 1600

∴ 1600 bricks can be purchased in Rs. 4000.

The correct option is 2 i.e. 1600

Concept:

Properties: 

a) square: 

• The diagonals of a square bisect each other and meet at 90°.
• The diagonals of a square bisect its angles.
• The opposite sides of a square are both parallel and equal in length.
• All four angles of a square are equal (each being 360°/4 = 90°, a right angle).
• All four sides of a square are equal.

b) Rectangle: 

• All the angles of a rectangle are 90°
• Opposite sides of a rectangle are equal and Parallel
• Diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other

Calculation:

∴ All squares are rectangle is the correct statement. 

The correct option is 2

Given:

The angles of a triangle are in the ratio 4 : 5 : 6 

Concept used:

The sum of all the angles of the triangle is 180°

Calculation:

Let the angles be 4x, 5x and 6x. 

Sum of angles of a triangle = 180°

⇒ 4x + 5x + 6x = 180°

⇒ 15x = 180°

⇒ x = 12°

∴ The measure of the angle of the triangle are 48°, 60°, 72°

Given:

Departure Time 

Train A = 17:05 = 5:05 pm

Train B = 04:32 = 4:32 am

Train C = 18:30 = 6:30 pm

Train D = 19:15 = 7:15 pm

Formula Used:

Elapsed Time =  End Time -  Starting time 

Calculation:    

Train A 

⇒ Waiting time =  5:05 pm - 2:00 pm = 3 hours 05 min.

Train B:

⇒ Waiting time = 4:32 Am - 2:00 pm = 14 hours 32 minutes 

Train C:

⇒ Waiting time = 6:30 pm - 2:00 pm = 4 hours 30 minutes

Train D:

⇒ Waiting Time = 7:15 pm - 2:00 pm = 5 hour 15 minutes 

⇒ The waiting time of train A is less. 

∴ She must use Train A.

The correct option is 1 i.e. Train A

Given:

Area of room = 11 feet × 16 feet

Area of type 1 tile = 1.5 feet × 1.5 feet

Area of type 2 tile = 2 feet × 2 feet

Area of type 3 tile =  2.5 feet × 2.5 feet

Area of type 4 tile = 3 feet × 3 feet

Formula Used:

Number of tiles = Area of room/Area of 1 tile

Calculation:      

Area of room = 11 feet × 16 feet = 176 sq. feet

Area of type 1 tile = 1.5 feet × 1.5 feet = 2.25 sq. feet 

⇒ Number of type 1 tiles  =  176/2.25 = 78.22 

Area of type 2 tile = 2 feet × 2 feet = 4 sq. feet 

⇒ Number of type 2 tiles  =  176/4 = 44 

Area of type 3 tile = 2.5 feet × 2.5 feet = 6.25 sq. feet 

⇒ Number of type 3 tiles  =  176/2.25 = 28.16

Area of type 4 tile = 3 feet × 3 feet = 9 sq. feet 

⇒ Number of type 4 tiles  =  176/9 = 19.55

∴ Rita should use type 2 tile

The correct option is 2 i.e. 2 feet × 2 feet

Given:

Number of students = 8

Mean weight = 38.2 kg

Formula Used:

Total weight = Mean weight × Number of students 

Calculation:   

Total weight = 38.2 × 8 = 305.6 kg

⇒ Incorrect total weight = 305.6 kg

Correct total weight = 305.6 + 25.9 - 29.5 = 302

⇒ Correct mean = 302/8 = 37.75 kg 

∴ Correct mean weight of the group is 37.75 kg

The correct option is 1 i.e. 37.75 kg

Calculation:

(9 - 1) ÷ 8 = 1

(98 - 2) ÷ 8 = 12

(987 - 3) ÷ 8 = 123

(9876 - 4) ÷ 8 = 1234

(98765 - 5) ÷ 8 = 12345

Calculation:   

Total amount = (20 × 2) + (10 × 1) = Rs. 50

⇒ Different arrangement possibility:

(1) (20 × 1) + (10 × 3) = 50    

(2) (20 × 2) + (10 × 1) = 50

2 notes of Rs. 20 and 1 note of Rs. 10 is already used

∴ To make Rs. 50 one type of arrangement can be done.

The correct option is 2 i.e. 1

Open-ended questions are questions that do not have a definite or fixed answer and instead test one's capacity to think extensively about a topic.

Key Points

Hence, we conclude that only option 3 is an open-ended question.

Riddle is a puzzling question phrased as a problem to be solved or guessed. It should be a part of the mathematics classroom as it is child-centered and makes a happy classroom where children get the opportunity to observe, explore, and share experiences.

Key Points

• Place value is defined as the position of each digit in a number. Understanding the place value is crucial because it helps in comprehending the magnitude of numbers. In the above question, the teacher is asking the students question regarding the concept of place value.

Hence, we conclude that the objective of this Riddle is to reinforce the concept of base 10 and place value.

 Additional Information

• Importance of riddles in the classroom
• Using riddles in the teaching-learning process can help foster students' participation, concentration, and focus and also helps in social and emotional learning.
• Activities play an important role for children to express themselves. Riddles can be an excellent approach to engage any student in a topic, not only do they push students to be active rather but they can also improve the overall efficacy of the learning environment.
• Engaging children in exploring, observing, and discovering the world around them helps in the process of construction of knowledge.

Geometry is a branch of mathematics that deals with shapes and figures. In elementary classes, it is taught under the topic of shapes and space.

Key Points

• Objectives of teaching shapes in primary classes
• Develops visualization skills-  In primary classes, the main focus of the teacher is to help students observe and identify the different shapes such as squares, rectangles, triangles, and various shapes around them.
• Develops spatial reasoning- It helps in developing spatial reasoning that gives children an awareness of themselves in relation to the people and objects around them.
• It helps children to connect classroom mapping objects to real-world contexts involving direction and location.

Hence, we conclude that the objective of teaching shapes in primary classes is to develop visualization skills and enhance spatial reasoning ability.

Memorization is not promoted in primary classrooms because it disconnects children from past and future learning.

Visually impaired or visually challenged students are those who are born with visual impairment or become visually impaired later on due to illness, malnutrition, or an accident.

To address their difficulties the teacher should use appropriate teaching-learning resources.

Key PointsTeaching-learning resources are any collection of things, including animate and inanimate objects, human and non-human resources, that will help to achieve desired learning objectives.

• Teaching-learning resources for visually challenged students-
• Geoboard- It is a rectangular or square board with nails spaced evenly throughout it. Geometrical figures and graphs can be displayed using this method. Rubber bands can be used to demonstrate a wide range of shapes. 
• It is a great way to teach visually impaired students, as it helps them better understand geometrical reasoning.
• Taylor's abacus- It is a pocket-sized calculating device that uses moving beats to do simple arithmetic operations as well as complex calculations.
• Visually impaired students learn mathematics well when they use an abacus with Braille books and develop abilities in writing down and learning mathematics well.

Hence, we conclude that geoboard and abacus can be used for visually challenged students.

Additional InformationGeoGebra is the open-code math software and an interactive geometry algebra and calculus application. It cannot be used for teaching visually impaired students.

A field trip or excursion is a visit to a location outside the classroom where children can try new things, have new experiences, and obtain first-hand observation.

Key Points

Importance of field trips in mathematics:

• ​It enhances critical thinking skills and also provides the student a chance to think about a topic or theme from different perspectives.
• It introduces children to concepts, ideas, and experiences that cannot be provided in a classroom environment.
• It helps the student learn more by providing hands-on experiences, which improve their knowledge and understanding of the subject.
• It helps them connect the classroom to real-life and also encourages mathematics beyond the classroom.

Hence, it is clear from the above points that planning a trip to a historical place reflects that shapes are an integral part of any architecture, and such trips encourage mathematics beyond the classroom.

Questions in mathematics classrooms stimulate learning, develop the potential of students to think, drive clear ideas, and stir the imagination. It helps students to develop their knowledge more efficiently.

Key Points

• Comparing is the act of observing similar properties in several items or things. Number comparison and ordering is a math concept in which we compare numbers based on their values, identify smaller and larger numbers, and then arrange them in ascending and descending order.
• Comparison of numbers will also help in developing concepts of sorting numbers and arranging the data according to their magnitude.

Hence, we conclude that the correct statement is that the teacher can use the question to go beyond the comparison of numbers and introduce the concept of data handling and sorting data.

The National curriculum framework (NCF) 2005, is India's 4th national curriculum framework which has released in 2005 by the National Council of educational research and Training (NCERT). Its predecessors were released in 1975, 1988, and 2000, respectively.

It serves as a guideline for syllabus common textbooks and teaching practices for schools in India.

Key Points

 Main goals of mathematics :

• According to NCF 2005, the main aim of teaching mathematics is to develop the problem-posing and problem-solving abilities in children and the children's ability to mathematization.
• An ideal classroom for teaching mathematics is where children learn to enjoy mathematics rather than fear it.
• To develop an interest of students in mathematics and assist them in comprehending and mastering fundamental mathematical ideas and computational skills.
• To help children develop creativity and the ability to think, communicate and solve problems.

​​Hence, we conclude that according to NCF 2005, the vision of a mathematical classroom is represented by children posing and solving meaningful problems in the classroom.

Whereas memorizing the formula, the teacher narrating in the classroom and students copying the solved examples will not help in the mathematization of the thought process of children, which is the main aim of teaching mathematics according to NCF.

An anecdotal record is an observational method of the assessment tool in mathematics, used frequently in classroom or learning in which the observer summarizes a single developmental incident after the event has occurred. 

Key Points

• An anecdote is an account of an event in a child’s day.
• The record of this event can be detailed or brief. These short reports describe, in a factual way, the incident, its context, and what was said or done by the participant(s).
• In most cases, anecdotes focus on very simple, everyday interactions among children, children, and adults as well as children and materials in the environment.
• So, It includes a written description of a child's progress on a day-to-day basis and provides observational narrative records.
• Written from memory, the anecdotal record documents a student’s growth and trends.
• Such records are intended to be brief, factual accountings.
• Anecdotal records are written in journalistic form.
• They identify the who, what, where, when, and how of a particular incident, focusing on the subject’s specific conduct in the situation.
• In early childhood education, teachers use anecdotal records in common practice for the assessment of skill development in young children.
• The recorded observations are intended to identify the child’s current skill level, interests, and skills to develop next.

Important PointsCharacteristics of Anecdotal Records: 

• Simple reports of behavior
• Results of direct observation
• Accurate and specific
• Gives context of child’s behavior
• Records typical or unusual behaviors

Additional Information

• Anecdotal records do not include the project and fieldwork done by the child and not the presence or absence of a particular skill or process.
• Anecdotal records are not used to record and judge the quality of a child's work against specified criteria because teacher records this in summative assessment and anecdotal is not a tool for summative assessment.

Hence, we can conclude that the right answer to this question is it includes a written description of a child's progress on a day-to-day basis and provides observational narrative records.

Informal teaching strategies like playing games can help primary students to enhance their arithmetic abilities. 

Key Points

 Informal methods of teaching multiplication

• Multiplication as repeated addition- Repeated addition means adding equal groups together. It is also known as multiplication. For example 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 2 X 4 = 8
• This technique is used at the primary level to build the concept of multiplication. It is an easier way for children to develop from adding to multiplying.
• By using rectangular arrays- a rectangular array organizes numbers or objects into columns and rows forming a rectangular shape.
• Arrays can be used to construct meaningful multiplication concepts. Children must understand how these facts are derived before drilling and memorizing tables. It not only helps children grasp the concept but also gives them a visual image to draw upon as they begin to use and memorize the basic number facts.

Hence, we conclude that the teacher is introducing multiplication through informal strategies by utilizing the previous knowledge and experience of students.

Pre number concepts- These are math skills that children acquire in pre-nursery or kinder garden to help them understand the different variations in shapes, sizes, colors, etc.

• For example- counting, sorting and comparing numbers, matching, measuring, understanding number patterns, etc.

Key PointsOne-to-one correspondence- The ability to count one object while saying one number is known as one-to-one correspondence. If you are counting items, for example, you can point to the first one and say '1' then, to the second and say '2', and so on.

• Counting stationary objects- It can be counting stones, buttons, or balls.
• Counting moving objects- counting birds in the sky, clouds, animals, or other children.
• Counting stairs- young children find it quite interesting to count without any reason. So, counting stars will be an interesting task.

Hence, we conclude that the one-to-one correspondence concept is yet to be strengthened in the child as she has counted some balls twice.

A math misconception is, essentially, an incomplete understanding that we've developed from our math experience. Math misconceptions are also known as “alternative conceptions” or “intuitive theories.”

Key Point

Common Misconceptions:

• Multiplication Always Results in a Larger Number
• To Multiply by 10 Just Add Zero
• The Tallest Container Always has the Greatest Volume
• In Fractions, the Largest Denominator is the Largest Fraction

A misconception in mathematics can be removed by :

Engaging children with examples and non-examples

1. It develops confidence and a sense of achievement in the students.
2. This technique of learning is good for beginners.
3. It develops speed and accuracy in the learning of mathematics.

Hence we conclude Misconceptions in math can be removed by engaging children with examples and non-examples.

Additional Information Misconception in math can not be removed with a lot of practice and drills of questions, Framing similar questions and repeating them many times, and Demonstrating the algorithm again is the reason for misconceptions in math.

Key Points Mathematics development skills-

• Critical thinking- Students can develop this ability when confronting mathematical problems, identifying possible solutions, and evaluating and justifying their reasons for the results, thereby allowing students to become confident critical thinkers.​
• Problem-solving- Problem-solving in mathematics supports the development of The ability to think creatively, critically, and logically. The ability to structure and organize. The ability to process information.​
• Analytical thinking- Analytical thinking is a thinking ability to help individuals in solving problems of mathematics. It is important for understanding the parts of the situation, and the ability to scrutinize and break down facts. However, there is a differentiation or variation in the way to solve these problems.​
• Quantitative reasoning- Quantitative reasoning is the act of understanding mathematical facts and concepts and being able to apply them to real-world scenarios.​

​Hence we conclude that she is trying to help students to develop mathematical statements and problem-solving skills.

According to George Polya, There are two kinds of aims in mathematics for school education such as higher and narrower aims.

Important Points

Higher Aims- ​ 

• ​​In NCERT, The higher aim in mathematics" is to develop the child's resources, to think and reason mathematically, to pursue assumptions to their logical conclusion, and to handle abstraction. It includes a way of doing things, and the ability and the attitude to formulate and solve problems."

Developing the ability of mathematization which is regarded as constituting the higher aims of mathematics, includes developing such abilities as-

• Problem solving-problem solving is an important life skill that suggests a shift from memorization to the understanding of the concept and the ability to apply those in both familiar and unfamiliar situations, whether in daily life problems or given in the textbook. In problem-solving skills, Children should see mathematics as a way of life like communicating, discussing, and developing an attitude toward problem-solving.
• Use of heuristics- This encourages the learner to try different hunches for solving the problems. One who uses such heuristics becomes, in the long run, efficient in solving real-life problems.
• Estimation and approximation-Estimating quantities and approximate solutions when exact ones are not available are considered essential skills required for scientific investigations. In many cases, students use this skill to employ these approximations in solving more complex problems.
• Optimization-Optimization means the utilization of available conditions and resources to the fullest extent which is never included in the school mathematics curriculum.
• Use of patterns- The study of patterns requires students to recognize, describe, and generalize patterns to arrive at rules and formulae. If children are made to identify regularities in events, shapes, designs, and sets of numbers they will realize that regularity is the essence of mathematics.
• Mathematical communication- Precise expression and unambiguous use of language are important characteristics of mathematics education. Using mathematical symbols, language, operations, etc. makes mathematics more meaningful and systematic. in mathematical communication-
• To develop the powers of thinking and reasoning.
• To solve mathematical problems of daily life.
• To understand and acquainted with the environment and culture
• To prepare the child for various technical and general future professions.

Additional Information

Narrow aims-

• To develop numeracy-related skills.
• to develop ‘useful’ capabilities, particularly those relating to numeracy- numbers, number operations, measurements, decimals, and percentages.

Hence we conclude that Mathematics education should develop a child's inner resources like abstract thinking and drawing logical conclusions, Children should see mathematics as a way of life like communicating, discussing,, and developing an attitude toward problem-solving is the higher aim of teaching mathematics.

Important Points

According to Newman, there are five levels to be undertaken before a student is able to solve a word problem. The correct order of levels is shown below-

1. Must be able to read the question.
2. Comprehend what the task is asking.
3. Need to translate the problems into mathematical demands.
4. Undertake the necessary mathematical operations
5. Represent the answer as a meaningful construct. ​

Hence we conclude that Newman's five levels there to be undertaken before a student is able to solve a word problem.

Professional development involves adopting a variety of strategies to ensure that teachers continue to strengthen their pedagogical skills throughout their careers. In formal settings, professional development programs are often disseminated through seminars, conferences, workshops, etc. Sometimes, professional development also occurs in informal conditions, through interactions across online platforms, peer group discussions, etc.

Important Points The common modes of professional development of mathematics teachers are:

• Individual reading and research,
• Peer group discussions focused on a common topic or area of interest,
• Observation-teachers observe other teachers improve their skills,
• Expert advice-an expert teacher advising colleagues,
• Group meetings to learn a new strategy or teaching skill,
• Adopting reflective and exploratory practices,
• Staff meetings,
• Online courses,
• Short term courses designed by experts at the local/regional/ national level,
• Seminars/ Conferences/ Workshops to learn from a variety of expertise from around the state or country,
• Interaction with other mathematics teachers working in the same school or neighborhood schools
• Membership in professional bodies to keep oneself updated with the latest trends, practices, and issues in the field of study.
• Participating in faculty development programs.

Hence we conclude that Minimum interaction with other mathematics teachers working in the same school or neighborhood schools is desirable for the professional development of mathematics teachers.

Concept:

​Speed:

• Speed is considered as the distance travelled per unit of time.
• Speed=distance traveled/time elapsed.

Distance:

• Distance is defined as the length of the space between two particular points.

Average:

• When from a list of numbers, a single number is taken as representative, then the sum of the numbers is divided by how many numbers are present in the list.
• It means equaling an arithmetic mean.

Explanation:

Given:

• The distance between Trivandrum and Gandhidham is = 2268 kilometres.
• A train covers this distance in 42 hours.

Formula:

• Average Speed = (Total distance)/(Total Time).

Calculation:

• Hare the total distance = 2268 km.
• The total time to cover the distance is =  42 hours.
• According to the question.
• Average speed= (2268) / (42).

⇒ 54 km/hour.

• Conversion of unit ⇒ a km/h =(a*1000m)/3600s.
• ⇒ (5a/18) m/sec.
• Hare**, a = 54**.
• Average speed in m/sec ⇒ 54 × (5/18) = 15m/sec.

Thus, the average speed of the train between the railway stations of these two cities in metres per second is 15.

Confusion Points

• This is a CTET 1st January, 2022 question.
• In English medium of the question paper the fourth option was given as 15 and in Hindi medium of the paper the fourth option was given as 25.

Concept:

Direction plays a very important role in navigation to a place.

Directions are based on the compass.

Major directions are:

• north
• north east
• east
• south east
• west
• south west
• north west
• south

Man has to go from point A to B.

He starts from A goes to O and then to B.

An inverted ‘L’ shape is made.

Indicating the direction is Southeast.

Now, to find out the distance between A and B.

We end to join A to B.

As a triangle is made, we need to find a distance.

Pythagoras theorem will be applied.

a² = b²+ c²

Here, a²= AB

b²= 50²=2500m

c²= 120²= 14,400m

Therefore, a²= 2500 + 14,4000=16,900m

a= √16,900

a=130m

Thus, the distance between A and B is 130m the direction of A with respect to B is Southeast.

The Correct Answer is: Sloths look like bear and spend almost 17 hours a day sleeping while hanging upside down on a tree branch

 Key PointsAbout Sloth:

• Sloths sleep for almost 17 hours per day.
• That leaves only nine hours to lumber through the trees.
• They maintain a low body temperature of about 86°F to 93°F.
• They move in and out of the shade to regulate their body temperature.
• The sloth eats the leaves of the same tree on which it lives.
• It hardly needs anything else.
• When it has eaten enough leaves from that tree, it moves to the nearby tree.
• Sloths live for about 40 years.
• During that time they move around only eight trees.
• Once a week it comes down from the tree to relieve itself.
• It has a hairy body and looks like a small bear.

Thus,

Sloths look like bear and spend almost 17 hours a day sleeping while hanging upside down on a tree branch - Correct.

Explanation:

There are different methods of separation used for different mediums.

Filtration: It is the method of separating solid from liquid.

Example:

• milk being liquid and cream being solid, the separation is done by filter action.

Thus, filtration is the process used for the separation of cream from milk.​​

Additional Information

Sieving: it is the method of separation of solid from solid depending upon their weight and size. 

• Sieve is used for separation.

Example:

• The husk is separated from the wheat.
• Small particles from flour depending upon size.

Sedimentation: The settling down of the heavy particle at the bottom.

Example: 

• Separation of sand from water.

Decantation: It is a process of separation of two immiscible liquids.

Example:

• Separation of oil and water. If the mixture is allowed to settle the oil will start to float and can be separated.

Concept:

• Maps are drawn to reduced scales.
• Scale =  actual distance on the ground/distance shown on the map.

Given:

• Scale 1 cm = 110 meters
• The distance between Fateh Darwaja and Jamali Darwaja = 10.7 cm.

Explanation:

• 1 cm on map = 110 meters on the ground.
• The actual distance between cities = 10.7 x 110 meters = 1177 m = 1.177 km

Thus, the actual distance between Fateh Darwaja and Jamali Darwaja = is approximately 1.177 km.

Concept:

• India is a country of vast geographical expanse.
• In the north, it is bound by the lofty Himalayas.
• The Arabian Sea in the west.
• The Bay of Bengal in the east.
• The Indian Ocean in the south.

Explanation:

Indian States / Union Territories with the coast on the Bay of Bengal:

• West Bengal.
• Odisha.
• Andhra Pradesh.
• Tamil Nadu.
• Puducherry.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Thus, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu have a coast on the Bay of Bengal.

Additional Information

Indian States / Union Territories with the coast on the Arabian Sea:

• Gujarat.
• Maharashtra.
• Goa.
• Daman and Diu.
• Karnataka.
• Kerela.
• Lakshwadeep.
• Dadra and Nagar Haveli.

Concept:

Direction is divided into 8 sections, 4 cardinal directions, and 4 ordinal directions.

• The four cardinal directions are the directions north, east, south, and west, commonly denoted by their initials N, E, S, and W.
• East and west are perpendiculars (at right angles) to north and south.
• East is in the clockwise direction of rotation from north and west is directly opposite east.
• The ordinal directions are North-East (NE), south-east (SE), south-west (SW), and north-west (NW).
• NE, SE, SW, and NW lie in between the cardinal directions north and east, south and east, south and west, and north and west respectively.

Explanation:

Thickest forest in India is located in the states of:

• Sikkim
• Arunachal Pradesh
• Jharkhand
• West Bengal

If we are in Madhya Pradesh then, the thick forest will be in the northeast direction.

Thus, with respect to Madhya Pradesh, the thick forest will be the northeast direction.

A shooting star is a meteorite that catches fire while entering the earth’s atmosphere: 

Explanation:

• A shooting star is nothing but meteors burning up when they enter the earth's atmosphere.
• ​The Shooting Star looks exactly the same as the Inverted hammer.

Meteorite:

• A meteorite is a solid piece of debris from an object, such as a comet, asteroid, or meteoroid, that originates in outer space and survives its passage through the atmosphere to reach the surface of a planet or moon.
• Heavenly matter landing on the earth’s surface is known as Meteorite.
• A meteor is simply an asteroid that attempts to land on Earth but is vaporized by the Earth’s atmosphere.
• ​If chunks of a comet melt off as it passes close to the Sun, this debris can be left behind to later dazzle us, Earthlings, with a meteor shower.

Additional InformationStars:

• Stars are a massive self-luminous celestial body of gas that shines by radiation derived from their internal energy sources.
• The twinkling of stars is due to the atmospheric refraction of star-light.
• The refraction of light caused by the earth's atmosphere having air layers of varying optical density is called atmospheric refraction.
• This causes the light from the star to twinkle when seen from the ground.

Satellite:

An object moving at a constant speed can be a satellite.

• A satellite is a moon, planet or machine that orbits a planet or star.
• A satellite moves at a constant speed around a larger object.
• Earth is a satellite because it moves around the sun.
• The moon is a satellite because it moves around Earth.
• Earth and the moon are called "natural" satellites.

Khejadli or Khejarli is a village in the Jodhpur district of Rajasthan. The name of the town is derived from Khejadi trees that were once abundant in the village.

Key Points

About Khejadi tree:

• Its scientific name is Prosopis cineraria.
• It is known by different names across India, e.g. Shami in Maharastra & Uttar Pradesh, Jammi in Telangana, Khijro in Gujarat, Khejri in Rajasthan, Janti in Haryana, and Jand in Punjab.
• It is a species of flowering tree in the pea family, Fabaceae.
• The Khejadi tree is found mainly in desert areas.
• It can grow without much water.
• Its bark is used for making medicines.
• People cook and eat its fruits.
• Its wood is such that it is not affected by insects.
• Animals in the area eat the leaves of the Khejadi.

​Therefore,

A. This tree is mainly found in desert areas: True

B. This tree can grow without much water: True

C. This tree stores water in its trunk which can be used for drinking when needed: False

D. The bark of this tree is used for making medicine and its wood is not affected by insects: True

E. This tree has very few leaves: False

Additional Information

About the Khejadli village:

• In the Khejadli village, no tree is cut and no animal is harmed.
• The people of Khejadli village take the responsibility of protecting the Khejadi trees upon themselves as a part of their culture.
• The people of Khejadli village are well known for their revolt against the king, who has ordered the felling down of these Khejadi trees for wood.
• The people hugged the trees and did not let them go and died saving them.
• Even today, the people of this area, called Bishnois, continue to protect plants and animals.
• Even though in the middle of the desert, this area is green and animals roam freely without fear.​

Concept:

• Every region has a different house.
• The type of house depends on the climatic conditions in the region.
• Houses are built specially to suit the needs of the people.

​

Explanation:

Description of houses of different places:

Mud House:

• Rainfall is very scarce in Rajasthan.
• Houses are made up of mud.
• The walls of the houses are very thick.
• These walls are plastered with mud.
• The roofs are made of thorny bushes.

Additional Information

Concept: 

• Different regions have different food.
• Depending on what grows easily at which place, different things are eaten at places.

Explanation:

Jammu and Kashmir:

• Jammu and Kashmir is a state located in North India.
• Jammu and Kashmir's climate is cold.
• Mustard oil has the healing property and keeps the body warm.
• Fish cooked in mustard oil is popular in Jammu and Kashmir.

Additional Information

Kerela:

• They like to eat especially two things, tapioca and coconut.
• Both of these foods grow in their courtyard.
• Boiled tapioca with any curry made using coconut is popular in Kerala.

Goa:

• Goa is situated on the west coast of India.
• Goa has a high yield of coconut oil and sea fish.
• Sea fish cooked in coconut oil is popular in Goa.

Gujarat:

• People of Gujarat mostly like to eat food made of pulses (dal).
• In Gujarat people eat chapati with dal and in dal they put sugar.
• Other famous dishes of Gujarat are - Gujarati Kadhi, Dhokla, Bardoli ki Khichdi, Methi ka Thepla, and Dal Dhokli.

Bihar:

• Bihar is situated in the eastern part of India.
• It lies on the banks of river Ganga.
• The staple food of Bihar generally consists of roti, dal, chawal, sabzi and achar.
• 'Litti chokha' is the most favourite dish of Bihar.

Mizoram:

• It is located in the northeastern part of India.
• It is generally cool in summer and not very cold in winter.
• Mizoram food is well known for its usage of different types of meat.
• 'Bai' of Mizoram is famous as an easy vegetable stew of seasonal greens and vegetables.
• The Mizo people also like to add bamboo shoots to their food.

Hong Kong:

• It is inspired primarily by Cantonese cuisine.
• Most of the dishes in Cantonese cuisine is based on Snake.
• Cooked snake and snake soup are popular in Hong Kong

The Correct Answer is: Even a three-month-old baby elephant generally weights about 200 kg.

 Key PointsAbout Elephant and its herd:

• The elephant is the largest existing mammal on the Earth
• The herd follows matriarchy, i.e. the oldest female elephant becomes the head of the herd.
• There are 10 to 12 female elephants and young ones in a herd.
• It mainly consists of females and baby elephants.
• There is no male elephant in the herd, they leave when they turn 14 or 15.
• The herd sometimes is joined by the (bull) elephants depending on the climate and terrain.
• An adult elephant can eat up to 100kgs (1 quintal) of leaves and twigs in one day.
• A three-month-old elephant weighs about 200 kgs (2 quintals).
• Elephants do not rest much and sleep for only 2-3 hours per day.
• Elephants are usually found in tropical habitats.
• Elephants love to play with mud and water. The mud keeps their skin cool.
• Their big ears also work like fans. The elephants flap these to keep themselves cool.
• Family is what forms the basis of the formation of elephants but it can consist of more than one family.

Thus, 

• An adult elephant can eat more than 2 quintals (220kg) of green leaves and twigs in one day. - False
• Because of their heavy weights most elephants like to take too much rest after eating. - False
• Even a three-month-old baby elephant generally weights about 200 kg - True
• On average most elephants sleep for 9-10 hours in a day. - False

The correct option is Iron nails, Glass Bottle, Steel Mug, Cardboard Box

Concept:

Biodegradable:

• Substances that are broken down by biological processes (with the help of some bacteria) are said to be biodegradable
• Ex- paper, food products, cotton, cow dung, organic waste etc.
• It can be suitably disposed of as we need not worry about its decomposition which will take place naturally.
• In the use of waste such as food waste, vegetable peels etc. it gets decomposed through bacterial action. Biodegradable waste is not harmful.

Non- Biodegradable:

• Substances that are not broken down into simpler organic or inorganic compounds in this manner are said to be non-biodegradable
• Ex- Pesticides like DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), toxic chemicals, metals, polythene, few fertilizers, dyes, rubber goods, pharmaceuticals waste etc.
• If these substances simply persist in the environment for a long time or may harm the various members of the ecosystem.
• These will have to be recycled or suitably treated and reused if possible so that environmental degradation is not there.

Explanation:

Reuse:

• As much as possible try to use a substance for as long as and in as many ways as possible.
• Example: Reuse wrapping paper, plastic bags, boxes.

Recycle:  

• Recycling is the most environmentally friendly waste disposal method, which means collecting waste and produce a new product from it.
• Example: recycling of glass can be made to produce new glass jars and bottles or tiles.

Important Points

Concept:

• Different regions have different food.
• Depending on what grows easily at which place, different things are eaten at places.

Explanation:

• Chholay Bhature is popular in North Indian states like Delhi, Haryana, Punjab etc.
• Goa is situated on the west coast of India. Due to the high yield of coconut oil and fish, fish cooked in coconut oil is popular in Goa.
• Jammu and Kashmir is a state located in North India. Jammu and Kashmir's climate is cold. Mustard oil has healing properties, Fish cooked in mustard oil is popular in Jammu and Kashmir.
• Boiled tapioca with any curry is very popular in Kerala.

So the correct match is (i) - E, (ii) - B, (iii) - D, (iv) - A

Additional Information

Food in different places: 

Assessment is used to figure out what students have learned, the process, and their approach to learning before during, and after the course. It is an important part of the teaching-learning process.

Key Points

• Characteristics of assessment task
• Student engagement and motivation- Assessment tasks should engage students and help them participate in performing activities that are meaningful and engaging. It will help them acquire and apply knowledge, practice skills, and develop independent and collaborative work habits.
• Reliability- Students should perform the same when they are exposed to different questions at different times and places.
• Flexibility- The teacher must evaluate the entire performance of the student in the context in which it is accomplished.
• Validity- It should measure what it is supposed to measure at an appropriate level, and in the appropriate domains.

Hence, we conclude that performing the activity to observe sinking and floating is a suitable task for class 4th student of EVS.

HintWriting question answers, explaining definitions, and learning the list of objects will not help the teacher in assessing the children learning.

Art and craft is a broad term that encompasses a wide range of activities involved in the creation of items with one's own hands. Art and craft are typically regarded as a hobby.

Key PointsAccording to John dewey, "the aim of education should be to teach children how to think rather than what to think and to improve their mind so as to enable them to think for themselves than to load the memory with the thoughts of other people."

• Importance of integrating arts and crafts in EVS
• Art and crafts are natural, joyful, and fulfilling for children and it helps in the establishment of a creative, inclusive classroom (that seeks the acceptance of all learners) where imagination and innovation are valued.
• Art provides natural opportunities for children to learn through play without feeling anxious over failure. The art is child friendly and engaging because they are natural as play.
• Art encourages children to develop their creativity, which is essential throughout their lives. Art helps children to express themselves and their feelings.
• Art and crafts in EVS involve children working in groups, which promotes peer learning and improves social interaction.

Hence, we conclude that art and craft should be integrated into EVS teaching because it promotes inclusion, creativity, and peer learning.

Every class contains children with a diverse range of abilities and personalities. As each student has varied skills, some students learn more quickly than others. Due to this disparity, it is difficult for teachers to execute strategies that benefit the entire class.

• As a result, a teacher must devise effective learning methods to address the unique needs of each student in the class.

Key PointsTeaching strategy- The methods adopted by a teacher for delivering course material in a way that keeps students engaged and allows them to practice different skill sets.

• Learning through sharing experiences- Students are more successful when they are asked to participate in the learning process rather than simply absorb knowledge from the teacher.
• By narrating experiences in the classroom, the children will be able to develop feelings of self-esteem and it decreases feelings of depression, anxiety, and isolation.
• It helps the student to become more confident and they will be better able to connect classroom theories and knowledge to real-world situations.

Hence, we conclude that asking students to narrate their experiences of visiting different houses and construction sites will promote inquiry while teaching the theme "Shelter" to class IV students.

HintCollecting pictures, sharing pictures of different shelters, and showing PowerPoint presentations will not promote inquiry among students as children will not be able to connect the knowledge to real-life situations.

Environmental studies include the study of the environment and its attributes. It provides an approach to understanding the environment and the impact of human life on it.

 Key Points

• EVS at the primary level
• According to NCF 2005, EVS is an integrated subject area at the primary level that incorporates concepts from science (physical, chemical, and biological), social studies (history, geography, political science, sociology, etc), and environmental education (protection and conservation).
• Its goal is to help children acquire a holistic or integrated perspective of the environment in which they live.
• EVS focuses on exposing children to the actual world they live in and exploring and connecting with their insights into the functioning of several things in their environment.

Hence, we conclude that EVS, in primary classes is a subject area that integrates the concepts and issues of science, social studies, and environmental education.

Environmental studies aid children in comprehending how things work and interact in their environment. At the primary level, it is an integrated subject area that incorporates knowledge from science, social science studies, and environmental education.

• Its aim is to help children acquire a holistic or integrated view of the environment in which they live.

Key Points

• Objectives of EVS at the primary level:
• ​To train children to locate and comprehend relationships between the natural, social, and cultural environment.
• To create cognitive capacity and resourcefulness to make the child curious about social phenomena starting with family and moving on to wider spaces.
• To engage children in exploratory and hands-on activities to acquire basic cognitive and psychomotor skills through observation, classification, inference, etc.
• To be able to critically address gender concerns and issues of marginalization and operation with values of equality and justice and respect for human dignity and rights.

Hence, we conclude that sensitizing learners to issues related to gender discrimination is an objective of EVS at the primary level.

Activities are the tasks designed or deployed by a teacher to bring about the conditions for learning.

Key Points

• Experiential learning- It is the process of learning by doing. Students are better able to apply ideas in knowledge taught in the classroom to real-world situations when they are engaged in hands-on experience and reflection.
• Helps children to memorize information- When kids are physically and mentally involved in the learning process it will help them to retain information.
• Encourages children to be independent and inquisitive as it focuses on investigation and analysis and also develops critical thinking.
• It encourages children to be creative in the way they express their knowledge. It provides an opportunity to express themselves through the activity as well as through the act of verbal presentation.

Hence, we conclude that the above activity is designed to promote experiential learning as the children are actively involved in the learning process.

Visually impaired students are born with visual impairment or become visually impaired later on due to illness, malnutrition, or an accident. They can be partially blind or fully blind. Suitable teaching strategies should be used to cater needs of these children.

Key Points

• Strategies for teaching visually impaired students-
• Oral instructions- Students who are visually challenged may have difficulties seeing the words and understanding the information provided in handouts. Instead, for every assignment and activity, the teacher should give oral instructions.
• Provide tactile learning experiences- Tactile learning activities should be incorporated whenever possible. Instead of discussing objects in the class and showing their pictures, the teacher should actually show the real object in the class for children to touch and experience. This will help children to explore and learn without relying solely on sight.
• Recording lessons- It is the simplest and cheapest technique to improve the learning environment for visually impaired or blind students. This allows children to listen to the instructions or lecture several times to ensure that they fully understand the lesson.

Hence, we conclude that the most appropriate strategy for teaching EVS to visually impaired students is using more tactile teaching-learning materials.

 Hint

Other given strategies are also used for teaching visually impaired students but tactile learning is the best strategy because in this technique, the children learn by touching and doing and they will understand and remember things through hands-on experiences.

Assessment is the process of collecting relevant information on students learning. It is one of the important components of the teaching-learning process. Assessment does more than just measure learning.

Key Points

• Assessment in EVS classroom
• Assessment is a continuous process since it is how teachers learn about the needs, skills, and capacities of children. It allows teachers to be more efficient in their planning and delivery. It is how they determine where children are in their learning and how to plan for the next step.
• A good teacher will also use the results of their assessment to make rapid changes to the class to ensure that their students fully comprehend the goal. Everything is covered in the lesson plan. The number of assessments that can be included in a lesson is unlimited, teachers should employ as many as are necessary to ensure that students are learning and can access their students during the teaching-learning process.

Hence, we conclude that the most appropriate stage of the Lesson plan where students should be assessed while teaching EVs is over the course of teaching-learning.

Assessment tools are the techniques for determining a student's academic capabilities, fluency, and skills in a particular subject area, as well as their progress towards academic proficiency in that subject area.

Key Points

• The checklist is used to evaluate the record opinions or judgments and indicates the degree or amount.
• It consists of a list of items prepared by the teacher to study the relevant problems.
• It is organized to give quick feedback and gather data or information.
• The students just have to answer them in yes/no or tick mark the items to show the absence or presence of that specific item.

Hence, we conclude that the checklist assessment tool will be used by the teacher to give children quick feedback.

Additional Information

• Rating scale: It is used to measure the attitude of students in any situation, idea, or object. It is always prepared in odd number points like 3 point rating scale or 5-point rating scale to get a middle measuring point.
• Observation- It means seeing or noticing for a purpose.
• Peer assessment- In this process students provide feedback to each other on their work.

Assessment is a process of collecting relevant information on student learning. It is one of the important components of the teaching-learning process. Assessment does more than just measure learning.

Key Points

• Assessment of learning is generally summative in nature occurring at the end of a class, course, semester, or academic year, and intended to measure learning outcomes and report these outcomes to students, parents, and administrators.
• Assessment of learning or performance in EVS, thus, refers to the collection of all possible data and evidence with respect to learning of EVS concepts.
• These data may be numerical or quantitative like marks or scores and qualitative data like interest in learning of the concepts, interaction capability on the concepts learnt, involvement in subject-related activities, and several other characteristics of the student which are the possible outcomes of learning of the concepts. ​

Hence, we conclude that in EVS, the objective of the assessment of learning is that teacher gathers information about the student's achievement.

National Education Policy is the first education policy of the 21st century and aims to address the many growing developmental imperatives of this country. This Policy proposes the revision and revamping of all aspects of the education structure, including its regulation and governance, to create a new system that is aligned with the aspirational goals of 21st-century education.

Key Points 

• The curricular and pedagogical structure and the curricular framework for school education will therefore be guided by a 5 + 3 + 3 + 4 design, consisting of the stages:
• Foundational (3 years of preschool + Grades 1-2):- The Foundational Stage will consist of play/activity-based learning. It will also include a focus on good behavior, courtesy, ethics, personal and public hygiene/cleanliness, teamwork, cooperation, etc.
• Preparatory (Grades 3- 5):-  The Preparatory Stage will transition gradually from play-based learning to more formal but interactive classroom learning, with the introduction of some (light) textbooks, in order to lay a solid groundwork across subjects, including reading, writing, speaking, physical education, art, languages, science, and mathematics.
• Middle (Grades 6-8):- The Middle Stage will see the introduction of subject teachers for learning/discussion of the more abstract concepts in each subject that students will be ready for at this stage, across the sciences, mathematics, arts, social sciences, and humanities.
• High school (Grades 9-12 in two phases, i.e. 9 and 10 in the first and 11 and 12 in the second) stages respectively, with an option of exiting at Class 10 and re-entering in the next phase:- The High School (or Secondary) Stage will comprise of four years of multidisciplinary study, building on the subject-oriented pedagogical and curricular style of the Middle Stage, but with greater depth, greater critical thinking, greater attention to life aspirations, and greater flexibility and student choice.

Thus, it is concluded that Primary classes (Classes I to V) will consist of  Preparatory and  Foundational Stages according to NEP, 2020.

Process skills are the procedures that scientists employ when carrying out research. Observing, classifying, communicating, measuring, predicting, and inferring are some common process skills.

Key Points

• Learners must master basic science process skills in order to comprehend the scientific method and techniques employed by scientists. Apart from the 6 basic process skills listed above, science has also integrated skills, which are acquired after learners have learned to use the 6 basic process skills. The integrated skills are-
• Identifying and controlling variables
• Defining variables operationally
• Hypothesizing
• Experimenting
• Data interpretation
• Creating models etc.

Hence, we conclude that recalling facts is not a process skill, because memorization or recall is a traditional method of assisting students in getting marks and grades, however, it is ineffective in the long run because it is not long-lasting. 

Confusion Points The official answer to this question is Testing Hypothesis but recalling facts is the correct answer. Testing Hypothesis is a process skill. Each hypothesis is to be tested to solve the problem.

The syllabus of EVS has been developed within a child-centered perspective of themes that provide a common interface of issues in social studies, sciences, and environmental education.

Key Points

• Themes in EVS syllabus classes The syllabus for classes III to V is organized around 6 main as listed below the main theme of "Family and Friends" is divided into 4 sub-themes:

1. Family and friends

• Relationships
• Work and play
• Animals
• Plants

2. Food
3. Shelter
4. Water
5. Travel
6. Things we make and do.

• "Work and play" is included under the theme of family and friends to allow children to look at their own bodies as a part of themself in a more contextual and connected manner.

Hence, we conclude that *"*Work and Play" is a sub-theme under the theme of Family and Friends.

A divergent question is one that does not have a definite answer and instead tests one's capacity to think extensively about a topic.

Key Points

• Characteristics of divergent questions
• It requires children to analyze, synthesize, evaluate a knowledge base and then predict different outcomes.
• 

It encourages children to stretch their thinking beyond what they know to be true. These are also known as open-ended questions. For example- What are the ways to save trees? What step will you take to reduce air pollution in metro cities like Delhi?

• These questions encourage children to think independently. They are encouraged to use their higher-order cognitive abilities to create new ideas or explanations by combining original and known ideas.

Hence, we conclude that "what steps will you take to reduce air pollution in metro cities like Delhi" is a divergent question.

All the other three options are not divergent questions because they all have a definite answer.

Assessment is the process of collecting relevant information on students learning. It is one of the most important components of the teaching-learning process. Assessment does more than just measure learning.

Key PointsAssessment in EVS acts as a useful tool in the teaching-learning process as it helps in student learning and improving instructions.

• Authentic assessment strategies- It enables students to apply what they've learned in the classroom to real-life situations while also allowing teachers to track the progress of children over time.
• The authentic assessment focuses on contextualized tasks, allowing children to demonstrate skills in a more authentic situation.
• It includes observing a child, his classroom activities and routines, and identifying child behavior that is used in the activities.
• Authentic assessment includes observation, essays, performance tasks, portfolios, journals, exhibitions, demonstrations, etc.

Hence, we conclude that the dynamic, holistic, and experiential nature of EVs learning by students is best assessed by authentic assessment strategies.

Whereas rating scales, pen-paper tests, and oral tests, will not give provide the teacher full insight into students' behavior and needs.

The correct answer is 'Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A'.

Key Points

• An assertion (statement of fact) and a reason (explanation for the assertion). In such type of questions, we have to determine whether each statement is correct.
• If both the statements are correct, we have to determine whether the reason supports the assertion or not.
• By referring to the lines of the passage:- 
• "Studies across the world have clearly indicated that school closures have significant negative impact on learning levels of children, with children from disadvantaged backgrounds being affected more severely".
• "Thus, the loss of learning during the pandemic comprises the 'forgetting/regression' of a proportion of abilities children already knew, including the loss of foundational abilities that make it possible for children to take up further learning, and the absence of curricular learning for an entire academic year".
• Thus, it can be concluded from the first line mentioned above that assertion is correct and second line refers to the correctness of reasoning. And the statement in reasoning is also the correct explanation of the statement given in the assertion.

 

Hence, the correct answer is option 1.

The correct answer is 'forgetting completely what one has learnt'.

Key Points

• By referring to the lines of the passage:- 
• "Thus, the loss of learning during the pandemic comprises the 'forgetting/regression' of a proportion of abilities children already knew, including the loss of foundational abilities that make it possible for children to take up further learning, and the absence of curricular learning for an entire academic year".
• Thus, it can be concluded that loss of learning during the pandemic refers to forgetting completely what one has learnt.

 

Hence, the correct answer is option 2.

The correct answer is 'Bring out the striking contrast by placing them next to each other'.

Key Points

• Refer to the lines: This regression further compromises new learning since these abilities are foundational to all further learning. This situation must be juxtaposed with the fact that we are already facing a crisis in learning, particularly with respect to foundational literacy and numeracy.
• Juxtapose means to put things or people next to each other, esp. in order to compare them.
• For example:- Her art portfolio juxtaposed modern art with paintings of a classical style.
• Thus, it can be concluded that 'juxtapose' means to bring out the striking contrast by placing them next to each other.

 

Hence, the correct answer is option 3.

The correct answer is 'happening at scattered and isolated places'.

Key Points

• Sporadic means occurring at irregular intervals or only in a few places; scattered or isolated.
• For example:-His nobles, whom he tried to cow by sporadic acts of violence, rebelled against him.
• Let's look at the line: 
• A child who was in class 1 in March 2020 will move to class 3 in 2021 without having engaged with the curriculum of class 2, except through sporadic online or community-based engagements.
• Thus, it can be concluded that 'sporadic' means 'happening at scattered and isolated places'.

Hence, the correct answer is option 2.

The correct answer is 'b and c'.

Key Points

• By referring to the lines of the passage:- 
• "Examples of foundational abilities would be the ability to read numbers up to 99 in class 2 that forms the basis of performing more complex mathematical operations in higher classes".
• "Similarly, for children in class 2, the ability to respond to comprehension questions based on a story forms the basis for acquiring higher order abilities related to reading and writing".
• Thus, it can be concluded that the foundational abilities of a student of class 2 include: to read numbers up to 99 and to correctly respond to comprehension questions.
• Hence, statement (B) and statement (C) are true.

 

Hence, the correct answer is option 4.

The correct answer is 'already acquired foundational abilities of language and mathematics'.

Key Points

• By referring to the lines of the passage:- 
• "It includes the ability that children have forgotten due to lack of usage, for example the ability to read with understanding, the ability to write, and the ability to perform basic mathematical operations like addition and multiplication. This regression further compromises new learning since these abilities are foundational to all further learning".
• "The absence of any one of these foundational abilities manifests not only in the inability to acquire more complex abilities, but also in a disconnect from learning, peers and schooling, often causing children to drop out of school altogether".
• Thus, it can be concluded that already acquired foundational abilities of language and mathematics makes it possible for children to learn further.

 

Hence, the correct answer is option 2.

The correct answer is mildly.

Key Points

• Severely means 'in a very stern, strict, or harsh way (बहुत सख्त, सख्त या कठोर तरीके से).
• Ex: She will punish him severely for his mistake.
• mildly means 'in a gentle way' (सौम्य तरीके से).
• Ex: He sat down mildly, like a kid.
• From the above explanation, it can be concluded that 'mildly' is the correct opposite for the given word 'Severely'.

 

Hence, the correct choice is option 2.

Additional Information 

Let's refer to all the other given options:

• barely: no more than, almost not (से अधिक नहीं, लगभग नहीं).
• casually: happening unexpectedly or by chance (अप्रत्याशित रूप से या संयोग से).
• poorly: in a poor condition or manner (खराब स्थिति या तरीके से).

The correct answer is '2'.

Key Points

• The error lies in the usage of 'about' after 'discussed'.
• As the verb discuss is never used with the preposition about.
• It is simply followed by a direct object.
• For example:- I would like to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of students using credit cards.
• Hence, the correct answer is option 2.

 

Correct Sentence: The members discussed the arrangements for the annual event.

The correct answer is 'Adjective'.

Key Points

• Adjective: a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun.
• Ex: poor, big, beautiful, nice.
• Here, the word significant is used as an adjective and describes the importance of negative impact on learning levels of children.

 

Hence, the correct answer is option 3.

Additional Information 

• Pronoun: replaces a noun to avoid repetition/a word that can function as a noun phrase used by itself and that refers either to the participants in the discourse or to someone or something mentioned elsewhere in the discourse.​
• Ex: our, my, myself, your, herself, her, it, itself, yourselves.
• Adverb: 'An adverb is a word that is used to modify or qualify a verb or an adjective.' ​
• Ex: often, seldom, barely, beautifully.
• Noun: a word that is the name of a thing, an idea, a place or a person.
• Ex: Raj, India, Silver, milk, cat, phone.

The correct answer is Personification.

Key Points

• Personification the figure of speech in which non living things are given the qualities of living things.
• Here in this line, the speaker of the lines is a stream which states that he comes from a place of the two birds "coot" and "hern".
• Here the stream is personified and given the human like qualities.

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Hence, Option 3 is the correct answer.

Additional Information

• Metaphor is a figure of speech in which two things are compared and in metaphor one thing is another. E.g. "Time is money"
• Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole. E.g. "Head count"
• Hyperbole is a figure of speech in which things are exaggerated and represented. E.g. "It took forever to download the video"

The correct answer is in little sharps and trebles.

Key Points

• The brook or the stream chattered over the stony ways because the stones tries to stop its way, so the stream moves with sharpness.
• The brook move with fast and furious movement over the stones.
• Thus, we can conclude that the brook chatters over stony ways in little sharps and trebles.

<br>

Hence, Option 2 is the correct answer.

Additional Information

• Meandering means moving slowly in no particular direction or with no clear purpose.
• Gleefully means in an exuberantly or triumphantly joyful manner.

The correct answer is Man may go and come anywhere and everywhere.

Key Points

• In this poem, the brook passes through stony ways with speed and pace.
• The poet states the idea that man is mortal but the nature in eternal.
• The brook passing through the stones hills and farms will finally meet the river and join it.
• In this poem, the poet talks about the ups and downs of the journey of the life of a man and compare it with the journey of stream.
• Thus, man's life is full of ups and downs but the line "Man may go and come anywhere and everywhere.", doesn't hold true.

<br>

Hence, Option 4 is the correct answer.

The correct answer is I flow by fits and starts.

Key Points

• In the poem the stream is personified and state that the stream suddenly starts to move violently and move out in energetic manner.
• If something happens in fits and starts, it often stops and then starts again.
• Here, stream suddenly starts moving, thus, it can be inferred that it flows by fits and starts.
• Hence, Option 2 is the correct answer.

The correct answer is the brimming river.

Key Points

• The stream is moving violently through the hills and is moving to the plain area.
• The stream is moving towards the brimming river to merge and flow with it.
• The river is near the Philip's farm.
• Thus, the brook is headed for the brimming river.
• Hence, Option 3 is the correct answer.

The correct answer is Alliteration.

Key Points

• Alliteration is a figure of speech in which same consonant sound is repeated in the beginning or the words of a sentence.
• Here the sound of "w" is repeated through the line- with willow weed.
• Hence, Option 2 is the correct answer.

Additional Information

• Hyperbole is the figure of speech in which things are exaggerated and represented. E.g. "It took forever to download the video"
• Metaphor is a figure of speech in which one thing is compared with the other and in metaphor one thing is other. E.g. "Time is money"
• Metonymy is a figure of speech in which the object or idea related to the original object is referred.

Vocabulary refers to the set of words an individual uses as a tool for communication. It is a collection of familiar words used or understood by an individual or group of people.

• The core vocabulary of the first language is learned quite naturally at home. Neither the child nor his/her family has much to say about the words that must be learned - those are given by the immediate environment and the culture.
• The vocabulary of a second language can thus be decided by the teacher, the textbook, or the school. Class teaching and classroom activities enrich the vocabulary and keep the students engaged.

Key Points

• To help students to learn vocabulary, the use of stories and imagery would be the most effective way.
• Story is used as a strategy in language teaching which broadens learners' reading choices. Stories during the early years of language learning work as inputs for language learning.
• In a storytelling approach, the story chosen by the teacher to narrate is directly or indirectly related to the lesson. These stories help students in vocabulary building by making them aware of many new words related to stories.
• Imagery may be defined as the representation of sense experience through language. The word 'image' often suggests a mental picture, and visual imagery is the most frequent kind of imagery in literary writings.
• It presents pictures made with words to concretize and make an idea clear. Imagery uses colorful words with specific meanings to create a picture in the reader's mind with help of vocabulary building.

Hence, it is clear that to help students to learn vocabulary, the use of stories and imagery would be the most effective way.

Multilingualism is the ability to use more than two languages. Multilingualism is constitutive of the identity of a child and a typical feature of the Indian linguistic landscape, must be used as a resource, classroom strategy, and a goal by a teacher.

Key Points

• Multilingualism emphasizes the significance of a smooth transition between the home and school language. encourages children to believe in themselves.
• It shows a greater number of independent cognitive strategies at their disposal and exhibits greater flexibility in the use of these strategies to solve problems.

Multilingualism as a resource in education aims at:

• making use of languages of learners for teaching-learning.
• increasing the better innate understanding of how language works.
• enhancing creativity, divergent thinking and appreciation of local languages.
• ensuring the inclusion of all students irrespective of their linguistic background.
• connecting the classroom with real-life to make learners familiar with the content.

Hence, we conclude that Multilingualism as a resource in education aims at making use of languages of learners for teaching-learning.

Comprehension is the most necessary academic activity in reading and academic discourse. It is one of the most important skills in language teaching.

Key Points

Local comprehension is the skill of reading a piece of text closely or intensely for the purpose of extracting specific information from the text. It is a reading strategy that focuses on:

• gaining a deeper and better understanding of the text.
• reading text thoroughly in detail with a specific learning aim.
• enhancing reading comprehension and critical thinking skills.
• reading materials such as labels, reports, contracts, articles etc.

Hint 

 

Hence, we conclude that the above-mentioned statement refers to local comprehension.

Confusion Points

• The official answer to this question is 'Inferential comprehension'. However, 'Local comprehension' will be the most appropriate answer as Inferential comprehension refers to deducing meaning from the clues available in the text as the term 'inference' means something derived by reasoning something while Local comprehension focuses on finding out a specific piece of information.

Howard Gardner, an American Psychologist, proposed the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Gardner initially proposed eight types of intelligence which later on he increased to nine. Thus, Gardner views each individual as a unique combination of various intelligence, hence we cannot say that one is more intelligent and another is less intelligent.

Key Points

• In the context of the 'theory of multiple intelligences', Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence is related to language.
• It refers to the ability to use the language fluently and flexibly to express one's thinking. It is related to sounds, words, vocabulary, and verbal language.
• Writers, poets, lawyers, and speakers are among those that Howard Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence.

For example,

• Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meaning of words.
• Playing flashcards with vocabulary, listening, and reading stories.

Hence, it is clear that in the context of the 'theory of multiple intelligences', Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence is related to language.

Additional Information 

The nine types of intelligence as given by Gardner:

• Linguistic Intelligence refers to the ability to use language. It is the capacity to use spoken and written words in a skilled way.
• Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to use logical reasoning and mathematical ability. Individuals high on this intelligence have good abstract reasoning, critical thinking, and good in dealing with numbers.
• Musical Intelligence is the ability to use rhythms, sounds, and patterns to create, compose and perform music. It involves sensitivity to music, and the ability to recognize and manipulate musical patterns.
• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the ability to use and control one’s body movements and actions. Dancers and sports persons are usually high in such intelligence.
• Spatial Intelligence is the capacity to perceive, understand and use spatial and visual information effectively. Such people are good at spatial orientation, forming visual images and patterns.
• Interpersonal Intelligence refers to the ability to understand others and social interactions. They can understand the emotions and the perspectives of others and relate well to others.
• Intrapersonal Intelligence is the ability to understand oneself and know one’s thoughts, emotions, feelings, motives, and desires, and how these influence their behavior.
• Naturalistic Intelligence is the ability to recognize and understand the various patterns in nature. It includes sensitivity to nature with all its features including flora, fauna, and all biodiversity.
• Existential Intelligence: Gardner added existential intelligence as the ninth intelligence which refers to the sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions beyond sensory data and about human existence. It concerns the ‘big picture’ in life and the ultimate truth of life. Cosmologists and philosophers are high on this aspect of intelligence.

Multilingualism is the ability to use more than two languages. Multilingualism is constitutive of the identity of a child and a typical feature of the Indian linguistic landscape, must be used as a resource, classroom strategy, and a goal by a teacher.

Key Points

Benefits of Multilingualism: 

• It emphasizes the significance of a smooth transition between the home and school language. It increases vocabulary and effective speech.
• It shows a greater number of independent cognitive strategies at their disposal and exhibits greater flexibility in the use of these strategies to solve problems.
• It is also a way of ensuring that every child feels secure and accepted and that no one is left behind on account of his / her linguistic background.
• Knowledge of many languages encourages children to tolerate and respect other cultures and provides many employment opportunities to them.
• Multilingual children are capable of greater cognitive flexibility and creativity, they possess meta-linguistic awareness and perform better academically than monolinguals.

Hence, it could be concluded that the benefits of multilingualism include statements (i), (ii), and (iv).

'Lev Vygotsky', a Soviet psychologist, has propounded the "Socio-cultural Theory". This theory implies the idea that social interaction plays a crucial role in the development of a learner's cognitive ability. ​

• Lev Vygotsky emphasized that the acquisition of speech is the major activity in cognitive development.
• He believed by acquiring language, the child modifies its higher mental functions. According to him, children speak to themselves for self-guidance.

Key Points 

In his "Socio-cultural Theory", Vygotsky also proposed the three stages of language that a child progresses while developing cognitively. These stages are:

 

Hence, it could be concluded that according to Vygotsky, when a child regulates his/her own action with the help of language but that language is not audible to others, he/she is involved in inner speech.

Man is an animal but different from other species of animal. So, what sets man apart from others? It is an ability to communicate information using language - which refers to a complicated set of symbols, sounds, gestures, and rules of combining them to communicate one’s views to others. Language is expressed through gestures, speech, and writing.

Key Points Pragmatics is the study of language use in interpersonal communication. Pragmatics refers to the underpinnings of conversation: how something is said, the intentions of the speaker, the relationship between the participants, and the cultural expectations of the exchange.

• Pragmatics is a societal rule related to language. It refers to the social rules of language. Knowing the difference and when to use which style is the essence of pragmatics.
• It deals with the language in context. In other words, it refers to the knowledge of how language is related to the context/situation in which it is used.
• As language is a social tool of interaction, it has some underlying rules (examples of pragmatics) such as:
• how to behave as a listener
• how to coordinate in a conversation
• what one can say in public or private
• what one should say in a particular situation

Thus, it is concluded that Pragmatics deals with the language in context.

Hint 

• Morphology:  It is the "study" of the "origin" of the words, their relationship with other words, and their formation.
• Semantics: It refers to the set of rules by which we understand the meaning of words and sentences. For example, adding "-ed" at the end of the word refers to past tense.
• Phonetic Symbols are used to describe the phonemes (sounds), and also enable learners to understand and speak the language they are learning.

Children seem to pass through a series of more or less fixed ‘stages’, as they acquire language. The age at which different children reach each stage can vary considerably, however, the order of ‘stages’ remains the same.

Key Points

• The vocal tracts of children are more developed and active during the infancy stage because during infancy, the infants try to imitate, speak and learn new words. In infancy vocal tracts of a baby are more like animals than an adult human.
• Between six and ten months, the infant begins to babble. She repeats syllables like 'ma', 'da', 'ki', and 'ne' over and over again so that we can hear sounds like "dadada ...", "kikikikiki...", "mamama....".
• Here they start producing a wider variety of vowels and consonants with the same consonant being repeated. It is called repetitive babbling, for example, like ‘gi-gi-gi’, ‘ka-ka-ka’, ‘ma-ma-ma’, ‘pa-pa-pa’, ‘mi-mi-mi’, etc.
• At around nine to ten months there is a variation in the combinations which is called variegated babbling. Such as ‘ba-ba-ga-ga’ which becomes more complex like ‘mim-mim-mai-yaaaaa’ over the next few months.
• To parents, it seems like children are talking to them and they often react to it. This provides children with some experience of the interactive role of language.

From the above points, we can conclude that both (A) and (B) are true.

India is a multi-lingual country with numerous languages and dialects. There are approximately 1652 languages and dialects that belong to the five different language families in the country.

• The standard dialect is usually that variety that is used in print, and is normally taught in schools, and to foreigners learning the language. It is a variety that is codified, i.e. grammar books and dictionaries are written on the basis of this variety.
• Moreover, it is used in news broadcasts, and spoken by educated people. Many people consider this variety as the ‘real language’, and differences from it as dialects. However, this is only one variety amongst many, and its importance lies in the fact that it has attained a certain prestige.

Key PointsA dialect passes through the following stages to get the status of 'standard dialect':

• Selection: A particular language is selected to be developed into a standard language. This selection could be due to social or political reasons. However, in some cases, the chosen variety has been one with no native speakers at all. For instance, Classical Hebrew in Israel and Bahasa Indonesia in Indonesia.
• Codification: Some agencies write dictionaries and grammar books about the chosen variety so that everyone agrees on what is correct. Once codification takes place, it becomes necessary for the citizens to learn the correct forms, and not to write the ‘nonstandard’ forms of their dialects.
• Elaboration of function: The standard variety is associated with all the functions of the central government, i.e. parliament, law courts, in bureaucratic, educational, and scientific documents of all kinds.
• Acceptance: This variety is accepted by the people as the national language of the state. Once this has happened, the standard language serves as a strong unifying force for the state, as a symbol of its independence from other states.

From the above points, we can conclude that the stages of standard dialect are selection, codification, elaboration of functions and acceptance.

When we travel from one place to another in a particular direction, we will notice linguistic differences, from one village to another. When the areas are close to each other, the differences will be relatively small. However, the further you get from our starting point, the larger the differences will become from that point. These differences are known as dialects.

Key Points

• A dialect is usually associated with a particular geographical area. More particularly, we can say that dialect is regional and it comes from a region.  Linguistically, it refers to far greater differences than mere pronunciation which pertains to accents.
• For instance, take the case of Hindi spoken in different parts of India. We can find differences at the level of sounds, as well as vocabulary and grammar. If we look at the situation in Andhra Pradesh, the dialect spoken in Telangana contains a lot of Hindi-Urdu words that are absent in other areas.
• A number of research studies have shown that certain phonological or grammatical differences in the speech of groups of people give an indication of the social class to which they belong. When these differences vary in a systematic way, it gives rise to social class dialects.
• However, if we wish to obtain a true picture of the relationship between language and social class, we must measure both the linguistic and the social phenomenon so that we can correlate the two.

From the above points, we can conclude that (A) is true, (B) is false.

Language is neither static nor homogeneous. All languages show variation along different dimensions. When one talks about "the English language" or any other language, or when one reads a grammatical description of one language or the other, the impression one gets is that language is a monolithic, homogeneous entity.

Key Points

• Language also varies according to the uses to which it is put.
• This variation of language according to its function is called registral variation and such varieties are known as registers.
• In any given language community, the members use language in a variety of situations, for a large variety of purposes, and to perform a wide variety of functions.
• For example, if one talks to one’s colleagues about their work, the language is likely to be rather different than one will use at home with one’s family.
• The language will depend on the relationship between the participants engaged in the act of communication. With one’s family, one is likely to be informal, with one’s colleagues would be more formal, and with the boss the most formal.

Thus, it is concluded that the variation in speech is also known as register.

Hint 

• Not only does the speech of one community differ from that of another, but the speech of different individuals of a single community, even members of the same family, is marked by individual peculiarities. These individual peculiarities are known as the 'idiolect'.
• Standard variety: That particular variety of a language, usually both spoken and written, which is accepted as the norm for educated usage. The standard variety is taught in schools and used for almost all publication; educated speakers speak it in all circumstances, except possibly in speaking to close relatives.

Language learning is the process of learning to speak and understand a foreign language. It helps children to acquire practical commands of language. It is a result of deliberate and conscious effort for a better understanding of foundational skills of language learning.

Key Points

• In the above-mentioned situation, the idea of group foundation depends on Vygotsky's Socio-cultural Theory as this theory suggests that a child's most important discoveries are guided by adults acting as tutors.
• Vygotsky emphasizes that children learn through interaction and collaboration with skilled and knowledgeable people. In his theory, Vygotsky proposed the term 'instructional scaffolding'.
• Scaffolding refers to a process through which meaningful substantive is provided, that helps students in their studies. It is temporary support imparted to the children to enhance their learning skills.

Hence, it could be concluded that the above-mentioned idea of group foundation depends on Vygotsky's Theory.

Hint

• Piaget's theory on language development suggests that language is learnt through assimilation and accommodation.
• Stephen Krashen propounded the "Theory of Second Language Acquisition", in which he proposed the five main hypotheses that helps in language learning.

Additional Information 

Other Important Terms Proposed by Vygotsky in his 'Socio-cultural Theory': 

Most children have some behavior problems. Behavior problems arise from conditions within the child or from external influences, the effects of which are often not noticed or understood by others.

• Behavior problems range from extreme withdrawal to intense hostile aggression, impoliteness, rudeness, etc. In a classroom, students exhibit a range of behaviors. Teachers are required to deal with all kinds of behavior problems in the classroom.
• Teachers carry a huge responsibility to shape and mold future generations and contribute to their student's successes. They have to tackle many problems associated with students' behavior, learning, progress, abilities, etc.

Key PointsIn order to modify the disruptive behavior of a student, the teacher should talk to the student in the class as it will help the teacher in:

• recognizing the root of the student's problem.
• better relating to students' unacceptable behavior.
• assisting the student with proper guidance in the right way.
• becoming more vigilant towards the student and counseling him.
• inculcating good behavior in the student through positive strokes.
• finding out the reasons for the undesirable behavior and providing remedies.

Hence, it could be concluded that in order to modify the disruptive behavior of a student, the teacher should talk to him/her in the class.

Confusion Points

• The official answer to this question is 'Speak to him/her in the class'. However, 'Talk with him/ her in the class' will be the most appropriate answer as speak is more formal than talk and focuses on the use of his voice to produce words while in speaking, the focus is on the use of words as part of a conversation with someone else. Here, to recognize the root of the student's problem, the teacher needs to talk to the students.

Teaching English in the classroom is a complex task. It is riddled with numerous problems at every stage. Due to the changes in the form and status of the English language, several methods and approaches are adopted in English Language Teaching. 

• Approaches describe the nature of the subject matter to be taught. An approach is concerned not only with how to teach but also with what to teach. It is a matter of principles derived from experience and is based on the psychological learning of the teaching-learning process.

Key Points

• A structural Approach is a language tool that helps the learner to master the structure or pattern of sentences. It is the descriptive approach that gives more importance to speech only without reference to meaning.
• It is a set of assumptions that explains the language as a set of structures or rules. It advocates the selection and gradation of the structures or patterns of sentences and vocabulary.
• Here, the Principle of Selection is based on the assumption that only limited things can be taught within a limited period so the teacher has to select a matter while the Principle of Gradation refers to the selection of words and structures and their proper arrangement.
• A learner in this approach is expected to be accurate and useful in whatever s/he says or writes and this grammatical accuracy is to be realized through constant drills and construction of correct (error-free) sentences from substitution tables.

Hence, it becomes clear that a set of assumptions that explains the language as a set of structures or rules is known as Structural Approach.

Hint

• The communicative approach is a method of language teaching which makes learners confident to communicate effectively by involving them in real communication. It highlights the importance of real communication for learning to take place.
• The interactive Approach removes the isolation of the distant learner by personalizing the learning material and bringing the teacher close to the learner. It induces the learner to be active and also reflect on the content.

Language teaching refers to a process whereby a child gains communicative comprehension or fluency over a language. It involves practice by learners where facilitation is provided by a teacher. There are several methods of English language teaching and Communicative Language Teaching is one of them.

Key Points

• Communicative Language Teaching is a method of language teaching which makes learners confident to communicate effectively by involving them in real communication.
• In this method, the role of the teacher is just like a facilitator rather than simply being the model for correct speech. S/he involves students in real communication rather than emphasizing writing skills and grammatical aspects of communication.
• The communicative approach is based on the principle that there is more learning from using language in groups than individually. It promotes learners to encounter real-life situations and focuses on communication rather than grammatical structures.

Hence, it could be concluded that (A) is true, (B) is false.

The correct answer is 'Both A and R are true.'

Key Points

• Refer to the lines from the passage:
• '1. As part of its interim recommendations [these recommendations are not followed anymore], the Centre for Disease Control (CDC) says that people who are fully vaccinated can mix with small groups of other fully vaccinated people indoors without masks or social distancing. The agency also says that the fully vaccinated can meet with unvaccinated people from a single household who are at low risk of developing severe forms of the disease, no masks or distancing required.'
• '2. Still, the decision for vaccinated people to mix involves mental "calculus," says Swartzberg, which should take into account how likely anyone is to be exposed to the SARS-CoV-2 virus, vaccinated or not, because there is still a small chance that even vaccinated person could become infected or that they could infect an unvaccinated person.'
• 4. ' "To be on the safe side," says Cynthia Leifer, Associate Professor of Immunology at Cornell University, "we should still practice distancing measures as much as we can in the shorter term until we get broader distribution of the vaccine and greater immunity." She recommends people to continue to follow the guidelines of avoiding large groups, wearing masks, and staying at least six feet apart.'
• Upon the perusal of the above lines, it is clear that the recommendations by the CDC are not followed by the people across the globe is true as according to the recommendations people who are fully vaccinated can mix with small groups of other fully vaccinated people indoors without masks or social distancing are not followed by the people anymore as it is written in the bracket in the above lines of para 1 and also the people like Swartzberg and Cynthia also tries to say the people to follow the guidelines whether they are vaccinated or not.
• So, people like them and the people who agree with their views will not follow the recommendations of the CDC anymore.
• So, here the assentation is correct. In para 2 Swartzberg says that anyone is to be exposed to the SARS-CoV-2 virus, vaccinated or not because there is still a small chance that even a vaccinated person could become infected or that they could infect an unvaccinated person so here reason for the given assentation is also true.

Hence, option 1) Both A Recommendations given below in paragraph 1 are not followed anymore by the people across the globe, and R There is still a chance that vaccinated people can become infected and infect other people is the correct answer.