HP JBT TET 2021 Official Paper (Previous Year Paper)

The term ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words; Psyche means “soul or breath” and Logos means “knowledge or study” (study or investigation of something)

• Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior.
• Psychologists are actively involved in studying and understanding mental processes, brain functions, and behavior.
• Psychology is a science that aims to give a better understanding and control of the behavior of organisms.

Key Points

• Skinner said- "Psychology is the most basic science of education.
• B.F. Skinner (1904 - 1990) is best known for developing the theory of Operant Conditioning, which uses reinforcers or consequences to change behavior.
• The key element to Skinner's theory is the reinforcer, which may be positive or negative.
• A positive reinforcer is one whose presence increases the likelihood of the response. A reward like food, money, or verbal praise is considered a positive reinforcer. A negative reinforcer is one whose absence increases the likelihood of the response.

Hence, we can conclude that option 2 is the correct answer.

Additional Information 

• Interest is that enduring mental system that sustains contains and continues the activity called attention. (1946 B.N. Jha)
• According to Jones and Davis, we learn the most from behaviors of others that lead to non-common effects. It is assumed that any behavior leads to some set of consequences but that the behavior which is most helpful in forming correspondent inferences are those resulting in consequences or effects that alternative behaviors would not have produced.

Educational psychology is a branch of modern psychology that is concerned with the learning processes and psychological problems associated with the teaching and training of students. It is the scientific study of human behavior in the educational situation and concerned with the factors, principles, concepts, methods, and techniques which relates to the various aspect of learners' growth and development.      

Important Points 

Educational psychology has contributed considerably to the creation of a teaching-learning environment. It helps in the following ways:​

• Educational psychology has contributed considerably to the creation of the modern system of education.
• It has helped teachers and administrators to develop an impartial and democratic attitude towards learners and helps them into integrated personalities.
• It helps to know about the learner, in fostering the classroom environment, about individual differences,
• It helps to identify children with special needs, tackle classroom problems, skills & interest in teaching, effective methods of teaching, the influence of heredity & environment on the child, the mental health of the child, the procedure of curriculum-making, guidance & counseling, assessment & evaluation, in maintaining positive creative discipline, educational psychology & research, in facilitating context, socialization in classroom and professional growth, changing attitude and innovative thinking of teachers. Hence it helps in all-around development.

Hence, we can conclude that it helps in all-around development.

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. Psychology is a multifaceted discipline and includes many sub-fields of study such areas as human development, sports, health, clinical, social behavior, and cognitive processes.

Important Points Experimental method:- Experiments are generally conducted to establish a cause-effect relationship between two sets of events or variables in a controlled setting

• The experimental method is the most scientific and objective way of studying behavior.
• In this method, experiments are conducted in the laboratories under controlled conditions.
• In experiments, usually, the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable is studied.
• There will be two variables, viz., Independent and dependent variables.
• Example:-The effect of music on the level of blood pressure can be studied in laboratory settings. Here, the music is the independent variable and the BP is a dependent variable.

Key Points Important methods of Studying Human Behavior are as follows:

• Introspection Method
• Observation Method
• Experimental Method
• Clinical Method/Case History Method
• Survey Method
• Genetic Method
• Testing Method

Thus, it is concluded that the Most scientific and objective method of studying behavior is the Experimental method.

Hint

• Introspection Method:-This method was introduced by EB Titchener. This is also known as the self-observation method. Introspection means ‘to look within.

It is not possible to understand the inner feelings and experiences of other persons. But the individual himself can observe and report.

• Observational method:- This method is very useful in the areas where experiments cannot be conducted. In this method, the observer will observe and collect the data. Example: In the hospital, the nurse will make observations of the patient’s temperature, pulse, BP, facial expressions, etc.

Erik Erikson’s Psycho-social Theory focused on the adaptive function of the ego and the development of ego strength.

• Erik Erikson has given a theory that personality development had eight stages that were arranged hierarchical and were ordered.
• Erik H. Erikson coined the term identity crisis.
• According to Erikson, the identity crisis is a stage of intensive analysis and exploration of different ways of looking at oneself.

Important PointsErikson covered human personality development in a series of eight stages that take place from the time of birth and continue throughout an individual’s complete life.

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Hence, we can conclude that Erikson covered human personality development in a series of eight stages.

Gene is the fundamental, physical and functional unit of the heredity, which carries information from one generation to the next.

• They contain the information that is required to express a particular trait in an organism.
• They reside tightly packed in what is called a chromosome. chromosomes are thread-like structures where a linear end-to-end arrangement of these genes exists.

Key Points

• Our genes are composed of DNA. A chromosome contains a single, long DNA molecule, only a portion of which corresponds to a single gene.
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the hereditary or genetic component of living beings that influences our physical characters i.e. how we will look, the color of our eyes, hair, skin, etc, whether our hair will be straight or curly, and so on.
• DNA contains the instructions needed for an organism to develop, survive and reproduce. To carry out these functions, DNA sequences must be converted into messages that can be used to produce proteins, which are the complex molecules that do most of the work in our bodies.
• Each DNA sequence that contains instructions to make a protein is known as a gene.
• Genes only make up about 1 percent of the DNA sequence. DNA sequences outside this 1 percent are involved in regulating when, how, and how much of a protein is made.

Hence, genes are made up of DNA.

Additional Information

Chromosome, the microscopic threadlike part of the cell that carries hereditary information in the form of genes. 

Key Points

• The chromosomes of a eukaryotic cell consist primarily of DNA attached to a protein core. They also contain RNA.
• Among many organisms that have separate sexes, there are two basic types of chromosomes: sex chromosomes and autosomes.
• Autosomes control the inheritance of all the characteristics except the sex-linked ones, which are controlled by the sex chromosomes.
• Humans have 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.

Important Points 

Characteristics of sex chromosomes:- 

• Humans and other mammals have two sex chromosomes, the X and the Y both.
• Females have one X chromosome in their cells, while males have X or Y chromosomes in their cells.
• Egg cells contain an X chromosome, while sperm cells contain an X or a Y chromosome.
• During fertilization, it is the male that determines the sex of the offspring. The Y chromosome is involved in the determination of the sex of the child.

Hence, the egg cell has one X chromosome.

A violation of law or ordinance by an individual below the legal age of the community is termed Juvenile delinquency.

• It is essentially a legal concept. It does not include all acts of misbehaviour or even serious misbehaviour by children or youth, but only those acts that violate the law.
• Adults are considered more responsible for their actions than are children or adolescents, and such juvenile delinquent behaviour, when performed by an adult, is considered criminal behaviour.
• The legal age dividing juvenile delinquency from adult crime is 18 years

Key Points

There can no doubt be personal factors in every delinquency or crime situation in which an individual disobeys a law. But there are also social, economic and community factors commonly termed as environmental factors, which are important in stimulating antisocial activity. Some of the personal factors are as follows:- Family discord-

• Structural breaks in family, much tension and disruption of peaceful living have quite a traumatic effect on the children.
• In disharmonious families, children too often get ‘pushed’ from home because of these disturbances.
• They have to seek outside contacts for resolving feelings of insecurity and frustration

With low parental support:- 

• Parents are expected to provide warmth and protection as well as guidance during their children’s upbringing.
• Consequently, the absence of affection and inadequate supervision has been seen as sources of juvenile delinquency.

Inappropriate discipline or excessive harsh punishment:-

• If parents are careless about child discipline then the child can be free to do anything he wants.
• The parents of delinquents are harsher than ordinary parents in punishing their children; and depressed, stressed, or hostile parents are more likely to vent their anger on their more aggressive children.
• The punishment that is too strict, frequent or severe can lead to a greater probability of delinquency regardless of parental attachments

Hence, Delinquency is often associated with all of the above options.

Prenatal development is the process in which an embryo or fetus, gestates during pregnancy, from fertilization until birth. 

• Most physiologists and members of the medical profession believed that most development takes place before birth.
• It is the first but shortest period for the newborn baby or infancy, which starts from conception and ends at the birth time of the baby. This period is approximately 270 to 280 days or nine months of a calendar
• During the prenatal period, proportionally greater growth and development take place than any other time throughout the entire life of a human.
• The prenatal period is ten lunar months of twenty-eight days each in length or nine calendar months. However, the period can and does vary greatly in length, ranging from 180-334 days.

Important Points

The prenatal period is divided into three stages.

Germinal stage (fertilization to the end of the second week)

• Two halves of genetic material from father and mother come together to form a unique combination of genetic potentialities when the sperm fertilizes the egg.
• Less than two days after the sperm unites with the egg, the zygote divides into two cells. Then these two cells each divide again, and the process of division goes on, forming in nine months a new human being.

Period of Embryo (end of the second week to end of the second lunar month)

• The embryo develops into a miniature human being. This stage begins on the 15th day after conception and continues until about the 8th week, or until the embryo is 1.2 inches in length.
• During this period the cells of the embryo are not only multiplying, but they are taking on specific functions. This process is called tissue differentiation.
• At the 8th week (1 inch, 1/15 ounce) embryo now resembles a human being. The facial features continue to develop and the external ear appears. Also, we see the beginnings of external genitalia.

Period of Fetus (end of the second lunar month to birth)

• At this point, the embryo is developed enough to call a fetus. All organs and structures found in a full-term newborn are present. The head comprises nearly half of the fetus’ size and the face is well-formed at weeks 9 to 12
• At 38 weeks (19 to 21 inches 7 or 8 pounds) the fetus is considered full term. It fills the entire uterus, and its head is the same size around as its shoulders.

Hence, the prenatal period has been divided into three parts germinal, embryo and fetus.

Personality is an individual's characteristic reaction to social stimuli and the quality of his adaptation to the social features of his environment. It is a characteristic ay of feeling, thing, doing anything or behaving, etc.

Key Points

• Personality development refers to how the organized patterns of behavior that make up each person's unique personality emerge over time.
• Many factors influence personality, including genetics, environment, parenting, and societal variables.
• It is the ongoing interaction of all of these influences that continue to shape personality over time.
• Social attachment is an important cornerstone of social and personality development because infants and young children who are socially attached have been found to develop stronger friendships with peers, more advanced emotional understanding and early conscience development, and more positive self-concepts.

Hence, the process of social attachment is important for social attachment. 

Additional Information

1. Identification: The process of associating the self closely with other individuals and their characteristics or views.
2. Similarity: Generally, personality similarity computed at the profile level represents the degree to which both couple members' overall personality profiles are similar to each other; that is, how well two partners match on a set of personality traits
3. Separation: Separation theory is a comprehensive theory that explains defense formation as a response to both interpersonal and existential trauma. It emphasizes the important effect of death on human life and describes both individual and societal defenses against death anxiety.

B. F. Skinner (1904 - 1990) was an American. His experiments on operant conditioning won him worldwide fame. Skinner defined operant conditioning as the process of learning that elicits operant behaviour. According to Skinner, there are two types of behaviours, namely respondent behaviour and operant behaviour

Important Points Experiment:-

• In his classic experiment, Skinner placed a semi-starved rat in the box.
• There was a lever that, after being pressed, released a mechanism to deliver a pellet of food to the rat.
• Initially, the rat is engaged in a number of random behaviours like walking, sniffing and scratching.
• None of these helped to get the food. At some point in time, the rat accidentally hit the lever and the food was delivered.
• Of course, for the semi-starved rat, this was a big reward.
• In Skinner's other famous experiment, a pigeon pecks the red ball and gets food. Because of food (reinforcement), the pigeon is likely to peck the same ball again and again.
• During World War II, Skinner worked on a program called Project Pigeon – also known as Project Orcon, short for Organic Control – an experimental project to create pigeon-guided missiles.
• The pigeons were trained by Skinner to peck at a target, and they were rewarded with food when they completed the task correctly.
• The military canceled and revived Project Pigeon a couple of times, but Skinner’s ideas were never used in combat. “Our problem,” Skinner admitted, “was no one would take us seriously.” And by 1953, the military had devised an electronic system for missile guidance, so animal-guided systems were no longer necessary (if they ever were).

Result:-

• Skinner observed that after a few accidental manipulations of the lever, the rat started spending more time near the lever, and then deliberately pressed the lever whenever it was hungry. So now pressing the lever became a new operant for the rat.
• Skinner further noted that if the pressing of the lever did not deliver food any longer, the operant behaviour by the rat decreased and gradually stopped altogether. This is known as the experimental extinction of operant conditioning.
• From the pigeon's experiment, he noted that the Right answers are immediately reinforced.

Hence, we can conclude that Skinner conducted his studies on rat and pigeon.

Operant or operational conditioning is a term coined by B.F. Skinner. Operational conditioning focuses on changes in an individual’s observable behaviors. In operant conditioning, new or continued behaviors are influenced by new or continued consequences. Research regarding this principle of learning was first conducted by Edward L. Thorndike, then brought by B. F. Skinner. Much of this research inform current practices in human behavior and interaction.

Key Points

• Behavior depends on the significance of the event immediately following it to a person showing the behavior. If the event following the behavior is positively reinforcing or rewarding, then it will recur. If it is not reinforced or is punished, then it is less likely to recur and eventually stops completely a process known as ‘extinction’
• Extinction generally occurs most rapidly following the withdrawal of things that are positive reinforcers.
• Thus the withdrawal of love from people of whom the child is fond is often the most effective way of achieving extinction of the undesirable behavior.
• In other children, the withdrawal of material goods, such as pocket money, special food or think, and the opportunity to watch television is more important.

Additional Information

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Hence, we can conclude that In operational conditioning the procedure of not reinforcing for response is called extinction.

The mental process you used to answer all of these questions is known as memory. It refers to the ability to retain information and reproducing it over a period of time when required to perform a cognitive task.

Key Points

Memory is a process comprised of three stages.  All information received by our senses goes through these stages:-

1. Encoding: It is the process of converting sensory information into a form that can be processed further by the memory systems.
2. Storage: In this second stage, received information from memory systems is stored so that it can be used at a later time also.
3. Retrieval: It refers to locating and bringing the stored material information to one’s awareness when required to complete a task.

Important Points

American psychologists Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) proposed the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of memory which is very similar to the way computer handles the input and storage of data. This model involves various steps to store information.

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Hence, sensory, short-term, and long-term are systems of memory.

Memory refers to the ability to retain information and reproduce it over a period of time when required to perform a cognitive task. It has been conceptualized as a process comprising of three stages;

1. Encoding
2. Storage
3. Retrieval

Important Points 

All information received by our senses goes through these stages:-

i) Encoding:-

• Encoding is the first stage which refers to a process by which information is recorded and registered for the first time so that it becomes usable by our memory system.
• Whenever an external stimulus impinges on our sensory organs, it generates neural impulses. These are received in different areas of our brain for further processing.
• In encoding, incoming information is received and some meaning is derived. It is then represented in a way so that it can be processed further

ii) Storage:-

• Storage is the second stage of memory. The information which was encoded must also be stored so that it can be put to use later.
• Storage, therefore, refers to the process through which information is retained and held over a period of time.

iii) Retrieval:-

• Retrieval is the third stage of memory. Information can be used only when one is able to recover it from her/his memory.
• Retrieval refers to bringing the stored information to her/his awareness so that it can be used for performing various cognitive tasks such as problem-solving or decision-making.
• It may be interesting to note that memory failure can occur at any of these stages.
• You may fail to recall a piece of information because you did not encode it properly, or the storage was weak so you could not access or retrieve it when required.

Hence, the first stage of memory is Encoding.

Memory loss is forgetting things. A person can't recall events or memory from the past. Causes of memory loss can be sleep deprivation, use of alcohol or drugs, etc.

Important Points 

• Amnesia refers to loss of memory due to disease.
• Amnesia is a general disease of memory.
• The person may forget his past experiences or may have impaired ability to encode, store, and retrieve, thus forming new memory is difficult.
• Amnesia is a profound memory deficit due to either the loss of what has been stored or the inability to form new memories.

Amnesias are classified into two types:-

Biological Amnesia:-

• Forgetting could be due to any of the following reasons- diseases of the brain like senile dementia, Korsakoff syndrome, the concussion from blows on the head, brain damage, brain infections, tumor, stroke, temporary disturbances in the blood supply, or effect of high dose of alcohol and drug abuse.
• It causes deficits in many intellectual abilities like memory, attention, judgment, and abstract thought, that can occur in aged people.
• Alcohol and drug abuse also cause amnesia, a person may have amnesia for the events occurring while under the influence of alcohol because encoding and storage processes have been disrupted by the effects of the alcohol on the brain.

Psychological Amnesia:-

• These types of amnesias occur due to psychiatric diseases where the person may forget his identity also. These may not be permanent losses.
• Childhood amnesia is due to the differences in the ways young children and older people encode and store information
• Dream amnesia may actually have a biological basis. The dreaming brain seems to be in a special state different from that of the waking brain. Dreams are forgotten on waking up.
• People with defensive amnesia may forget their names, where they have come from who their spouses are, and many other important details of their past lives.

Hence, Partial or complete memory loss is called amnesia.

Additional Information

The mental process you used to answer all of these questions is known as memory. It refers to the ability to retain information and reproducing it over a period of time when required to perform a cognitive task.

Memory is a process comprised of three stages.  All information received by our senses goes through these stages:-

1. Encoding: It is the process of converting sensory information into a form that can be processed further by the memory systems.
2. Storage: In this second stage, received information from memory systems is stored so that it can be used at a later time also.
3. Retrieval: It refers to locating and bringing the stored material information to one’s awareness when required to complete a task.

Important PointsAmerican psychologists Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) proposed the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of memory which is very similar to the way computer handles the input and storage of data. This model involves various steps to store information.

 

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Hence, the duration of short-term memory is 30 seconds.

Thinking is a behavior that is often implicit and hidden and in which symbols (images, ideas, and concepts) are ordinarily employed.

Key Points

Thinking can be categorized into various forms. The most common types of thinking are as follows:

• Perceptual or Concrete Thinking: It is the simplest form of thinking, carried out for the perception of a concrete object. If you are asked to write four sentences on ‘your favorite book,’ then the thinking you will be using is perceptual thinking.
• Conceptual or Abstract Thinking: Superior to perceptual thinking. It involves using concepts, symbols, or language to solve a problem.
• Reflective Thinking: It is insight-based thinking which uses previous experiences to solve a problem.
• Creative Thinking: Thinking is involved in creating new and novel ideas or objects. It involves rearranging the existing stimuli to create something new.
• Critical Thinking: This type of thinking involves making reasoned judgments and examining assumptions.

Important Points

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Hence, Inferring, abstracting, and reasoning all are the activities that are involved in thinking.

Mental retardation is a condition characterized by sub-average intellectual functioning with deficits in adaptive in two or more skill areas like communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self-direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure, and work.

• Mental retardation manifests before the age of eighteen.
• Mental retardation is a cognitive disability.
• It is also known as intellectual disability.

**Important PointsA Breakdown of IQ Scores:**The average score on an IQ test is 100. These labels are often given for IQ scores:

• 1 to 24: Profound mental disability
• 25 to 39: Severe mental disability
• 40 to 54: Moderate mental disability
• 55 to 69: Mild mental disability
• 70 to 84: Borderline mental disability
• 85 to 114: Average intelligence
• 115 to 129: Above average or bright
• 130 to 144: Moderately gifted
• 145 to 159: Highly gifted
• 160 to 179: Exceptionally gifted
• 180 and up: Profoundly gifted

Hence, severe mentally retarded people have IQ 25-39.

William Heard Kilpatrick popularized the project method of teaching in the early part of the 20th century. According to him, a project is supposed to be a whole-hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment. It aims at social development besides nurturing abilities for problem-solving.

Important Points

The Project Method:

It is based on the view that experiences lead to learning. Hence, learners need to explore their environment, manipulate objects in their environment and thus learn from direct experiences. It may be assigned to individuals or groups. 

According to Kilpatrick, there are four types of Project methods:

1. Project through Construction: Construction of any physical model comes under the constructive project method. This includes building a model, writing/completing a story, developing a script for a play, etc.
2. Project for Aesthetic development: Aesthetic project develops appreciation powers of the students through the musical programs, beautification of something like classroom decoration competition, appreciation of poems, reviewing musical/artistic work, etc.
3. Project for Problem-solving: In this type of project develop the problem-solving capacity of the students through the experience. For example, a project on the issues and problems of the COVID-19 pandemic in a group.
4. Project for Mastery of Skill and knowledge in a specific area: It involves the mastery of skill and knowledge in a specific area and thereby enhancing efficacy and capacity in that area: for example, developing basic computational skills in mathematics, developing reading, and writing skills in language learning, etc.

Hence, we can conclude that Kilpatrick is the correct answer.

Confusion Points

• Dewey is the real propounded of project method and Kilpatrick popularized it but as per options given in the solution, the best one suits here is Kilpatrick only.

Any activity that the child finds enjoyable is play. Play activities provide satisfaction to children. When a child jumps from a step and climbs back to jump again, s/he is doing it simply became s/he is enjoying it, not to show his/her skills to get praise or to win a prize.

At the same time, the child is developing physical and motor skills though this may not have been the child's goal. There are five theories of play:-

• Cathartic Theory
• Re-creative Theory
• Anticipatory Theory
• Recapitulation Theory
• Surplus Energy Theory

Key Points Anticipatory theory of play: This theory is also known as PRACTICE THEORY was propounded by Karl Groos in his two works ‘The Play of Animals’ and ‘The Play of Man’.

• Play of animals: Puppies quarrel in a playful way because dogs have to fight. Kittens run after moving objects, as they have to catch mice.
• Play of man: Children play different roles as a rehearsal for the future. The child anticipates his future activities and prepares himself to meet the problems in anticipation.

Thus, it is concluded that Karl Groos was the propounder of the Anticipatory theory of play.

Additional Information

• McDougall's theory of social psychology proposed that inborn instincts are the cause of social behavior. In his views, tendencies of imitation and suggestion are rooted in their biological nature.
• G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in the study of children and their learning processes, is credited with giving adolescence its first full definition in his text.

Two children have no common abilities this means that they have individual differences. Individual differences refer to how individuals differ from each other. Different people have different interests; and their behavior is influenced by these interests, likings, dislikings, values, and beliefs, etc. Even if we are of the same age group or gender, we are aware of how we differ from others and, others are also aware of these differences.

Key Points

• Hurlock said that "Two children have no common abilities."
• No two individuals are exactly the same.
• We all differ from one another not only in height, weight, color, appearance, speed of reaction but also in behavior.
• Individual differences are characteristic of all living organisms.

Additional Information

• Crow and crow:-“Since we supposedly are teaching individuals, not groups of individuals, it is the function of the school within its budgetary personnel and curricular limitations to provide adequate schooling for every learner no matter how much he differs from every other learner.”
• **Sorenson:-**Herbert Sorenson (1977) defines, "Social growth and development is the progressive ability of good interaction with others."
• T.P. Nunn – “Education is the complete development of the individuality of the child.”

There are many theories in psychology that are related to different schools of psychology such as cognitive, humanistic, behavioristic, etc.

• These theories are propounded by eminent psychologists to provide a framework to understand different aspects of human behavior.

Important Points Refer to the table to know important learning theories & their propounders:

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Hence, we can conclude that The propounder of Insight theory of Learning is Kohler.

Kretschmer was a German psychiatrist who on the basis of his observation of patients classified people into four types. He used the physical constitution and temperament for this purpose The four types he talked about included: (i) Pyknik type (ii)Asthenic type (iii)Athletic type (iv) Dysplastic type.

Key Points

1. Pyknic Type – Such people are short in height with heavily built body types. They have short, thick necks. Temperament wise they exhibit characteristics of being social and cheerful. They are happy-go-lucky, they like to eat and sleep. Kretschmer called them “cycloid” as they have a high probability of falling prey to the manic-depressive type of psychopathology.
2. Asthenic Type – Such persons are tall and thin with underdeveloped muscles. They are also underweight. They are irritable and shirk away from responsibility. The 7 Trait and Type Theories of Personality, Differences Between Trait and Type have the habit of daydreaming and are lost in the world of fantasy. Temperament wise they are categorized as “schizoid” and may develop a disorder of schizophrenia.
3. Athletic Type – These are muscular types and have well-built muscles and are neither tall nor short. They have stable and calm nature and are able to adjust themselves to changes in the environment.
4. Dysplastic Type – This category includes people who do not exhibit any of the characteristics mentioned above but are a mix of all three types.

Hence, there are four personality types mentioned by Kretschmer.

Creativity involves divergent thinking in contrast to convergent thinking.

• Convergent thinking refers to thinking in a conventional set pattern whereas divergent thinking refers to thinking out of the box.
• Divergent thinking is having divergent ideas and possibilities, e.g., think of how many ways you can use a brick.

Our education system usually encourages convergent thinking more than divergent thinking, requiring students to provide “correct” rather than “unique” answers. 

Key Points

• Cesar Aguilar said that "creativity is the ability to come up with new and unique ideas".
• Yesenia Marin said that "creativity is the idea that one has and uses them to do or create something."
• Kourosh Shirazi said that "creativity is complex thinking and imagination that are used to present or make something."

Hence, all the above definitions indicate that new result is identified by creativity which is created by complex thinking or creativity.

Creativity is defined as the tendency to generate or recognize ideas, alternatives, or possibilities that may be useful in solving problems, communicating with others, and entertaining ourselves and others.

Key Points

James drever was a Scottish psychologist who was the first professor of psychology at a Scottish university. He said that Creativity means the ability to create and construct.

• He said that "Creativity is essentially found in the new construction or production."

Additional Information

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Hence, we can conclude that James Drever is the correct answer.

Thorndike developed his theory on the basis of his famous experiment with the cat and the puzzle box.

• He placed a hungry cat in a puzzle box in which could be opened only by pressing a particular lever.
• Outside the box, he placed some food. The cat due to hunger and habit started attempting to come out of the box.
• Following some random attempts, by chance, the cat succeeded in coming out.
• In subsequent similar trials, the time is taken to make the correct response, and the number of random activities gradually decreased, and finally, the cat learned the correct response.
• Thorndike termed this behavior as "learning by trial and error with accidental success"

Important Points Thorndike further proposed three laws of learning which are as follows:

a) Law of Readiness: Readiness to learn comes from interest, need, age, maturity, previous learning experiences, etc.

b) Law of Exercise: Repeated exercising of a response strengthens its connection with the stimulus and disuse weakens it. Later he recognized that mere blind repetition is not sufficient for effective learning, rather knowledge of results is an essential condition for it.

This law is further divided into two sub-laws:-

• Law of use
• Law of disuse.

c) Law of Effect: Acts leading to satisfaction becomes associated with the situation. So, it is our natural tendency to learn the things which give us happiness and satisfaction and to avoid others. We want to learn the things which make us feel happy and satisfied. 

Hence, Thorndike is the correct answer.

Intelligent quotient (IQ) refers to mental age (MA) divided by chronological age (CA) and multiplied by 100. Multiplying by 100 helps to avoid the decimal, as it changes the IQ into a whole number. So IQ= MA/CA X 100

• Individual’s age in two parts, viz., Chronological Age i.e. age of a person from the time of his birth. And the other is the Mental age, a concept propounded by Binet and Simon. Mental age is an estimate of a person's cognitive development derived from raw score performance on intelligence, achievement.
• A merit of the IQ used by intelligence tests helped to compare the intelligence of individuals with different chronological and mental ages.

Important PointsThere are three situations of comparison between mental age and chronological age:-

1. Mental age is higher than chronological age  

• IQ scores will be over 100. This means the child is above average. For example, a 13-year-old person’s IQ who has a mental age of 16.
• IQ= MA (16)/CA (13) X 100= 123. 2. When a person’s mental age is lower than chronological age,
• IQ scores are below 100.
• This means below-average students or retarded students. 3. When a person's chronological age is equal to mental age. 
• Now suppose a 16-year-old person also has a mental age of 16. So, his IQ will be 100.
• IQ= MA (16)/CA (16) X100 = 100. An IQ score of 100 is regarded as average intelligence.

Hence, a person whose mental age is lower than chronological age is are retarded person.

Additional Information

Constructivism is centered on the idea that human knowledge and learning are actively constructed by the learner, not passively received from the environment.

Key PointsPiaget has a firm belief that learning is influenced by the developmental stages of the learner.

• He is of the view that learning is a constructive process. In his own words: Knowledge is not a copy of reality.
• To know an object, to know an event, is not simply to look at it and make a mental copy or image of it. To know an object is to act on it.
• To know is to modify, to transform the object, and to understand the process of this transformation, and as a consequence to understand the way the object is constructed.
• Piaget’s views indicate that there is no knowledge that is pre-existing in the world such that it can be ‘taught to a child. Nor does knowledge comes innately (on its own) to the child. Knowledge develops when she/he acts on the world. He writes, “...in order to know objects, the subject must act upon them and therefore transform them”.
• His theory also helps in understanding how children ‘construct’ knowledge. Thus, it is also known as a theory in ‘Constructivism’. The recent shifts of National Curriculum Framework 2005, are based on such understandings.

Hence, Piaget said that "children construct their own understanding through interactions with their environment.

Additional Information

Intelligent quotient (IQ) refers to mental age (MA) divided by chronological age (CA) and multiplied by 100. Multiplying by 100 helps to avoid the decimal, as it changes the IQ into a whole number. So IQ= MA/CA X 100

Individual’s age in two parts, viz., Chronological Age i.e. age of a person from the time of his birth. And the other is the Mental age, a concept propounded by Binet and Simon. Mental age is an estimate of a person's cognitive development derived from raw score performance on intelligence, achievement.

Key Points

A merit of the IQ used by intelligence tests helped to compare the intelligence of individuals with different chronological and mental ages.

There are three situations of comparison between mental age and chronological age:-

1. Mental age is higher than chronological age  IQ scores will be over 100

• For example, a 13-year-old person’s IQ who has a mental age of 16.
• IQ= MA (16)/CA (13) X 100= 123.

2. When a person’s chronological age exceeds his mental age, IQ scores are below 100.
3. When a person's chronological age is equal to mental age.

• Now suppose a 16-year-old person also has a mental age of 16. So, his IQ will be 100.
• IQ= MA (16)/CA (16) X100 = 100.

An IQ score of 100 is regarded as average intelligence because in this case a person’s mental age and chronological age are equal. It is the mathematical average or mean for IQ scores.

Hence, A child whose chronological age is equal to mental age has an IQ of 100.

Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, has made a systematic study of cognitive development in his theory that is categorized into four stages. 

The concrete operational stage is the third stage in Piaget's theory of Cognitive Development.

• In this stage, children gain the abilities of conservation of numbers, area, volume, and orientation.
• The child begins to think logically about objects and events.
• Children show attainment of the concept of reversibility, seriation, transitivity as a cognitive capacity.
• Reversibility is the understanding that a child develops to know that things that have been changed can be returned to their original state.
• Children can conserve numbers (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even when its appearance changes.

Hence, it could be concluded that the stage in which a child begins to think logically about objects and events is known as the "Concrete Operational Stage".

Important Points The Four Stages of Cognitive Development:

The Kindergarten system of teaching is propounded by Friedrich Frobel, a German pedagogue. 

Important Points Note that:

• In this method, he characterized children as 'plants' and the teachers as the 'gardeners' because they are the optimistic ones who could foster the potential of young seedlings to grow and bloom.
• The purpose of this method is to provide children with rich, meaningful, and balanced learning through appropriate activities at their own pace in a collaborative environment.
• It is based on the physiological principle of development and growth to keep the child fit and enables the overall development of the child and understanding of the subject to make learning more effective.

Hence, we conclude that the originator of the Kindergarten system is ​Friedrich Frobel.

The correct answer is 'I'.

Key Points

• The given sentence is an example of subjective case pronoun.
• A sentence subjective case pronoun such as 'he', 'she', 'I', 'you', etc are used when it is the subject that is acting the verb.
• Subjects act and objects are acted upon. And “He” is a subject (He acts). For this reason, it should be “He and I” and both words are subjects.
• Thus, 'I' will be used in the blank.

Therefore, the correct sentence is: 'He and I were good friends.'

The correct answer is 'pain'.

Key Points  

• Let's explore the meaning of the marked word and the given word.
• Agony: extreme physical or mental suffering. 
• Example: She lay there screaming in agony.
• Pain: emotional or mental suffering.
• Example: The parents are still in great pain over the death of their child.
• From above, we can refer that the correct answer is option 3.

Additional Information    

• Affair: an event or sequence of events of a specified kind or that has previously been referred to.
• Example: She organizes her financial affairs very efficiently.
• Agree: have the same opinion about something; concur. 
• Example: Ann and I never seem to agree.
• Happy: feeling or showing pleasure or contentment.
• Example: She looks so happy.

The correct answer is 'an'.

Key Points

• Articles are the words that are used to describe a noun or pronoun. There are two types of articles.
• Indefinite article: They are used before a noun which is unspecific or gives a general idea. Article 'A' and 'An' are indefinite articles and are used with singular nouns. Article 'A' is used before a noun having consonant sound whereas article 'an' is used before a noun having vowel sound.
• Example:
• He is a boy.
• Seychelles is an archipelago.
• Definite article: It is used before a noun which is specific or gives a particular idea. Article 'the' is a definite article. It can be used with both singular and plural noun.
• Example: Please give me the green hammer.
• Here, in the sentence 'island' is a singular noun having a vowel sound therefore, article 'an' will be used in the blank.

Therefore, the correct sentence is: 'Ceylon is an island. '

The correct answer is 'waits'.

Key Points

• The phrase "Time and tide wait for none" is a well-known proverb.
• It means the inevitable and uncontrollable nature of the passage of time and natural events.
• However, even though it's "time" and "tide" (two separate elements), we take them together as a single conceptual unit, thus using the singular form of the verb "wait", which is "waits".

​Therefore, the correct answer is "Option 3".

Complete Sentence: Time and tide waits for none.

The correct answer is 'Besides'.

Key Points

• Preposition: a word governing, and usually preceding, a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation to another word or element in the clause.
• Let's explore the option:
• Besides: in addition to; apart from.
• Example: I have no other family besides my parents.
• With: accompanied by (another person or thing).
• Example: He served a nice steak with a bottle of red wine.
• Except: not including; other than.
• Example: They work every day except Sunday.
• Between: at, into, or across the space separating (two objects or regions).
• Example: The border between the United States and Mexico stretches for nearly 2,000 miles from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean.
• Thus, from the above we can conclude that the correct answer is 'except'.

Therefore, the correct sentence is: 'Besides a ford, he has a Fiat Car.'

The correct answer is Bullock.

Key Points

• Heifer: A young cow, especially one who hasn't given birth to a calf.
• Bullock: A young bull, especially one that has had its testicles removed.
• Thus, the masculine of 'Heifer' is Bullock.

Additional Information

• Horse: a large animal with four legs that people ride on or use for carrying things or pulling
• Hart: an adult male deer, especially a red deer over five years old
• Ram: an adult male sheep that can breed

The correct answer is 'one who does some art or sport as a hobby'.

Key Points

• Amateur:  Refers to a person who engages in an activity, such as art, sports, or other fields, as a hobby or for enjoyment rather than for professional purposes.
• Example: He is an amateur photographer who captures beautiful landscapes in his free time.
• Thus, the correct answer is option 2.

Additional Information

• Mature: fully developed physically; full-grown.

The correct answer is 'He wished that he was a King.'

Key Points

• The given sentence is an example of an optative sentence.
• Optative sentence: The function of an optative sentence is to express wish, prayer or preference.
• In order to change the direct speech of optative sentence into indirect speech, follow the direction below:
• While changing the narration of an optative sentence, 'said' is changed into ';wished/prayed'.
• Remove the exclamation mark.
• The reporting clause and reported clause are connected with the conjunction ‘that’.
• Thus, from above we can say that the correct answer is option 4.

Correct sentence: He wished that he was a King.

The correct answer is 'Let a lie never be told'.

Key Points

• The given sentence is an imperative sentence.
• Imperative sentences are used to give commands/orders/requests etc.
• In order to convert the above sentence into passive voice, follow the structure:
• Structure​:
• Verb+ object (Active voice)
• Let+ object+ be+ the third form of verb. (passive voice)
• Example:
• Open the door. (Active voice)
• Let the dooe be opened. (Passive voice).
• Thus, from the above, we can say that the correct answer is option 1.

The correct answer is 'a long narrative based on a myth or legend'.

Key Points

• Epic: long narrative poem recounting heroic deeds, although the term has also been loosely used to describe novels.
• An epic may deal with such various subjects as myths, heroic legends, histories, edifying religious tales, animal stories, or philosophical or moral theories.
• Example: 
• The Mahabharat is an epic.
• Thus, the correct answer is option 2.

The correct answer is 'would'.

Key Points

• I would rather ('I prefer', 'I would prefer') is used as a modal auxiliary verb. It is followed by the infinitive (without 'to') when its subject is the same as the subject of the next verb.
• Example:
• I would rather (or I'd rather) stay with you.
• What would you rather do instead?
• Thus, the correct answer is option 1.

Therefore, the correct answer is: 'I would rather die than beg.'

The correct answer is 'between'.

Key Points

• Distinguish: it is a verb and is used to notice or understand the difference between two things, or to make one person or thing seem different from another.
• It takes preposition 'from' and 'between'.
• When distinguish is used with the preposition 'from' it is used to differentiate two different things but when it is used to differentiate between two similar things it takes preposition 'between'.
• As the sentence is trying to establish a difference between two human beings therefore, 'between' will be used in the blanks.
• Thus the correct answer is option 3.

Therefore, the correct sentence is: 'It is difficult to distinguish between two sisters'.

The correct answer is 'Exonerate'.

Key Points

• Let's explore the meaning of the marked word and the given word.
• Implicate: show (someone) to be involved in a crime.
• Example: He was implicated in a price-fixing scandal.
• Exonerate: (of an official body) absolve (someone) from blame for a fault or wrongdoing.
• Example: An inquiry exonerated those involved.
• From above, we can refer that the correct answer is option 4.

Additional Information    

• Embarrass: cause (someone) to feel awkward, self-conscious, or ashamed.
• Example: she wouldn't embarrass either of them by making a scene.
• Explicit: stated clearly and in detail, leaving no room for confusion or doubt.
• Example: the arrangement had not been made explicit.
• Exceptional: unusual; not typical.
• Example: late claims will only be accepted in exceptional circumstances.

The correct answer is 'Fertile'.

Key Points  

• Let's explore the meaning of the marked word and the given word.
• Sterile: (of land or soil) too poor in quality to produce crops.
• Example: There lies vast tracts of sterile desert land.
• Fertile: (of soil or land) producing or capable of producing abundant vegetation or crops.
• Example: There’s something very fishy about him.
• From above, we can refer that the correct answer is option 3.

 Additional Information   

• Imbecile: stupid; idiotic.
• Example: Try not to make imbecile remarks.
• Solitary:  done or existing alone. 
• Example: I live a pretty solitary life.
• Unscrupulous: having or showing no moral principles; not honest or fair.
• Example: Unscrupulous landlords might be tempted to harass existing tenants.

The correct answer is 'Irrational'.

Key Points  

• Let's explore the meaning of the marked word and the given word.
• Logical: (of an action, development, decision, etc.) natural or sensible given the circumstances.
• Example: The polar expedition is a logical extension of his Arctic travels.
• Irrational: not logical or reasonable.
• Example: It's totally irrational, but I'm frightened of mice.
• From above, we can refer that the correct answer is option 1.

Additional Information    

• Inconsiderate: thoughtlessly causing hurt or inconvenience to others.
• Example: Our neighbours are very inconsiderate - they're always playing loud music late at night.
• Inconsistent: not staying the same throughout. 
• Example: These findings are inconsistent with those of previous studies.
• Clarity: the quality of transparency or purity.
• Example: There has been a call for greater clarity in this area of the law.

The correct answer is Rise.

Key Points

• Escalate: to increase in extent, volume, number, amount, intensity, or scope
• Rise: to become greater in extent, volume, amount, or number
• Thus, it can be concluded that rise is similar in meaning to escalate.
• Hence, option 1 is the correct answer choice.

The correct answer is Sinister.

Key Points

• Ominous: being or showing a sign of evil or calamity to come
• Sinister: giving the impression that something harmful or evil is happening or will happen
• Thus, it can be concluded that ominous means the same as sinister.
• Hence, option 4 is the correct answer choice.

The correct answer is Increase.

Key Points

• Enhance: to increase or improve in value, quality, desirability, or attractiveness
• Thus, it can be concluded that increase means the same as ENHANCE.
• Hence, option 3 is the correct answer choice.

Additional Information

• Embellish: make (something) more attractive by the addition of decorative details or features
• Create: to make or produce (something)
• Reveal: make (previously unknown or secret information) known to others

The correct answer is Meadow

Key Points

• A piece of grass land, especially one used for hay is known as Meadow.
• Meadow is a field with grass and often wild flowers in it.
• Thus, option 4 is the correct answer choice.

Additional InformationLet's look at the other options:

• Moor: an expanse of open rolling infertile land
• Untrodden: (of a surface) not able to be walked upon
• Prairie: a large open area of grassland, especially in North America

The correct answer is Aviary.

Key Points

• Aviary: a large cage, building, or enclosure for keeping birds in (पक्षियों को रखने के लिए एक बड़ा पिंजरा, भवन या बाड़ा)
• Thus, it can be concluded that A place for keeping birds is called an aviary.
• Hence, option 1 is the correct answer choice.

Confusion Points

• Apiary: a place where bees are kept; a collection of beehives (वह स्थान जहाँ मधुमक्खियाँ रखी जाती हैं; मधुमक्खियों का संग्रह)

The correct answer is Bachelor.

Key Points

• Bachelor: a man who has never married or is not married (एक आदमी जिसने कभी शादी नहीं की है या शादी नहीं की है)
• Thus, an unmarried man is called a bachelor.
• Hence, option 2 is the correct answer choice.

The correct answer is The chairman rang the bell.

Key Points

• The given sentence is in Passive Voice. As per the given question we have to change it into Active Voice.
• The structure of the given sentence is as follows:
• Subject + V2+ Object. (Active Voice)
• Subject (objective case)+ was/were + V3 + Object (subjective case). (Passive Voice)
• Example:
• Their cousin showed them some rare photographs. (Active Voice)
• They were shown some rare photographs by their cousin. (Passive Voice)
• The subject of the given sentence is 'The bell'.​​
• The object of the given sentence is 'the chairman'.
• The subject will be put in place of the object and the object will be put in place of the subject.
• And 'was rung' will be changed into 'rang'.
• Lastly, the 'by' preposition will be removed.
• Therefore, as per the points mentioned above, we find that the correct answer is Option 3.
  

​

• Correct Sentence: The chairman rang the bell.

The correct answer is Let this file be sent in.

Key Points

• The transformation of imperative sentences:
• If someone gives a command, do request, expresses a desire or wish, in sentences then such sentences are called an imperative sentence.
• If the notion of a sentence is 'Command' then structure: 
• V1 + Object. (Active Voice)
• Let + subject + be + V3. (Passive Voice)
• Example: 
• Teach your students. (Active Voice)
• Let your students be taught. (Passive Voice)
• According to the above explanation, it can be concluded that the correct passive voice of the given sentence would be: Let this file be sent in.

The correct answer is His father praised him.

Key Points

• The given sentence is in Passive Voice. As per the given question we have to change it into Active Voice.
• The process of transformation is as follows: 
• The structure of the given sentence is as follows:
• Subject + V2+ Object. (Active Voice)
• Subject (objective case)+ was/were + V3 + Object (subjective case). (Passive Voice)
• Example:
• Their cousin showed them some rare photographs. (Active Voice)
• They were shown some rare photographs by their cousin. (Passive Voice)
• Here, in the given question 'He' is the subject.
• And 'His Father' is an object.
• The subject will be put in place of the object and the object will be put in place of the subject.
• And 'was praised' will be changed into 'praised'.
• The preposition 'by' will be removed.
• Therefore, as per the points mentioned above, we find that the correct answer is Option 1. 
  
• Correct Sentence: His father praised him.

The correct answer is 'The tiger was shot dead by him'.

Key Points

• The given sentence is in Active Voice. As per the given question we have to change it into Passive Voice.
• The process of transformation is as follows: 
• The structure of the given sentence is as follows:
• Subject + V2+ Object. (Active Voice)
• Subject (objective case)+ was/were + V3 + Object (subjective case). (Passive Voice)
• Example:
• Their cousin showed them some rare photographs. (Active Voice)
• They were shown some rare photographs by their cousin. (Passive Voice)
• The subject of the given sentence is 'He'.
• The object of the given sentence is 'the tiger'.
• The subject will be put in place of the object and the object will be put in place of the subject.
• Lastly, the preposition 'by' will be added.
• Therefore, as per the points mentioned above, we find that the correct answer is Option 4. 
  

​Correct Sentence: The tiger was shot dead by him.

The correct answer is Suspect something foul.

Key Points

• Smell a rat is an idiom meaning to suspect an instance of betrayal, deception, or corruption. (संदेह करना कि कुछ गलत है, विशेष रूप से किसी प्रकार का विश्वासघात)
• ​ She thought she smelled a rat when she saw John slinking away from the scene of the crime.
• Thus, 'smell a rat' means 'suspect something foul.'
• Hence, option 1 is an appropriate answer choice.

The correct answer is free from dangers.

Key Points

• Out of the wood means no longer in danger or dealing with a particular difficulty, though not entirely resolved.
• In simple words, it means out of danger or difficulty.
• ​Her surgery went as well as we could have hoped, but she's not out of the woods yet.
• Thus, we can conclude that out of the wood means free from dangers.

The correct answer is Ask for the impossible.

Key Points

• Cry for the moon is an idiom meaning ask for what is unattainable or impossible. (ऐसी चीज मांगना जो बहुत मुश्किल या असंभव हो)
• ​ Is it asking for the moon to hope for peace in this country?
• Thus, 'cry for the moon' means 'ask for the impossible.'
• Hence, option 4 is an appropriate answer choice.

The correct answer is disclose.

Key Points

• Bring to light is an idiom meaning to make known or disclose(as information previously kept secret).
• ​The investigation brought to light several new facts about the case.
• Thus, bring to light means disclose.
• Hence, option 2 is an appropriate answer choice.

The correct answer is in writing.

Key Points

• In black and white is an idiom meaning in writing, especially an agreement, contract, or other formal document.
• ​It's there in black and white that employees caught taking office supplies will be fired immediately.
• Thus, in black and white means in writing.
• Hence, option 4 is an appropriate answer choice.

भाषा की प्रकृति – मनुष्य के स्वभाव की तरह भाषा का भी अपना स्वभाव होता है। उसका यह स्वभाव परिस्थिति और भौगोलिक परिवेश, सामाजिक तथा सांस्कृतिक घटनाक्रम तथा विज्ञान के अनुसार बदलता रहता है। भाषाएँ एक-दूसरे के सानिध्य में फलती-फूलती हैं। एक से अधिक भाषा जानने वाला बच्चा एकभाषी बच्चे से अधिक रचनात्मक पाया गया है अर्थात बहुभाषी बच्चे की रचन शक्ति विभिन्न भाषाओं का प्रभाव पड़ रहा या यु कह लो उसकी रचन क्षमता भाषाओं के सानिध्य में फल-फूल रही है।

Important Points

भाषा की प्रकृति-  ​

• सह सामाजिक तथा व्यवहारिक होती है।
• भाषा  अ​र्जन तथा अधिगम दोनों प्रकार से सीखी जा सकती है।
• भाषा का स्वभाव परिवर्तनशील होता है।
• भाषा शिक्षण कठिन से सरल की ओर चलता है अर्थात् आरंभ में जो भाषा कठिन लगती है अभ्यास द्वारा वह सरल बन जाती है।
• भाषा एक निजी संरचना होती है जिसका खुद का व्याकरण तथा नियम होते हैं।
• भाषाएं एक दूसरे के शिक्षण में सहायक होती है।

अतः स्पष्ट है कि भाषा परिवर्तनशील होती है।

उपरोक्त विकल्पों के अनुसार ग्रियर्सन के अनुसार- भारत में 544 बोलियाँ हैं l अतः सही विकल्प 544 हैI

Important Points

• प्रसिद्ध भाषाविद ग्रियर्सन के अनुसार भारत में भाषाओं की संख्या 179 और बोलियों की संख्या 544 है।
• सरकारी आंकड़ों के अनुसार देश में कुल भाषाओं की संख्या 418 है, जिनमें 407 जीवित भाषाएं हैं जबकि 11 लुप्त हो चुकी हैं।

हिन्दी में कुल वर्णों की संख्या 46 है। इनमें स्वर की संख्या 13 है तथा व्यंजन की संख्या 33 है। अतः सही विकल्प ‘33’ है। हिन्दी में कुल वर्णों की संख्या 46 है। इनमें स्वर की संख्या 13 है तथा व्यंजन की संख्या 33 है। अतः सही विकल्प ‘33’ है।

Additional Information

दिए गए विकल्पों में 'संन्यासी' शब्द की वर्तनी शुद्ध है। अत: सही विकल्प 1 ‘संन्यासी’ है। अन्य सभी शब्दों की वर्तनी त्रुटि पूर्ण हैं।

Key Points

• ‘संन्यासी’ का अर्थ 'संन्यास का व्रत धारण करने वाला' है।
• वाक्य - कुम्भ मेले में संन्यासी लोग आते है।

Additional Information

दिए गए विकल्पों में 'साहित्यिक' शब्द की वर्तनी शुद्ध है। अत: सही विकल्प 4 ‘साहित्यिक’ है। अन्य सभी शब्दों की वर्तनी त्रुटि पूर्ण हैं।

Key Points

• ‘साहित्यिक’ का अर्थ 'साहित्य संबंधी' है।
• ​साहित्य + इक = साहित्यिक
• वाक्य - कालिदास की साहित्यिक रचना संस्कृत भाषा इतिहास में प्रमुख स्थान रखती है।

Additional Information

दिए गए विकल्पों में से सही उत्तर विकल्प 1 ‘गृहस्थ’ है। अन्य विकल्प इसके गलत उत्तर हैं।

Key Points

• ‘गृह बसाकर रहने वाले को 'गृहस्थ' कहा जाता है।
• गृहस्थ का वाक्य प्रयोग - आश्रमव्यवस्था में एक आश्रम गृहस्थ भी होता है।

अन्य विकल्प:​

Additional Information

उसका अम्बर फट गया - इस वाक्य में अम्बर का अर्थ 'कपड़ा' है।

अम्बर के अनेकार्थी शब्द  - वस्त्र, आकाश, कपास।

Key Points अन्य विकल्प:

• आकाश के पर्यायवाची शब्द - नभ, गगन, अम्बर, व्योम, अनन्त, आसमान
• कपडा के पर्यायवाची शब्द - वस्त्र, वसन, अंबर, पट, चीर, अंशुष्क, आच्छादन, चैल

Additional Information

विशेष:  

अ और इ मिलकर 'ए' वर्ण बनता है और ये स्वर संधि के भेद गुण संधि के नियम को दर्शाता है। अतः "विकल्प 2 सही उत्तर है।

Key Pointsअ + इ = ए ( गुण संधि)

अ + ई = ऐ (वृद्धि संधि)

अ + उ = ओ (गुण संधि)

गुण संधि - जब संधि करते समय (अ, आ) के साथ (इ, ई) हो तो ‘ए‘ उत्पन्न होता है, जब (अ, आ) के साथ (उ, ऊ) हो तो ‘ओ‘ बनता है, जब (अ, आ) के साथ (ऋ) हो तो ‘अर‘ बनता है तो यह गुण संधि कहलाती है।

 

Additional Information

दिए गए विकल्पों में से सही उत्तर विकल्प 3  'कब + ही' होगा। अन्य विकल्प इसके अनुचित उत्तर हैं। 

Key Points

• 'कभी' शब्द का उचित संधि विच्छेद 'कब + ही' है।
• यह व्यंजन संधि का उदाहरण है।
• व्यंजन के साथ व्यंजन या स्वर का मेल होने से जो विकार होता है, उसे व्यंजन संधि कहते हैं।​

Additional Information

 

'जिसका**' 'जो'** सर्वनाम का यौगिक रूप है।

1. सर्वनाम दो शब्दों से मिलकर बना है, सर्व+नाम, अर्थात जो सभी नामों के लिए प्रयुक्त हो। हिन्दी में कुल 11 मौलिक सर्वनाम हैं – मैं, तुम (तू), आप, यह, वह, कौन, क्या, कोई, जो, सो, कुछ आदि।  जब इन मौलिक सर्वनामों पर कारक-चिह्नों का प्रभाव पड़ता है, तब ये यौगिक रूप बन जाते हैं और लिंग, वचन, कारक की दृष्टि से अपना रूप बदलते हैं।

Key Points महत्वपूर्ण जानकारी 

• मैं – मेरा, मेरी, मुझे, मैंने, मुझको, मुझसे, मुझमें, हम, हमें, हमारा, हमारे, हमने, हमको आदि
• तू, तुम – तुझे, तुझसे, तेरा, तेरी, तुम्हें, तुम्हारा, तुम्हारे, तुम्हारी, तुमने, तुममें, तुमसे, तुझे आदि।
• इसी प्रकार आप, यह, वह, कौन, क्या, कोई, जो, सो, कुछ आदि सर्वनामों के भी यौगिक सर्वनाम बन जाते हैं।
• ​सर्वनाम का अपना कोई लिंग नहीं होता है। वाक्य में क्रियापद के अनुरूप ही सर्वनाम का लिंग निर्धारण हो जाता है।

'सुंदर' शब्द का स्त्रीलिंग रूप 'सुन्दरी' होता है। अतः विकल्प 1 सही उत्तर है।

• सुंदर शब्द का अर्थ दिखने में खूबसूरत ( पुरुष)।
• सुन्दरी शब्द का अर्थ दिखने में खूबसूरत  (महिला)।

Key Points

• अन्य विकल्प सभी अशुद्ध है, जिनका कोई अर्थ नही होता है।
• ​हिन्दी भाषा में लिंग के दो भेद माने जाते हैं – पुल्लिंग तथा स्त्रीलिंग।

'पवित्रता' से 'पवित्र' विशेषण बनता है। 

पवित्रता यह एक भाववाचक संज्ञा है, इससे पवित्र यह विशेषण बना है।

पवित्र यह एक गुणवाचक विशेषण है 

Key Points

Additional Information 

भविष्यत् काल से 'आने वाले समय' का बोध होता है। 

भविष्य काल का प्रयोग आने वाले समय की घटनाओं से जुड़ा होता है।

अन्य विकल्प:

• बीते हुए समय के बारे में 'भूतकाल' का प्रयोग किया जाता है।
• चल रहे समय के बारे में 'वर्तमान काल' का प्रयोग किया जाता है।

Important Points

Additional Information

इसका सही उत्तर विकल्प 4  है। अन्य विकल्प सही उत्तर नहीं हैं।

Key Points

• 'जी', आदरबोधक निपात है।

अन्य विकल्प:

Additional Information

"अपढ़" का शाब्दिक अर्थ हैः 'जो पढ़ा न गया हो'

Key Points अन्य विकल्प 

• जो पढ़ने योग्य न हो - अपठनीय
• जिसका पढ़ना मना हो -
• जो पढ़ा लिखा न हो। - अनपढ़

Additional Information

‘ओजस्वी’ शब्द का उचित विलोम शब्द ‘निस्तेज’ होगा।

• ‘ओजस्वी’ का अर्थ शक्तिशाली।
• ‘निस्तेज’ का अर्थ तेजहीन।

अन्य विकल्प:

Additional Information

ताजमहल क्या सुन्दर है! यह एक विस्मयार्थक वाक्य का उदाहरण है। 

 वे वाक्य, जिनसे किसी प्रकार का विस्मय, हर्ष, दुःख, आश्चर्य आदि का बोध होता है, विस्म वाक्य विस्मयार्थक कहलाते हैं।

Additional Information

विशेष

'न तीन में न तेरह में' इस मुहावरे का अर्थ है - किसी काम का न होना 

'न तीन में न तेरह में​’ मुहावरे का सही अर्थ है – किसी काम का न होना। अन्य विकल्प असंगत हैं। अतः सही विकल्प 4 ‘किसी काम का न होना।’ है।

स्पष्टीकरण:-

<br>

अन्य विकल्प:-

Additional Information

उपर्युक्त मुहावरा 'काठ का उल्लू' का अर्थ है- ‘मूर्ख’ है। शेष मुहावरे के अर्थ गलत हैं। अतः सही विकल्प ‘मूर्ख’ है। 

Key Points

अन्य विकल्प

Additional Information

ब्रह्मराक्षस कविता के रचनाकार 'मुक्तिबोध' है, अतः सही विकल्प 4 होगा।

Key Points 

• गजानन माधव मुक्तिबोध, सबसे प्रमुख हिंदी कवि, निबंधकार, साहित्यिक और राजनीतिक आलोचक तथा 20वीं शताब्दी के उपन्यास लेखकों में से एक थे। वे नया खून और वसुधा जैसी पत्रिकाओं के सहायक-संपादक भी थें। वे अपनी लंबी कविताएं: ब्रह्म-राक्षस, चाँद का मुह टेढ़ा है, अँधेरे में और भूरी-भूरी ख़ाक धूल के लिए प्रसिद्ध हैं।
• नागार्जुन को राजनैतिक कवि के रूप में जाना जाता है। उन्हें प्रगतिवाद का शलाका पुरुष कहा जाता है।
• नागार्जुन की अन्य प्रमुख रचनाएँ हैं - सतरंगे पंखों वाली, प्यासी पथराई आंखे, तुमने कहा था, हज़ार हज़ार बाहों वाली आदि।
• सच्चिदानंद हीरानंद वात्स्यायन "अज्ञेय"  को कवि, शैलीकार, कथा-साहित्य को एक महत्त्वपूर्ण मोड़ देने वाले कथाकार, ललित-निबन्धकार, सम्पादक और अध्यापक के रूप में जाना जाता है। अज्ञेय प्रयोगवाद एवं नयी कविता को साहित्य जगत में प्रतिष्ठित करने वाले कवि हैं। इनकी प्रमुख रचनाएँ हैं – ‘एक बूँद सहसा उछली’ तथा ‘अरे यायावर याद रहेगा’ (यात्रा वृत्तान्त), ‘साँप’, ‘कलगी बाजरे की’ (कविता), ‘हरी घास पर क्षण भर’ (काव्य संग्रह), इत्यादि।

महाभारत के रचयिता 'वेदव्यास' को माना जाता है, अतः विकल्प 1 सही उत्तर है।

वेदव्यास नाम का अर्थ यह महान ऋषि जो महाभारत महाकाव्य लिखा का नाम है होता है।

Key Points अन्य विकल्प:

• तुलसीदास - नाम का मतलब एक प्रसिद्ध संत, तुलसी (तुलसी के पौधे (संस्कृत विद्वान और कवि के नौकर जो रामचरितमानस, स्थानीय अवधी भाषा में वाल्मीकि रामायण के एक संस्करण बनाया) होता है।
• वाल्मीकि - संस्कृत रामायण के प्रसिद्ध रचयिता हैं जो आदिकवि के रूप में प्रसिद्ध हैं।

शब्द और अर्थ द्वारा वाक्य की शोभा को द्विगुणित करने वाले साधन को 'अलंकार' कहा जाता है 

Additional Information

• संज्ञा अथवा सर्वनाम को क्रिया से जोड़ने वाले चिह्न अथवा परसर्ग ही कारक कहलाते हैं।
• समास उस प्रक्रिया को कहते हैं, जिसमें दो शब्द मिलाकर उनके बीच के संबंधसूचक आदि का लोप करके नया शब्द बनाया जाता है। समास से तात्पर्य 'संक्षिप्तीकरण' से है। समास के माध्यम से कम शब्दों में अधिक अर्थ प्रकट किया जाता है। जैसे - राजा का पुत्र – राजपुत्र,
• छंद - विशिष्ट अर्थों या गीत में वर्णों की संख्या और स्थान से सम्बंधित नियमों को छ्न्द कहते हैं जिनसे काव्य में लय और रंजकता आती है।

हिंदू धर्म में 16 संस्कार हैं।

Key Points

वे निम्नानुसार हैं- 

i. गर्भाधान (संकल्पना)

ii. पुंसवन (भ्रूण संरक्षण)

iii. सीमंतोंनयन (गर्भवती माँ की उत्कट इच्छा को पूर्ण करना)

iv. जटाकर्म (बाल जन्म),

v. नामकरण (बच्चे का नामकरण)

vi. निष्क्रमण (पहली बार बच्चे को बाहर ले जाना)

vii. अन्नप्राशन (ठोस भोजन देना)

viii. मुंडन (बालों का कटना)

x. कर्णवेध (कान छेदन)

x. उपनयन (पवित्र धागा समारोह)

xi. वेदारम्भ (वेदों का अध्ययन)

xii. समावर्तन (शिक्षा के पूरा होने के बाद घर वापस आना)

xiii. विवाह (शादी)

xiv. वानप्रस्थ (त्याग के लिए तैयारी)

xv. संन्यास (त्याग)

xvi. अंत्येष्टि (श्मशान)

'भूषण' ने वीर रस में कविता लिखी है,अन्य विकल्प असंगत है। अत: विकल् 'भूषण'  सही उत्तर होगा। 

Key Points

• 'भूषण' वास्तव में इनका नाम नहीं बल्कि उपाधि है जो इन्हें चित्रकूट के नरेश सोलंकी हृदयराम के पुत्र रुद्र ने प्रदान की थी।
• भूषण की कविता में ओज है।
• वे वीर रस के कवि थे।
• ओज वीर रस की कविता का स्थायी भाव है।

​

Additional Information

 

 

 

 

 

Important Points

• वीर रस-    वीर रस, नौ रसों में से एक प्रमुख रस है। जब किसी रचना या वाक्य आदि से वीरता जैसे स्थायी भाव की उत्पत्ति होती है, तो उसे वीर रस कहा जाता है।

           युद्ध अथवा किसी कार्य को करने के लिए ह्रदय में जो उत्साह का भाव जागृत होता है उसमें वीर रस कहते हैं। 

• भूषण द्वारा रचित वीर रस का उदाहरण-

 

साजि चतुरंग वीर रंग में तुरंग चढ़ि।

सरजा सिवाजी जंग जीतन चलत है।।

भूषन भनत नाद विहद नगारन के।

नदी नद मद गैबरन के रलत हैं।।

ऐल फैल खैल भैल खलक में गैल गैल,

गजन की ठेल-पेल सैल उसलत हैं।

तारा सों तरनि घूरि धरा में लIगत जिम,

धरा पर पारा पारावार ज्यों हलत हैं।

उर्वशी महादेवी की कृति नही हैं।

• उर्वशी के रचनाकार : रामधारी सिंह दिनकर हैं
• ध्यान दें की दिनकर की भी एक काव्य कृति: उर्वशी हैं, जिनके लिए इनको ज्ञानपीठ भी मिला था।

Key Points

• स्मृति की रेखाएं, यामा, पथ के साथी: महादेवी की रचनाएँ हैं।
• इसमें उनके चार कविता संग्रह नीहार, नीरजा, रश्मि और सांध्यगीत संकलित किए गए हैं।
• महादेवी वर्मा की अन्य कहानियाँ हैं - दीपशिखा, सप्तपर्णा, प्रथम आयाम और अग्निरेखा।

Additional Information

हिंदी वर्णमाला मे कुल 33 व्यंजन होते है। अन्य विकल्प असंगत है। अत: विकल्प (4) '33' सही उत्तर होगा। 

Key Points

स्पष्टीकरण: 

Additional Information

इसका सही उत्तर विकल्प 3 'आज्ञावाचक' है। अन्य विकल्प सही उत्तर नहीं हैं।

Key Points

• "कृपया जाएँ।" वाक्य आज्ञावाचक वाक्य है।

अन्य विकल्प:

Additional Information

• सही उत्तर - सन् 1903 में  महावीर प्रसाद द्विवेदी 'सरस्वती' के संपादक बने।

Key Points

• सरस्वती का संपादन महावीर प्रसाद द्विवेदी ने कियाI
• 1903 से 1920 तक उन्होंने इसका संपादन कियाI
• यह पत्रिका 1900 में इलाहाबाद से शुरू हुईI
• इसका मूल्य 4 आना थाI

Important Points

• इस पत्रिका ने खड़ी बोली को परिष्कृत करने और राष्ट्रीयता को बढ़ावा देने में योगदान दियाI
• बाद में इसके संपादक पदमलाल पुन्नालाल बख्शी, देवीदत्त शुक्ल, श्रीनाथ सिंह आदि रहेI
• यह 32 पृष्ठ की पत्रिका थीI

Additional Information

• शुरुआती वर्षों में बाबू श्याम सुन्दर दास ने सरस्वती का संपादन कियाI
• आचार्य रामचंद्र शुक्ल हिंदी साहित्येतिहासकारों में सर्वोच्च स्थान पर हैंI
• भारतेंदु हरिश्चंद्र ने बालाबोधिनी, हरिश्चंद्र मैगज़ीन आदि पत्रिकाएँ निकालींI

हिन्दी खड़ीबोली का प्रथम महाकाव्य प्रियप्रवास  है,अन्य विकल्प असंगत है, अत: विकल्प  'प्रियप्रवास' सही उत्तर होगा।

Key Points

Additional Information

 

 

 

 

 

 

Important Points

 "हरिऔध" जी ने कहा है -

• "मैंने श्री कृष्णचंद्र को इस ग्रंथ में एक महापुरुष की भाँति अंकित किया है, ब्रह्म करके नहीं। कृष्णचरित को इस प्रकार अंकित किया है जिससे आधुनिक लोग भी सहमत हो सकें।"

विश्वामित्र की तपस्या भंग 'मेनका' नामक अप्सरा ने की थी, अतः विकल्प 2 सही उत्तर है 

• मेनका अप्सरा को इंद्र ने वृषि विश्वमित्रको उनकी तपस्या भंग करने को भेजा था।
• मेनका ने जब वृषि विश्वामित्र की तपस्या भंग की थी तब विश्वमित्रने मेनका को श्राफ दिया। कुछ दिन बाद मेनका ने विश्वामित्र की एक कन्या को जन्म दिया।

Key Points

अन्य विकल्प:

• द्रौपदी - राजा द्रुपद, पांडवों की पत्नी की बेटी (पांच पांडवों की पत्नी।
• उर्वशी - अप्सराओं में से अधिकांश सुंदर, गैर-ज़मीनी, एक अप्सरा या आकाशीय अप्सरा माना तीनों लोकों में सबसे सुंदर होना करने के लिए होता है।

Given:

Some numbers = 2, 1, 4, 3

Concept:

Prime number = A number that can be divided exactly by itself and 1 or has exactly two divisor

Composite number = A with more than two factor

Calculation:

⇒ 2 = A prime number

⇒ 1 = Neither prime nor composite

⇒ 4 = A composite number

⇒ 3 = A prime number

∴ The required result will be 1.

Important Points The number 1 is not a prime number since it has only one divisor (1)

Given:

The expression = (\frac{-8}{9})

Concept:

If a fraction is (a \over b) then,

Reciprocal of (a \over b) is (b \over a)

Calculation:

⇒ The fraction = (-8 \over 9)

⇒ The reciprocal of the given fraction = (9 \over -8)

∴ The required result will be (9 \over -8).

Given:

The decimal number = 50

Concept:

Calculation:

⇒ 50 in the Roman number system = L

∴ The required result will be L.

Given:

The numbers = 3897 and 355

Concept used:

If two number is a and b then 

The product of the numbers = a × b

Calculation:

⇒ 3897 × 355

⇒ 1383435

∴ The required result will be 1383435.

Given:

The difference = 112

Concept:

If P is a number then, (x/y) part of P = P × (x/y)

Calculation:

Let us assume the whole property be X

⇒ (({7X \over 8} -\ {3X \over 8}) = 112)

⇒ X × (7/8 - 3/8) = 112

⇒ (X × ({7\ -\ 3 \over 8}) = 112) 

⇒ X = (112 × 8)/4 = 112 × 2 = 224

∴ The required result will be 224.

Given:

The expression = 8.014 + 7.7 + 14.05

Concept:

Calculation:

⇒ 8.014 + 7.7 + 14.05

⇒ 15.714 + 14.05

⇒ 29.764

∴ The required result will be 29.764.

Given:

Two times = 40 hours 07 minutes and 38 hours and 09 minutes

Concept:

1 hour = 60 minutes

Calculation:

⇒ 40 hours and 07 minutes = (40 × 60) + 07 = 2400 + 7 = 2407 minutes

⇒ 38 hours and 09 minutes = (38 × 60) + 09 = 2280 + 09 = 2289 minutes

⇒ The required difference = 2407 - 2289 =  118 minutes

⇒ The required difference = 118/60 = 1 hours 58 minutes

∴ The required result will be 1 hours 58 minutes.

Given:

The perimeter of equilateral triangle = 192 cm

Formula used:

P = 3a    (Where P = Perimeter of the equilateral triangle, a = The side of the equilateral triangle)

Calculation:

Let us assume side of the equilateral triangle be a

⇒ 192 = 3 × a

⇒ a = 192/3 = 64 cm

∴ The required result will be 64 cm.

Additional Information A triangle in which are three sides are the same length is called an equilateral triangle.

Given:

The number series = 0, 8, 64, 216, ?, 1000.

Calculation:

The pattern followed by the given number series is

⇒ 0 × (0²) = 0

⇒ 2 × (2²) = 8

⇒ 4 × (4²) = 64

⇒ 6 × (6²) = 216

⇒ 8 × (8²) = 512

⇒ 10 × (10²) = 1000

∴ The required result will be 512.

Given:

The expression = (\frac{5}{6}+\frac{6}{5}) 

Concept:

Calculation:

⇒ (\frac{5}{6}+\frac{6}{5})

⇒ (25\ +\ 36 \over 30)

⇒ (61\ \over 30)

∴ The required result will be 61/30.

Given:

The expression = (\sqrt{\sqrt{4096}+\sqrt{1296}}) 

Calculation:

⇒ (\sqrt{\sqrt{4096}+\sqrt{1296}})

⇒ (\sqrt {64\ +\ 36 })

⇒ (\sqrt {100})

⇒ 10

∴ The required result will be 10.

Given:

The principle = 12600

The rate = 10% per annum

The time = 2 years

Formula used:

Compound interest = (P\ \times [{(1\ +\ {R\over 100})}^T -\ 1])  (Where P = Principle, R = The rate and T = Time)

Calculation:

Let us assume CI is the compound interest 

⇒  (CI\ =\ 12600\ \times [{(1\ +\ {10\over 100})}^2 -\ 1])

⇒ (CI\ =\ 12600\ \times [{({110\over 100})}^2 -\ 1])

⇒ (CI\ =\ 12600\ \times [{( {1.21})} -\ 1])

⇒ (CI\ =\ 12600\ \times 0.21)

⇒ 2646

∴ The required result will be 2646.

Given:

The expression = [2x + 5]2 - [2x - 5]²

Formula used:

(a + b)² = a² + b² + 2ab

(a - b)² = a² + b² - 2ab

Calculation:

⇒ [2x + 5]2 - [2x - 5]²

⇒ 4x² + 25 + 20x - 4x² - 25 + 20x

⇒ 20x + 20x = 40x

∴ The required result will be 40x.

Given:

The market price of goods = Rs. 840

The selling price = Rs. 714

Formula used:

D = MP - SP     

(D % =\ {MP\ -\ SP \over MP} × 100)

(Where D = Discount, MP = Market price, and SP = Selling price)

Calculation:

Let us assume discount be D

⇒ D = 840 - 714 = 126

⇒ (D%\ = {840\ -\ 714 \over 840} × 100)

⇒ (D% =\ {126 \over 840} × 100)

⇒ D% = 015 × 100 = 15%

∴ The required result will be 126, and 15%.

Given:

The numbers = 0.0001, ​​​1/1000, (0.100)², (1/10 ÷ 0.1)​​

Calculation:

⇒ 0.0001

⇒ 1/1000 = 0.001

⇒ (0.100)² = 0.01

⇒  (1/10 ÷ 0.1)​​ = 0.1 ÷ 0.1 = 1

⇒ 0.0001 < 0.001 < 0.01 < 1

∴ The required result will be (1/10 ÷ 0.1)​​.

Given:

The data = 21, 6, 17,18,19, 8, 4, 13

Formula used:

The range of the data = H - L    (Where H = The highest value of the data, L = The lowest value of the data)

Calculation:

⇒ We arrange the data in a manner = 4, 6, 8, 13, 17, 18, 19, 21

⇒ The range of the data = 21 - 4 = 17

∴ The required result will be 17.

Given:

The perimeter of the rectangle = 80 m

Formula used:

P_R = 2 × (L + B)   

A_R = L × B    (Where, P_R = Perimeter of the rectangle, L = The length of the rectangle, B = The breadth of the rectangle and A_R = The area of the rectangle)

Calculation:

Let us assume the breadth of the rectangle be B

⇒ The length of the rectangle = (5/3) × B = 5B/3

⇒ 80 = 2 × (5B/3 + B)

⇒ 80/2 = (5B/3 + B)

⇒ 40 = (5B + 3B)/3

⇒ 120 = 8B

⇒ B = 120/8 = 15 cm

⇒ The length of the rectangle = 5B/3 = (5 × 15)/3 = 25 cm

⇒ The area of the rectangle = 15 × 25 = 375 cm²

∴ The required result will be 375 cm².

Given:

10 men or 12 women can complete the job = 10 days

Formula used:

W = E × T     (Where W = Work, E = Efficiency, and T = Time)

Calculation:

Let us assume 5 men and 6 women together can complete the job

in D days

⇒ The efficiency of a man = (1 \over 10 \times 10) = (1\over 100)

⇒ The efficiency of 5 men = 5/100

⇒ The efficiency of a woman = (1\over 12 \times 10) = (1\over 120)

⇒ The efficiency of 6 women = 6/120

So, The combined efficiency of 5 men and 6 women = ( ({5 \over 100}\ +{\ 6 \over 120} ))

Now, According to the formula used

⇒ (D\ \times ({5 \over 100}\ +{\ 6 \over 120} )\ =\ 1)

⇒ (D\ \times ({1\over20}\ +\ {1\over20})\ =\ 1)

⇒ 2D = 20

⇒ D = 20/2 = 10 days

∴ The required result will be 10 days.

Given:

The expression = (\rm \frac{25%\ of\ 50%\ of\ 100%}{25\times50})

Concept:

Calculation:

⇒ (\rm \frac{25%\ of\ 50%\ of\ 100%}{25\times50})

⇒ ({25\ \over 100} \times {50\over 100} \times {100 \over 100} \over {25 \times 50})

⇒ ({0.25\ \times\ 0.5\ \times\ 1 } \over 1250)

⇒ ({0.125 \over 1250}) = ({12.5 \over 1250 }%)

⇒ 0.01%

∴ The required result will be 0.01%.

Given:

The income of Prem = 25% more than the income of Jai

Concept:

(GM% =\ {GM\over TM} \times 100) (Where GM = gain marks, TM = Total marks)

Calculation:

Let us assume the income of Jai be X

⇒ The income of Prem = 125X/100

⇒ ({{125X\over 100}\ -\ {X}\ \over {125X\over 100}} \times 100) 

⇒ ({25X\over 125X} \times 100)

⇒ 20%

∴ The required result will be 20%.

Given:

The expression = (\frac{13}{11}\times\left(\frac{-14}{5}\right)+\frac{13}{11}\times\frac{-7}{5}+\frac{-13}{11}\times\frac{34}{5})

Concept:

Calculation:

⇒ (\frac{13}{11}\times\left(\frac{-14}{5}\right)+\frac{13}{11}\times\frac{-7}{5}+\frac{-13}{11}\times\frac{34}{5})

⇒ ({-182 \over 55}\ +\ {-91\over55}\ +\ {-442\over55})

⇒ ({-1\over55}\ \times ({182\ +\ 91\ +\ 442}))

⇒ ({-715\over55})

⇒ -13

∴ The required result will be -13.

Given:

The side of the square = 22 cm

Formula used:

The perimeter of the square = 4 × a    (Where a = Side of the square)

The circumference of the circle = 2 × π × r     (Where r = The radius of the circle)

Calculation:

Let us assume the radius of the circle be r

⇒ The perimeter of the square = 4 × 22 = 88 cm

⇒ The circumference of the circle = 2 × π ×  r

⇒ 88 = 2 × (22/7) × r

⇒ (r = {{88\ \times\ 7 }\over {22\ \times \ 2}})

⇒ r = 14 cm

∴ The required result will be 14 cm.

Formula used:

a^m × aⁿ = a^{(m + n)}

Calculation:

(\frac{10^{22}+10^{20}}{10^{20}})

⇒ (\frac{10^{20} × 10^2+10^{20}}{10^{20}})

⇒ (\frac{10^{20} ( 10^2+1)}{10^{20}})

⇒ 100 + 1 = 101

∴ The value of (\frac{10^{22}+10^{20}}{10^{20}}) is 101.

Given:

1 m² = x mm2,

Concept:

1m = 100 cm

1 cm = 10 mm

1m = 1000 mm

Calculation:

⇒ 1 m2 = x mm²

⇒ (1000 mm)² = x mm²

⇒ 1000000 mm² = x mm²

⇒ x = 1000000

∴ The required result will be 1000000.

Given:

The sum of the age of the girl and her father = 50 years

Calculation:

Let us assume the age of the girl be X

⇒ The age of her father = X + 28

Now, A/Q

⇒ X + X + 28 = 50

⇒ 2X = 50 - 28

⇒ X = 22/2 = 11 years

∴ The age of the girl will be 11 years and the Age of the Father is 39 years.

Given:

The area of the circle = 81πr2

Formula used:

The area of circle = π × r2

The circumference of the circle = 2 × π × r   (Where, r = The radius of the circle)

Calculation:

Let us assume the radius of the circle be R

⇒ π × R2 = 81 × π × r2

⇒ R = 9 × r cm

⇒ The circumference of the circle = 2 × π × R =  2 × π × (9 × r)= 18 × π × r

∴ The required result will be 18πr.

Given:

Total students = 200

Concept:

(GM% =\ {GM\over TM} × 100)    (Where GM = Gain marks, and TM = Total marks)

3 out of 5 mean = (3/5) × 100 = 60% of the total

Calculation:

⇒ The number of students who like to play cricket = (60/100) × 200 = 120

⇒ The number of students who do not like to play Cricket = 200 - 120 = 80

∴ The required result will be 80.

Given:

The length of the train = 1500

The speed of the train = 40 km/hr

The length of the platform = 2500

Concept used:

1km/hr = 5/18 m/sec

Formula used:

S = D/T     (Where S = Speed, D = Distance, and T = Time)

Calculation:

Let us assume time taken by train to pass the platform be T

⇒ T = ({1500\ +\ 2500}\over {40\ ×\ {5\over18}})  = (4000 × 18)/(200) = 360 seconds = 360/60 minutes = 6 minutes

∴ The required result will be 6 min.

Given:

The speed = 72 km/hr

Concept:

If speed S km/h then

S km/h = S × (5/18) m/s or S × (1000/3600) m/s

Calculation:

⇒ 72 × (5/18) = 4 × 5 = 20 m/s 

⇒ ({72\ \times\ 1000}\over 3600) m/s

∴ The required result will be ({72\ \times\ 1000}\over 3600) m/s.

Given:

The expression = 2.001 ÷ 0.003 

Calculation:

⇒ 2.001 ÷ 0.003 = ({2.001\over0.003}) = ({2001\over3}) = 667

∴ The required result will be 667.

States of matter

• Matter exists in nature in different forms, the three basic states of matter are Solid, Liquid and Gas.
• Apart from these three, there are two more states of matter that exist which we do not see in our everyday life.
• They are Plasma & Bose-Einstein condensate.

Key Points

​Properties of Solid - 

• In solids, the particles are closely packed and the gaps between the particles are tiny and hence it is tough to compress them.
• Solid has a fixed shape and volume.
• Example: Dust, books etc.

Properties of Liquid -

• In a liquid, particles are less tightly packed as compared to solids and less difficult to compress as compare to solid because particles have less space between them to move but more than the solid.
• Liquids take the shape of the container in which they are kept.
• Liquids have definite volume but no fixed shape.
• Example: water, juice etc.

Properties of Gas -

• In gases, particles are far apart from each other, the force of attraction between the particles is negligible and they can move freely.
• The gaseous state has the highest compressibility as compared to solids and liquids.
• Gases have neither a fixed volume nor a fixed shape.
• Example: Air, water vapour, gases.

Important Points

• Feeling of cold: It is a feeling, feelings cannot be categorized under any state of matter.

Confusion Points

Humidity:

• Humidity is the concentration of water vapour present in the air.
• Water vapour, the gaseous state of water, is generally invisible to the human eye.
• Humidity indicates the likelihood for precipitation, dew, or fog to be present.
• It is a gaseous state of matter.

​Thus, the feeling of cold is not a matter.