CG TET 2022 Official Paper 1 (Previous Year Paper)

Child development involves a process by which a child grows over a period of time. It follows an orderly pattern by which a child grows and gets more and more from infancy to adulthood.

• It involves physical, intellectual, emotional, cognitive as well as social development. It is also influenced by environmental factors and the learning capacity of children.
• Every individual is different from each other and their area of development is also different.

Key Points

Language learning is a process that begins at birth and continues throughout life. In other words, language learning is an ongoing process. children learn language through which they communicate their feelings, emotions, experiences, etc.

Stage of development for learning a language:-

Pre Childhood:- This stage is also known as pre-schoolers. It starts from 2-6 years.

• At this age, the child reaches the idea of what's going surroundings.
• It is the stage of the overall development of the child.
• A child is ready to roam around the world and become more active.
• A child grows quickly both physically and cognitively.
• A child does not speak but there is a beginning of understanding short words and phrases.

Other stages of development for language learning:-

Thus, it is concluded that pre-childhood is the stage of child development that is termed the best stage for language learning

Socialization is an important process that plays an important part in learning.

• It is a lifelong process of inheriting norms, customs, and values.
• It is the process by which children learn from others. Learning from others starts at an early age of life and continues throughout life.
• However, some of the important socialization occurs in infancy and childhood.

Key Points

Nature of socialization:- 

1. It is an interactional process.
2. It is a lifelong process and dynamic in nature.
3. Individuals learn to play social norms.
4. Lifelong modification in behavior.
5. It defines the role of the individual in society.
6. Transmission of manners and culture.

Hence, it is concluded that the interactional process is the nature of socialization.

Additional Information

Agents of socialization:-

• The family.
• The school.
• The peer group.
• Mass media.

Development implies an overall change in individual shape, size, structure, and form which results in a more improved version of that particular individual.

Key Points

Emotional development: It is the process that involves what are feelings and emotions, and understanding how they occur.

• It is the process of learning how they occur, and the way of expressing emotions and establishing their unique identity.
• It is a process by which children develop the capacity to experience, express, and interpret their feeling and emotions.

Cognitive development:- It means how children think, analyze and explore things.

• It is the growth of a children's ability to think and analyze. It is that ability how individuals acquire, organize and learn to use that particular knowledge.

Physical development:- It is the growth and development of the brain as well as the body.

• It means there is progress in the child to control his body.
• It includes control over muscles, and the ability to sit and stand.

Social development:- It is the process by which children learn about society and get the proper ways to act in it.

• It is that process by which behaviors, attitudes, etc are learned.

Thus, it is concluded that a teacher is teaching students that they should not get irritated with others' views even if they are against their views. He is taking care of their emotional development.

Curriculum development is the process to improve and make the curriculum more interactive.

• It consists of analyzing, designing, selecting, forming, and reviewing to make the curriculum more attractive and informative.
• It is a multi-step process of improving the curriculum.

Key Points

The basis for the development of the curriculum:-

Philosophical Basis

• Philosophy tells what are beliefs and nature of people are.
• Important to all aspects of the curriculum

Sociological Basis

• work according to cultural and social aspects.
• prepare learners for society.

Cultural Basis

• To transmit the cultural heritage of society to the younger generation.

Social Basis

• Curriculum development considers social diversity.

Thus, it is concluded that the basis for the development of curriculum development is the aim of education and social need.

Learning is an act of acquiring new or modifying the existing learning, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values which may lead to change in synthesizing information, knowledge, attitude, etc of that particular person.

Key Points

Various forms of learning:-

Basic instinct behavior:- Instincts are a pattern of innate behavior that does not comes from learning or any type of experience.

• It is to react immediately to that particular pattern of behavior.
• Behavior may come naturally or automatically towards the situations that a person may go through.

Conditioned response:- It is conditioning in behavior by a repetitive association between response(reaction of the individual) and stimulus(change in the environment).

• It is a learned response towards a stimulus that was neutral previously.

Intuitive response:- it is a response by which the brain gives the ability to make decisions without the use of reasoning.

• In this person firstly instinct(that you feel what is the case whether that is your opinion or idea towards anything) and reach immediately on that process.

Thus, it is concluded that basic instinct behavior is the lowest form of learning.

Additional Information Characteristics of learning:-

• It is a universal and continuous process.
• It makes modifications in the knowledge of a person's attitude, behaviors, skills, etc.
• It involves various types of experiences from birth to death.
• The scope of learning is too wide.

Learning is a permanent change in the behavior of a person. It is a universal and continuous process that brings a change in the thinking, behavior, and attitude of an individual.

Key PointsInteraction is when people communicate their thoughts, feelings, and attitude with each other and react with one another.

• It is the most important part of classroom activity which makes the teaching and learning process effective and it increases the ability of learners to communicate effectively and efficiently.
• Interaction in a classroom environment generates the ability of the students to ask questions with each other and discuss and give their ideas and thoughts on that question.

Strategies for improving classroom teaching learning interactions:-

• Encourage students to take part in classroom activities.
• Avoid giving punishment to students.
• Reciprocate freely the thoughts of students with idealization.
• Encourage their initiative in activities.
• Give rewards and praise them work their skills.
• Emphasis on making the teaching-learning process effective.

Post adolescence(18-21 years) means adolescents complete their physical development and their height is grown fully.  they become more focused on the future, become emotionally stable, and physically strong.

Thus, it is concluded that the free reciprocation of thoughts with an idealization strategy is related to the development of post-adolescence in improving the classroom teaching learning interactions.

The theory of Piaget focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge but also on understanding. He believed that children take an active role in the process of learning.

Key Points

• In the preoperational stage (which typically occurs from around ages 2 to 7), children's language skills and communication abilities undergo significant development.
• They begin to use symbols, engage in pretend play, and develop language skills, although their thinking is still characterized by egocentrism and a lack of logical operations.

Hence, it is concluded that in the preoperational stage, linguistic ability and communication are developed to the maximum extent.

Additional Information

Other three stages of Piaget's cognitive development:-

He is also known as the father of child psychology.

Development is an ongoing or continuous process that starts from birth and follows a particular pattern and a sequence which means that each step takes place at a certain age and in the usual order.

Key Points

Adulthood:- It occurs after adolescence. It includes early adulthood(20-30 years), and mature adulthood( 30-65). In this stage, people become more mature and take more interest in groups, society, and nations for development.

Other stages of development:-

Thus, it is concluded that adulthood is a stage of social development humans can give up their own interests on account of the greater interests of group, society, and nation.

Kohlberg's theory of moral development is based on how children develop morality. 

• Moral development refers to that process by which children develop the understanding of what is right or what is wrong in the society that he lives which is based on social and cultural norms, ethics, and laws.
• To develop into a morally strong person, a parent needs to give a solid foundation at each stage the child may go through.

Key Points

Theory of Kohlberg's suggests that moral development occurs at various levels and stages:-

Hence, it is concluded that Ego-centric-social centric orientation is not included in Kohlberg's moral development theory.

Learning is a process that brings changes in your life that occurs as a result of experience.

• The process of learning begins when you experience new things and this brings a change in behavior, attitude, decisions, and skills.
• Learning is a continuous process that takes place throughout life.

Key Points 

Learning Process models:-

Programming model:- The process of learning in which learners are moved from their initially demonstrated abilities to the final expected behavior.

• In this learner move to final outcome with their prior abilities and skills.
• The learner becomes experienced and becomes more efficient.

Banking model:-  It is a method of teaching where students store the information and repeat that information that is heard by them.

• In this model, students see themselves as a container and teachers as a depositor.
• It is developed by Paulo Freire.
• In this model, teachers know everything and students know nothing. In this model, teachers choose the program of content and students adapt it.

Constructive model:- In this model, learners constructor build their knowledge rather than actively take part in activities.

• A person takes experience with the world and thinks about those experiences.
• In other words, they make their own understanding and incorporate new information into their pre-existing knowledge.

Thus, it is concluded that the programming model is that process of learning in which learners are moved from their initially demonstrated abilities to the final expected behavior.

According to Piaget's theory, there is no pre-existing information in the universe that can be "taught" to a kid. Furthermore, a child does not acquire information naturally (on their own). Knowledge grows when a child interacts with the world.

Key Points According to Piaget's theory, there are four phases of cognitive development in every situation these includes:

• Sensory Motor Stage
• Pre-operational Stage
• Concrete Operational Stage
• Formal Operational Stage

The concrete operational stage lasts between 7- 11 years that is the year spent in middle school.

• Children in this stage now cognitively decelerate and reverse actions at this stage.
• They can thus use the conservation principle.
• Now students will be able to comprehend that water levels in taller and flatter vessels may be equal, even though the water in the taller vessel is at a higher level in terms of height.
• In short, the child at this age is able to get over the majority of the restrictions of the earlier period. That is, moving ahead of egocentrism, children eventually learn to grasp other people's perspectives.
• While moving away from perceptual or observable thinking in favor of more symbol-based reasoning.
• Reversibility in thought creates fresh learning opportunities. As a result, the reasoning system matures and becomes considerably more adult-like. The child can now think operationally to a certain extent.

Hence, According to Piaget, there is a concrete operational stage in the cognitive development of children at the age of 7-11 years.

Additional Information

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Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem-solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood. 

Key Points

• It was once believed that infants lacked the ability to think or form complex ideas and remained without cognition until they learned the language.
• It is now known that babies are aware of their surroundings and interested in exploration from the time they are born. From birth, babies begin to actively learn.
• They gather, sort, and process information from around them, using the data to develop perception and thinking skills.
• Cognitive development refers to how a person perceives, thinks, and gains an understanding of his or her world through the interaction of genetic and learned factors.
• Among the areas of cognitive development are information processing, intelligence, reasoning, language development, and memory.
• All these cognitive abilities help children in developing their aptitude.

​Hence, we can conclude that option 2 is correct.

The term "special child" refers to exceptional and talented students who require extra care in the classroom.

Key Points

• Tissue deformed by birth: This refers to physical disabilities or congenital abnormalities, which are common in children with special needs.
• Absence of part of any part of the body or reduced ability to do its work: This describes physical impairments and limitations in function.
• Problems in establishing social harmony in the environment: This addresses the social and emotional challenges that children with special needs may face, including difficulties with social interaction and integration.

Thus, it is concluded that the correct answer is all of the above.

An effective teaching process must focus on facilitating the acquisition of both Inductive and Empirical knowledge, as they are interconnected and foundational to meaningful learning, especially in a constructivist framework.

Key Points

 

A teacher's teaching process should focus on both inductive and empirical knowledge.

• Inductive knowledge helps students derive general principles from specific examples, enhancing reasoning and analytical skills.
• Empirical knowledge is based on observation and experience, allowing students to relate concepts to real-life situations.
• Integrating both types ensures deeper understanding, practical application, and critical thinking development.

Thus, correct ansswer is Both (1) and (2).

The right to education became effective on April 1st, 2010. Every child between the ages of 6 and 14 will receive eight years of primary education within the terms of this Act in a classroom that is suitable for their age in the neighborhood.

Key Points

• The requirement for children to attend a local school for free until they have completed their basic education.
• It makes it clear that "compulsory education" refers to the responsibility of the relevant government to guarantee free primary education and ensure that every child in the six to fourteen age range enrolls, attends, and completes elementary school. Free implies that no kid will be required to pay any fees, expenditures, or other costs that would prohibit them from pursuing and finishing their basic education.
• Prohibition of private tuition by the teacher.—No teacher shall engage himself or herself in private tuition or private teaching activity.
• The Act also has a provision for every child, who is above six years of age and has not yet been admitted to any school or could not complete his/ her elementary education for any reason, to be admitted in a class appropriate to his/her or her age.
• The child admitted under age appropriate admission has a right to receive special training or additional instruction in order to be at par with other children of the class.
• After a term of Special Training, children who are not enrolled or who drop out are allowed to join a class for their age.
• Up until class VIII (corresponding to the age range of 6 to 14), no kid may be failed or be expelled from school.
• All special needs children will get free education from 6 to 18 years of age.
• The Central and State governments are in charge of providing free education to the students.

Thus, we can conclude that Govt. teachers can't take their own private tuition except at school is not correct as per RTE ACT 2009.

Diverse mental abilities are a part of mental development, which is a crucial element of growth. It starts from birth, and as the child grows and matures, so do his or her mental responses.

Key PointsMental development encompasses:

• The expansion of intelligence as well as linguistic skills, as well as capacities like attending, perceiving, observing, remembering, envisioning, and thinking.
• As we age, these skills develop, mature, and eventually deteriorate as we become older.
• Age and certain experiences have an impact on the rates of change.

Hence, the Mental Development of a child refers to Understanding, Imagination, and as well as Reasoning.

Aggression may be defined as the act of harming or injuring another person. It can be direct or indirect, verbal or physical, or both.

Key Points

1. Biological Approach- It has been hypothesized that biological elements are the root of aggression. According to Freud's psychoanalytic view, aggressiveness in people is essentially caused by an intrinsic want to be destructive, which is originally aimed at oneself. He went on to say that violent actions are just the application of this societal death instinct to other people.
2. **Psychological Approach-**Psychologically aggressive behaviors aim to degrade one's partner and undermine his or her self-worth by making him or her feel guilty, unhappy, or inadequate. These behaviors include mocking, verbal threats, isolating one's partner from family and friends, and seeking to dominate one's partner.

Hence, Both psychological and biological are the cause of aggression.

With a particular focus on those who are at risk of marginalization and exclusion, inclusive education as an approach aims to meet the learning requirements of all children, youth, and adults.

Key Points

• The term "inclusive education" refers to the education of all students, including those with and without disabilities, in normal classrooms.
• It is a method that considers the individual traits, passions, skills, and educational needs of every kid.
• Every school must adopt an inclusive philosophy so that children with disabilities can attend those that have a child-centered pedagogy that can accommodate all students' needs.
• Many skills are picked up by kids from their classmates.

Hence, a classroom that includes children from social, cultural, and economic backgrounds enhances the learning experiences of all children, and Children learn many skills from their peers are the two statements that can be fully agreed to.

The word "disability" often refers to a form of absence or loss of one or more abilities that most people have and without which our bodily or mental activities are significantly or completely limited.

Key PointsVisual disabilities are the disability where children struggle with their vision.

• They are unable to read the standard text and may require certain learning assistance, such as braille if they are blind.
• Then there are students who are partially sighted. Some of the pupils' eyesight issues can be resolved.
• However, some students can only read large print.

Hence, the cornea of Roopa's eyes has dried up and she has lost her sight this will come under Disability.

Additional Information Some other types of disabilities are:

The goal of inclusive education as a strategy is to satisfy the learning needs of all children, teenagers, and adults, with a special emphasis on those who run the risk of marginalization and exclusion.

Key Points

• Increase in the spirit of cooperation in the classroom: While cooperation is a positive outcome of inclusive education, it's not the main purpose. Cooperation benefits all students, not just those with special needs.
• To give them a sense of sympathy: Inclusive education aims for understanding and acceptance, not sympathy. Sympathy can imply pity, which is not the goal. The goal is to foster empathy and respect for individual differences.
• Can learn to adjust to the normal processes of life: This aligns very closely with the core principle of inclusive education. It's about integrating children with special needs into mainstream society and equipping them with the skills to participate as fully as possible in typical life processes. This includes academic, social, and developmental aspects within a regular classroom setting.
• Can Educate them: While educating them is a purpose, it's too general. All education aims to educate. Inclusive education's unique purpose goes beyond simply "educating" to address how and where they are educated, with a focus on inclusion and normalization.

Thus, the correct answer is can learn to adjust to the normal processes of life.

Socio-emotional skills are also referred to as non-cognitive, soft, or life skills. 

Key PointsSocio-emotional is important because of the following reasons:

• collection of behaviors, attitudes, and values needed to navigate interpersonal and social situations and deal ethically and effectively with challenges encountered on a daily basis.
• These abilities are both emotional and social since they are meant to improve how well each person interacts with other people or groups of people.
• They entail detecting and controlling emotions and actions as well as focusing on specific features and dimensions.
• These socio-emotional skills can be identified by observing a child's behavior in different situations.
• Socio-emotional skills are very important in the educational field because they may support students in managing their stress, setting and achieving objectives, dealing with difficult situations, avoiding dangerous behaviors, and forming strong connections with their peers.
• In terms of their ability to instruct and manage their classroom, their interactions with students, and their power to alter the school climate—which in turn influences the socio-emotional development of kids—these abilities are also important for teachers (and the rest of the school staff).

Thus, teachers recognize the problem of difficulty in forming socio-emotional connections in children by observing their behavior in different situations.

An increase in structure for better and more effective organ functioning is referred to as development. The key areas of development include social development.

Key Points In order for social development to occur, one's goals must be integrated with those of the social order:

• The maturation of a person's ideals and social abilities during their lifetime
• The person's capacity to behave and react in accordance with the conditions and social mores of the society.
• Someone internalizes societal attitudes and customs and adapts social norms, values, culture, etc.

Hence, Social development is essentially a matter of integration of one's purposes with those of the social order.

B. F. Skinner (1904 - 1990) was an American. His experiments on operant conditioning won him worldwide fame. Skinner defined operant conditioning as the process of learning that elicits operant behavior. According to Skinner, there are two types of behaviors, namely respondent behavior, and operant behavior.

Key Points

B.F.Skinner proposed that the behavior of children increases after every reinforcement and the behavior of children decreases for every punishment.

• According to Skinner, humans can construct linguistic stimuli which can control their behavior.
• He maintains that language is learned by imitation of stimuli and reinforcement of correct responses.
• He also proposed that children imitate what they see and hear, as well as what they learn from punishment and reinforcement.

Hence, we conclude that B. F. Skinner claimed that language is learned through imitation and reinforcement.

Learning refers to a  change in the behavior of an individual due to his own experiences. The behavior change is permanent as a result of experience.

Key Points learning depends on-

• Learning depends on the readiness of the learner i.e., the active participation of students plays an important role.
• learning depends upon the interest and motivation of a child.
• A child's physical environment and mental conditions also affect a child's learning.

Hence, it is concluded that the Active interest of students plays a major role in enhancing learning.

Additional Information Teacher, Teaching method, and Appropriate teaching Aids are the important pillars in the teaching-learning process but active participation is necessary to acquire any knowledge.

Important Pointssome important Teaching Methods -

According to Piaget's Theory of Cognitive development, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrium are the process of building a mental representation of the world by direct interaction.

Key Points

Assimilation is the tendency to fit new information into existing mental frameworks to understand the world in terms of existing concepts, schemas, and modes of thought. Assimilation and accommodation are the two basic components of Adaptation. 

Hence, we conclude that The process of Learning in which the child incorporates new knowledge into his old schema is Assimilation.

Additional Information Accommodation is the tendency to alter existing concepts in response to new information

The concept of Zone of Proximal Development is given by  Lev Vygotsky. Zone of Proximal Development or ZPD is the set of skills a child can't do on his own but can do with the help of guidance of a more knowledgeable other. 

Key Points

• ZPD or Zone of Proximal Development includes skills that are a little difficult from the child's level so he will connect and learn better.
• Also, Scaffolding is a part of the educational concept Zone of Proximal Development  ZPD.  Scaffolding is a teaching method that helps the student to achieve their learning goals with the help of a teacher or more advanced Peer.

Hence, we conclude  "If a child is given a task that is a little difficult from his level, then he connects better and learns." indicates the Zone of Proximal Development.

Additional Information

• Lev Vygotsky's  Sociocultural Theory emphasis more on the role of society and culture in the cognitive development of the child.
• Zone of Actual development- It represents the present level of a learner i.e., the ability that he/she has already achieved. zone of Actual development includes the present capabilities of a child that can be done without any support.
• According to Vygotsky's socio-culture theory, children learn more through social interaction with the one who is more skilled in that task. The people with higher skill levels are termed as More Knowledgeable others (MKO).

Scaffolding refers to a method where teachers offer a particular kind of help or support to students to enhance the learning process.

Key Points

• The concept of Scaffolding was given by Soviet psychologist and social constructivist Lev Vygotsky.
• Lev Vygotsky defines Scaffolding as ' a teaching method that helps students to learn more or to achieve their learning goals with the help of a more knowledgeable person.

Hence, we conclude that scaffolding means the work that the child does with the help of a teacher. 

Additional Information

• Lev Vygotsky's scaffolding is a part of the educational concept "Zone of Proximal Development " or ZPD. ZPD includes skills that a student wouldn't be able to do on his own, but can do with the help of a more knowledgeable teacher or peer.
• Zone of Actual development- It represents the present level of a learner i.e., the ability that he/she has already achieved. zone of Actual development includes the present capabilities of a child that can be done without any support.
• According to Vygotsky's socio-culture theory, children learn more through social interaction with the one who is more skilled in that task. The people with higher skill levels are termed as More Knowledgeable others (MKO).

Growth refers to structural and physiological changes whereas Development is a combination of maturation and learning. Development is qualitative and quantitative both.

Key Points The factors affecting growth and development are categorized as Internal and External Factors.

Internal Factors include -

• Heredity factors - The physical structure, nervous system, and body structure to a great extent is decided by the heredity factors. It is the process by which the features and characteristics are passed from parents to the child before the child is born.
• Intelligence- The ability to learn, adjust and make the right decision at the right time- has a significant role in the overall growth and development of the child.
• Emotional Factors- A child who is found to be overwhelmed by negative emotions like fear, anger, jealousy, etc. is adversely affected in his physical, mental, social, moral, and language development.

​​**External Factors-**The factors lying outside the individual in his/her environment are said to be the external factors influencing his/her growth and development.

External factors include Physical conditions, Social and cultural conditions.

Hence, we conclude that option 4, All the above is correct in the context of the question. 

Additional Information Characteristics of growth and development- 

• Growth refers to physical changes whereas Development refers to the overall change in the human body.
• Growth is one part of the development of an individual.
• Growth is quantitative i.e., can be measured. It includes factors like height, weight, and length. Development is qualitative i.e., can not be measured.
• Growth stops at a particular age but development is continuous throughout the life span.

In the first five years of life, children experience tremendous growth and development in all four developmental domains. These include physical motor, cognitive, social, and emotional, and language and communication. Services for early intervention are provided during this crucial developmental period.

Key Points

• The physical development and strengthening of a child's bones, muscles, and capacity to move about and feel his or her environment is known as motor development.
• The progression of typical motor skill development is predictable. The inner body, which includes the head, neck, arms, and legs, is where it begins.
• From there, it proceeds to the outer body, which includes the hands, feet, fingers, and toes.
• Motor development is important throughout a child's early years since it is connected to other developmental areas and physical growth.

There are two types of motor development in children: fine motor and gross motor.

1. Fine Motor - Small movements made with the hands, wrists, fingers, feet, toes, lips, and tongue are referred to as fine motor skills.
2. **Gross Motor -**The motor growth of the muscles that allow infants to sit, crawl, and later walk, run, leap, and skip.

Hence, while playing with clay child will develop Fine motor skills.

Cognitive or mental development in children follows a predictable pattern, as described by developmental psychologists like Jean Piaget. According to his theory, children progress through stages of thinking that reflect their growing ability to understand and interact with the world.

 Key Points

• One key feature of middle childhood is the increasing ability to understand concepts through concrete situations hands-on experiences that are tangible and relatable.
• ‘Understanding with the help of concrete situations’ is associated with mental development in childhood, particularly during the concrete operational stage (ages 7–11) as identified by Piaget.
• At this stage, children begin to think logically but still need real-life, concrete objects or situations to apply their reasoning. Abstract thinking is still limited, so children learn best through experiences they can see, touch, and manipulate. This is why teaching at this stage often involves activities, models, and examples based on everyday life.

Hint

• Social development in childhood involves learning how to interact with others, not necessarily how to understand concepts through concrete examples.
• Emotional development in adolescence focuses on managing feelings, identity formation, and self-regulation, not concrete learning.
• Mental development in adolescence involves abstract thinking, not reliance on concrete experiences.

Hence, the correct answer is mental development in childhood.

जब मौखिक ध्वनियों को प्रतीकों के रूप में व्यक्त किया जाता है तो इन्हें लिपिबद्ध करके स्थायित्व प्रदान करते हैं तो यह भाषा का लिखित रूप कहलाता है। 

• बच्चों में लेखन कौशल के विकास का अर्थ है भाषा के इस प्रतीक की शिक्षा प्रतीकों को पहचान कर उन्हें बनाने की क्रिया अथवा ध्वनि को लिपिबद्ध करना लिखना है।
• लेखन कौशल के उद्देश्य से विद्यार्थी लिखित अभिव्यक्ति के विभिन्न रूपों की तकनीक का विधिवत पालन करने में समर्थ होंगे।
• छात्र शुद्ध वर्तनी लिख सकेगा‌।
• छात्र सुपाठ्य लेख लिख सकेगा।
• बच्चे सार्थक रेखाओं को खींचने के अभ्यास में वर्णों  का खंडसा लेखन करते वक्त प्राथमिक स्तर पर बच्चे कुछ गलतियां कर सकते हैं जो कि सीखने का एक प्राकृतिक हिस्सा है।
• बच्चे गलतियां करके ही सही लेखन कौशल तक पहुंचते हैं
• बच्चों के लेखन कौशल को सुधारने की कुछ विधियां निम्न है:-
• अनुसरण या रेखा अनुसरण विधि- विधि में शिक्षक पेंसिल से लिखता है बच्चे लिखे हुए शब्दों पर कलम चलाते हैं।
• माण्टेसरी विधि:-इस विधि में सबसे पहले बच्चे को लकड़ी गत्ते आदि से बने वर्ल्ड दिए जाते हैं छात्रों को उन पर उंगली करने तथा पेंसिल चलाने को कहा जाता है जब उंगलियां सध जाती हैं तो उन्हें स्वतंत्र रूप से लिखने को कहा जाता है।

अतः यह निष्कर्ष निकलता है कि बच्चे लिखने में गलतियाँ करते हैं, क्योंकि लिखने की गलतियाँ बच्चों के सीखने का प्राकृतिक हिस्सा है।

मूल्यांकन कक्षा अधिगम प्रक्रिया के साथ-साथ बच्चों की सीखने की गति अवधारणा ज्ञान अभिवृत्ति ,कौशल, व्यवहार ,अनुभव आदि को जानने के लिए योजनाबद्ध रूप से साक्ष्यो का संकलन, विश्लेषण, व्याख्या तथा सुझाव देने की प्रक्रिया है।

Key Pointsमूल्यांकन का अर्थ केवल बच्चों की कमियों को जानना या डराना नहीं है। इसका उद्देश्य बच्चों की शिक्षा में सुधार लाना है। मूल्यांकन के माध्यम से हम यह जान सकते हैं कि:

• बच्चों की व्यक्तिगत और विशेष जरूरतें क्या हैं।
• बच्चे किस विषय में अच्छे हैं और किसमें उन्हें और मेहनत करने की आवश्यकता है।
• बच्चों को सीखने में क्या दिक्कतें आ रही हैं।
• बच्चों को किस तरह की शिक्षा दी जाए ताकि वे बेहतर तरीके से सीख सकें।

​अतः, मूल्याँकन का सही अर्थ 'बच्चों की व्यक्तिगत और विशेष जरूरतों को पहचानना' हो सकता है।

उपर्युक्त में से शब्द में उपसर्ग नहीं है - 'निंदा'

• 'निंदा' शब्द में सार्थक खंड सम्भव नही है। अत: निंदा में उपसर्ग नही है।    
• निंदा - किसी के समक्ष दूसरे व्यक्ति की बुराई करना।​
• नि + रोध = निरोध
• नि (बिना) उपसर्ग और **'**रोध' मूलशब्द
• अर्थ: रोकने की क्रिया, अवस्था या भाव, रोक, रुकावट, प्रतिबंध, अवरोध।
• नि + रत = निरत
• नि (बिना) उपसर्ग और 'रत' मूलशब्द
• अर्थ: किसी कार्य में लगा हुआ, रत, लीन।
• नि + ग्रह = निग्रह
• नि (बिना) उपसर्ग और 'ग्रह' मूलशब्द
• अर्थ: रोक, अवरोध, वश में करना।​

Key Points

• उपसर्ग शब्द के शुरू में जुड़ता है।

Additional Information कुछ महत्वपूर्ण उपसर्ग शब्द:-

• नि (बिना) - निखरा, निकम्मा, निधड़क, निवारण, निपात, नियोग, निषेध, निडर।
• अ (नही) - अनबन, अनपढ़, अनजान, अनहोनी, अनमोल, अनचाहा।​
• अव (हीनता) - अवगुण, अवगति, अवशेष, अवज्ञा, अवरोहण।
• अनु (पीछे) - अनुचर, अनुकरण, अनुकूल, अनुनाद, अनुभव।
• अन् (नही) - अनन्त, अनुपयोगी, अनुपयुक्त, अनागत, अनिष्ट, अनुपम।
• सम् (अच्छी तरह)- सन्तोष, संगठन,संलग्न, संकल्प, संशय, संरक्षा।
• प्रति (प्रत्येक) - प्रतिदिन, प्रत्येक, प्रतिकूल, प्रतिहिंसा, प्रतिरूप, प्रतिध्वनि।

प्रभावपूर्ण भाषा में वाक्यांशों का अपना महत्व होता है, ये समय की बचत तो कराते ही हैं साथ ही परिपूर्ण अर्थ के द्योतक भी होते हैं।

• इस दृष्टि से 'जो कभी बूढ़ा न हो' इस वाक्यांश के लिए एक शब्द होगा - 'अजर'

Key Points

• जो कभी ना मरे - अमर
• जो सब-कुछ जानता है - सर्वज्ञ
• जिसकी तुलना न हो सके - अतुल

Additional Informationवाक्यांश:-

• जब किसी वाक्य में प्रयुक्त या स्वतन्त्र किसी वाक्यांश के लिए किसी एक शब्द का प्रयोग किया जाता है,
• जो उस वाक्यांश के अर्थ को पूरी तरह सिद्ध करता हो तो उसे वाक्यांश के लिए एक शब्द कहते हैं।

कुछ महत्वपूर्ण वाक्यांश के लिए एक शब्द:-

• जो धन को व्यर्थ ही खर्च करता हो - अपव्ययी
• जो इंद्र पर विजय प्राप्त कर चुका हो - इन्द्रजीत
• पर्वत के नीचे तलहटी की भूमि - उपत्यका
• जो इन्द्रियों से संबंधित हो - ऐन्द्रिय
• जिसे जाना न जा सके - अज्ञेय

सीखने सिखाने की इस प्रक्रिया के मूल में बच्चों के बारे में अवधारणा है कि बच्चे अपने ज्ञान का निर्माण स्वयं करते हैं यह निर्माण किसी की जोर जबरदस्ती से नहीं बल्कि बच्चों के स्वयं के अनुभवों और आवश्यकताओं से होता है

• प्राथमिक स्तर पर बच्चों का अधिगम इस प्रकार का होना चाहिए कि वह पढ़ना, सुनना, लिखना, बोलना इन चार प्रकरणों के माध्यम से अपने पूर्व ज्ञान की सहायता से अर्थ की रचना कर पाएं तथा कही गई बात के निहितार्थ को भी पकड़ पाए।
• भाषा के चार कौशल होते है- बोलना, सुनना, पढ़ना व लिखना।
• बोलना कौशल का अभिप्राय विचारों की मौखिक अभिव्यक्ति है, जबकि लेखन कौशल विचारों की लिखित अभिव्यक्ति है।
• सुनना और पढ़ना ग्राणात्मक कौशल है जिनका अभिप्राय सुने तथा लिखे हुए का अर्थ ग्रहण करना है।

अतः निष्कर्ष निकलता है कि पढ़कर अर्थ ग्रहण करना प्राथमिक स्तर पर पढ़ने के प्रयास का सही अभिप्राय है|

बच्चों में भाषाई विकास को सुदृढ़ करने के लिए भाषा समृद्ध परिवेश आवश्यक है, किन्तु भाषा समृद्ध परिवेश तभी सफल होगा जब विद्यार्थियों को भाषा प्रयोग के तरह तरह के अवसर प्रदान करने के उचित नियम होंगे। इसके अनुसार उन्हें नाटक मंचन, सस्वर पठन तथा अन्य ऐसी चीजों में शामिल होने का अवसर प्रदान करना होगा जिससे वो भाषा के सभी कौशलों को विकसित कर सकें।

बच्चों की भाषायी क्षमता के विकास में सहायक गतिविधियां-

• बच्चों को मातृभाषा प्रयोग की अनुमति प्रदान करें।
• बच्चों को उनके मानसिक एवं बौद्धिक स्तर के अनुसार प्रश्न पूछे जाये। जैसे- बछड़ा अपनी माँ के पास कब गया, उसने अपनी माँ से क्या-क्या बातें की होंगी? इस प्रश्न द्वारा बच्चे अपने-अपने विचारो को अपनी भाषा में व्यक्त करेंगे। जो कि भाषायी क्षमता के विकास में सर्वाधिक सहायक होगा।
• इस प्रश्न के सध्यम से बालक अपनी कल्पनाओ को स्वतंत्र रूप से अभिव्यक्त कर पाएगा।
• भाषा शिक्षण के सभी कौशलों से बच्चों को अवगत कराएं।
• भाषा अभिव्यक्ति के अधिक से अधिक अवसर प्रदान करें।
• भाषा प्रयोग के तरह तरह के अवसर प्रदान करें।
• शिक्षण को मनोरंजक बनाने के लिए अधिगम सामग्रियों का प्रयोग करें।
• बच्चों के कक्षा शिक्षण को उनके परिवेश तथा व्यक्तिगत अनुभवों से जोड़कर देखने में सहयोग करें।

अतः यह निष्कर्ष निकलता है कि बछड़ा अपनी माँ के पास कब गया, उसने अपनी माँ से क्या-क्या बातें की होंगी? यह प्रश्न बच्चों की भाषायी क्षमता के विकास में सबसे अधिक सहायक है।

उपर्युक्त गद्यांश के माध्यम से लेखक ने पाठकों को जीवन में प्रेम का महत्व बतलाया है।

• गद्यांश के अनुसार:-
• ​लेखक ने पाठकों को जीवन में प्रेम के महत्व को विभिन्न रूपों द्वारा संदर्भित किया है।

Key Pointsशारीरिक:- 

• अर्थ: कायिक, दैहिक,आंगिक।

प्रेम:- 

• अर्थ: प्यार मोहब्बत, इश्क, अनुराग, प्रणय, स्नेह, अनुरक्ति।
• विलोम शब्द - 'घृणा, नफ़रत'

लेखक के अनुसार आध्यात्मिक भोजन के न मिलने अथवा दूषित-भोजन मिलने से सारी कमजोरियाँ उत्पन्न होती हैं।

• गद्यांश के अनुसार:-
• प्रेम ही तो आध्यात्मिक भोजन है और सारी कमजोरियाँ इसके न मिलने और दूषित भोजन के मिलने से पैदा होती हैं, कलाकार हम में सौन्दर्य की अनुभूति उत्पन्न करता है

Key Points

• आध्यात्मिक - परमात्मा और आत्मा से संबंध रखनेवाला।
• विलोम शब्द - 'सांसारिक'

Additional Informationसंतुलित:-

• अर्थ: जिसका भार, फैलाव, बल आदि बराबर रखा गया हो, उचित, ठीक।
• विलोम शब्द - ​'असंतुलित'

लेखक के अनुसार हमें कलाकार से सौन्दर्य की अनुभूति और प्रेम की उष्णता प्राप्त होता है।

• गद्यांश के अनुसार:-
• ​कलाकार हम में सौन्दर्य की अनुभूति उत्पन्न करता है और प्रेम की उष्णता, उसका एक वाक्य - हमारे अंतर जा बैठता है कि हमारा अंतकरण प्रकाशित हो जाता है।

Key Points

• अनुभूति - अहसास, संवेदना, अनुभव, एहसास।
• उष्णता -  तपन, गरमी, ताप, उष्ण होने का गुण या भाव।

Additional Informationउमंग:- 

• अर्थ: मन में होने वाला आनंद और उत्साह; उल्लास, जोश, मौज।

अभिनय:-

• अर्थ: आंगिक चेष्टाओं का कलात्मक प्रदर्शन, अनुकरण।

सही वाक्य है - 'आपका आशीर्वाद आवश्यक है।' (सर्वनाम संबंधी अशुद्धियाँ)

• अन्य सभी विकल्प गलत है।

Key Points

• हिंदी में कभी-कभी सर्वनामों के अशुद्ध रूप तथा अनुपयुक्त स्थान प्रयोग भी होते हैं।

Additional Informationकुछ सर्वनाम संबंधी अशुद्धियाँ:-

• अशुद्ध वाक्य - मेरे को बाज़ार जाना है।
• शुद्ध वाक्य - मुझे बाज़ार जाना है।
• अशुद्ध वाक्य - तेरे को क्या चाहिए?
• शुद्ध वाक्य - तुझे क्या चाहिए?
• अशुद्ध वाक्य - तुम तो तुम्हारा काम करो।
• शुद्ध वाक्य - तुम तो अपना काम करो।

सही उत्तर है - B

• अन्य सभी विकल्प गलत है।
• 'भारतीय टीम ने टॉस जीता और बल्लेबाजी प्रारंभ की'
• ​विश्लेषण बिन्दु - विश्लेषण
• उद्देश्य का विस्तार -  'भारतीय'
• कर्ता -  टीम ने
• क्रिया - जीता, प्रारंभ की
• कर्म - टॉस, बल्लेबाजी
• योजक - और

Key Points

दिए गए विकल्पों में सही विकल्प निरुत्तर हो जाना है,अन्य विकल्प इसके गलत उत्तर है।

Key Points

• मुहावरा - बगलें झाँकना
• अर्थ - निरुत्तर हो जाना
• वाक्य प्रयोग -बेरोजगारी का मुद्दा उठने पर सभी नेता बगलें झाँकने लगे।

Additional Information

• मुहावरा मूलतः अरबी भाषा का शब्द है।
• मुहावरे का अर्थ - मुहावरा ऐसे वाक्यांश होते है जो सामान्य अर्थ का बोध न कराकर किसी विलक्षण अर्थ का बोध कराए।

"पहली बार स्कूल आने वाले बच्चे कोरी स्लेट होते हैं जिस पर सूचनाओं और ज्ञान भरना स्कूल का दायित्व है।" यह एक प्रचलित मान्यता है, जो लगभग सत्य है अर्थात-

• बच्चे जब पहली बार स्कूल जाते है तो उन्हें भाषा के चारो कौशलों (सुनना, बोलना, पढ़ना, लिखना) का ज्ञान नहीं होता बच्चे केवल सुनना, बोलना जानते है पढ़ना, लिखना सीखाने का दायित्व स्कूल का होता है।
• बच्चे भाषा का उचित उपयोग करने में असमर्थ रहते है। अतः बच्चो को भाषा का ज्ञान स्कूल द्वारा कराया जाता है।
• बच्चे अपने आस-पास से बहुत-से अनुभव और ज्ञान लेकर आते हैं।यह पूर्व ज्ञान ही बच्चो को स्कूल में भाषा कौशलों को सीखने के लिए सहायक होता है।

अतः यह निष्कर्ष निकलता है कि "पहली बार स्कूल आने वाले बच्चे कोरी स्लेट होते हैं जिस पर सूचनाओं और ज्ञान भरना स्कूल का दायित्व है।" इस कथन की पुष्टि के लिए तथ्य है कि यह प्रचलित मान्यता है, जो लगभग सत्य है।

उच्चारण भाषा शिक्षण का एक अभिन्न अंग है जो अक्षरों को मुख से बोलने की प्रक्रिया से संबंधित है। उच्चारण में शुद्धता का स्थान प्रमुख होता है क्योकि अशुद्ध उच्चारण भाषा को प्रभावहीन बना देता है। 

उच्चारण दोष के कारण-

• हिंदी ध्वनियों एवं उच्चारण स्थान का अपूर्ण ज्ञान- विद्यार्थियों को प्रारंभिक कक्षाओं में ही ध्वनियों के उच्चारण तथा उच्चारण स्थानो के विषय में भ्रम हो जाता है जिससे छात्र स-श, ऋ-र, इ-ई तथा ब-भ में कोई अंतर नहीं समझते है।
• उच्चारण तत्वों के ज्ञान का अभाव- विद्यार्थियों को उच्चारण तत्वों जैसे- ध्वनि-व्यवस्था, लय, स्वराघात, गति, विराम, आदि का उचित ज्ञान नहीं होता है। इससे छात्र अशुद्ध उच्चारण करते है, जैसे- तैंतालिस को तिरालीस या तेतालीस, निन्यानबे को प्रायः निन्नानबे बोलने की गलतियां करते है।
• शारीरिक विकार- कुछ विद्यार्थी शारीरिक विकारो से ग्रस्त होते है और कुछ छात्रों को ध्वनि यंत्रो (कंठ,तालु आदि) में विकार होता है, जिससे वे सुध उच्चारण में समर्थ नहीं हो पाते है।
• परिवार में अशुद्ध उच्चारण- उच्चारण दोष का अन्य कारण परिवार के लोगो द्वारा शुद्ध उच्चारण पर ध्यान न देना भी है। जिस परिवार में बालक रहता है यदि उसके सदस्य अशुद्ध उच्चारण करते है तो बच्चा भी उनका अनुकरण करके ध्वनियों का अशुद्ध उच्चारण करना ही सीखेगा।

अतः यह निष्कर्ष निकलता है कि ज्ञान का अभाव गरिमा की प्रारंभिक अवस्था में उच्चारण दोष होने का कारण रहा।

Additional Information उच्चारण दोष दूर करने में शिक्षक की भूमिका- 

1. वाणी सुधार हेतु प्रशंसा तथा आदर्शरूप प्रस्तुतीकरण- जब बालक गलत उच्चारण करते है तो बालक को आदर्श रूप प्रस्तुत करते हुए बताये की वह गलत उच्चारण कर रहे है तथा उन्हें शिक्षक द्वारा शुद्ध उच्चारण करना सिखाया जाता है तथा विद्यार्थी सीखने के बाद शुद्ध उच्चारण करने लगते है। उनके शुद्ध उच्चारण की प्रशंसा की जाती है जिससे बालक शुद्ध उच्चारण करना शीघ्र सीखते है।
2. आत्मविश्वास विकसित करना- बालक कभी-कभी भय या भ्रम के कारण भी अशुद्ध उच्चारण करते है। अतः शिक्षक द्वारा विद्यार्थियों में उचित आत्मविश्वास विकसित हो उसके लिए अनेक गतिविधियां जैसे- किसी विषय पर चर्चा,शब्द खेल आदि गतिविधियों द्वारा शिक्षक विद्यार्थियों में आत्मविश्वास जागृत कर सकता है।
3. निरंतर बोलने का अभ्यास- अध्यापक जब कक्षाकक्ष में पढ़ा रहे हो तब उन्हें विद्यार्थियों से विषयवस्तु से सम्बंधित प्रश्न या विषयवस्तु के बारे में चर्चा में करने से विद्यार्थी निरंतर बोलते है जिससे विद्यार्थियों की उच्चारण की अशुद्धियाँ दूर होती है।

सही उत्तर 'कर्मधारय समास' है। 

Key Points

• पीताम्बर = पीला कपड़ा ( विशेषण - विशेष्य ) कर्मधारय समास का उदाहरण है।
• जिस समास का पहला पद विशेषण तथा अगला पद विशेष्य हो, वहा कर्मधारय समास होता है।
• उदाहरण :नीलकमल, सूक्ति, महात्मा
• उपमेय और उपमान से सम्बंधित उदाहरण भी प्रायः कर्मधराय समास के उदाहरण होते हैं।
• उदाहरण : चरण कमल, कनक लता, विद्या धन ​

Additional Information

'माता ने बालक को लड्डू से प्रसन्न किया' इस कथन में 'लड्डू से' क्रिया सम्पन्न होने का भाव प्रकट होता है।

• अत: जो शब्द क्रिया के साधन को प्रकट करता है उसे करण कारक कहा जाता है।
• वह साधन जिससे क्रिया होती है, वह करण कहलाता है। यानि, जिसकी सहायता से किसी काम को अंजाम दिया जाता वह करण कारक कहलाता है।
• करण कारक के दो विभक्ति चिन्ह होते है - से और के द्वारा।
• जैसे - 
• वह लड़का ठण्ड से काँप रहा था।

Key Points

Additional Information

मानव के विकास को विभिन्न चरणों शैशावस्था, बाल्यावस्था (प्रारंभिक एवं मध्य बाल्यावस्था), किशोरावस्था और प्रौढ़ावस्था में बांटा गया है।यह विकास की एक महत्वपूर्ण अवधि है जिसमें बच्चा बैठना, रेंगना, खड़ा होना आदि सीखता है।

Important Points शैशवावस्था के दौरान मूल संवेग-

• लगभग दो महीने की आयु के शिशुओं द्वारा मानवीय चेहरों की प्रतिक्रिया के रूप में सामाजिक मुस्कुराहट प्रदर्शित की जाती है।
• जब वे चार महीने के हो जाते हैं, तो वे हँसी दिखाते हैं और छह महीने तक क्रोध, दुख और आश्चर्य व्यक्त करते हैं।
• जब कोई उन्हें 6 - 7 माह की उम्र में उनके नाम से बुलाता है तो वे प्रतिक्रिया देना सीखते हैं।
• वे डर की भावना व्यक्त करते हैं जब उनके माता-पिता या देखभाल करने वाले (अभिभावक) उन्हें छोड़ कर जाते है। वे अपनी जरूरत पूरी न होने पर क्रोध करने लगते हैं।
• बच्चे अपने विश्वास, भय, आत्मविश्वास, प्रेम आदि को व्यक्त करना शुरू कर देते हैं।
• वे सामाजिक-संवेगात्मक विकास के एक हिस्से के रूप में दूसरों के लिए भावना के रूप में प्रेम व्यक्त करते हैं।

अतः यह निष्कर्ष निकलता है कि 6 - 7 माह में सामान्यतः बालक ध्वनि को सुनकर प्रतिक्रिया देना प्रारंभ कर देता है।

भाषा शिक्षण बच्चों में संप्रेषण कुशलता तथा मौलिकता को विकसित कर उन्हें विभिन्न संदर्भों में भाषा प्रयोग में सफल बनाने से संबंधित है।

Important Points प्राथमिक स्तर में भाषा शिक्षण का उद्देश्य- प्राथमिक स्तर में भाषा शिक्षण का निम्नलिखित उद्देश्य होना चाहिए-

• बच्चो को हिंदी के विविध रूपों से परिचित कराना।
• बच्चो द्वारा कही गई बात की तार्किक पुष्टि करवाना।
• बच्चों की कल्पनाशीलता और सृजनात्मकता को विकसित करना।
• बच्चो को रचनाओं के माध्यम से विभिन्न विषयों से जोड़ना ।
• बच्चो को लिखी/छपी सामग्री को पढ़ने और समझने की समझ विकसित करना।
• बच्चो को विभिन्न संदर्भ में भाषा प्रयोग में सफल बनाना।
• बच्चो को भाषा के द्वारा अपने परिवेश व अनुभव को समझाना।
• बच्चों में भाषा की समझ तथा सहज अभिव्यक्ति का विकास करना।

अतः यह निष्कर्ष निकलता है कि बच्चों की कल्पनाशीलता और सृजनात्मकता को विकसित करना, प्राथमिक स्तर में भाषा शिक्षण का प्रमुख उद्देश्य होना चाहिए।

जिन स्वरों के उच्चारण में ह्रस्व स्वर से लगभग तिगुना समय लगता है उन्हें प्लुत स्वर कहते हैं।

• प्लुत स्वर का निर्देश करने के लिए संस्कृत में स्वर के आगे '३' का अंक लिखने की परंपरा है।
• जैसे-
• भैयार३, ओ३म्।
• प्लुत स्वरों का प्रयोग संबोधन या पुकारने के लिए किया जाता है। अब इनका प्रयोग प्रायः कम होता जा रहा है, अत: स्वर के दो ही भेद माने जाते हैं - हस्व और दीर्घ स्वर।

Key Points

दीर्घ स्वर:-

• जिन स्वरों का उच्चारण करने में ह्रस्व स्वरों से लगभग दुगुना समय लगे, उन्हें दीर्घ स्वर कहते हैं।
• ये सात वर्ण दीर्घ स्वर हैं।

जैसे-

• आ, ई, ऊ, ए, ऐ, ओ, औ लेकिन आधुनिक विद्वावानों ने आ और ओ के मध्य की ध्वनि ओं को मिलाकर अब दीर्घ स्वरों की संख्या आठ निर्धारित की है।

ह्रस्व स्वर:-

• जिन स्वरों का उच्चारण सबसे कम समय में होता है, उन्हें ह्रस्व स्वर कहते हैं। चार वर्ण ह्रस्व स्वर होते हैं।
• जैसे- अ, इ, उ, ऋ।

मुख के जिस भाग से जिस वर्ण का उच्चारण होता है उसे उसका उच्चारण स्थान कहा जाता है। बताइये उ, ऊ, प वर्ग वर्ण का उच्चारण स्थान में से ओष्ठ है।

• इनके उच्चारण में जिह्वा के सहयोग से दोनों ओष्ठ परस्पर मिल जाते हैं।

Key Pointsतालु:-

• इ, ई, च वर्ग (च्, छ्, ज्, झ्, ञ्) य् तथा श् का उच्चारण-स्थान तालु है।
• तालु से बोले जाने वाले इन वर्णों को तालव्य कहा जाता है।
• इनके उच्चारण में जिह्वा मुख के ऊपरी चिकने भाग ’तालु’ का स्पर्श करती है।

नासिका:-

• ङ्, ञ्, ण्, न्, म्, तथा अनुस्वार का उच्चारण-स्थान नासिका है। इन वर्णों को नासिक्य भी कहा जाता है।
• इनके उच्चारण में क्रमशः कण्ठ, मूर्धा, तालु, दन्त, ओष्ठ – इन पाँच स्थानों पर स्पर्श से उत्पन्न होने वाली ध्वनियों के साथ नासिका से उत्पन्न ध्वनि भी मिल जाती है।

दन्त:-

• लृ, त वर्ग (त्, थ्, द्, ध्, न्) ल्, स का उच्चारण-स्थान दन्त है। इन वर्णों को दन्त्य कहा जाता है।
• इनके उच्चारण में जिह्वा दाँतों में लगती है।

सही विकल्प अचल है। 

Key Points

• दिए गए विकल्पों में से अचल शब्द पर्वत का पर्यायवाची है।
• अन्य विकल्प अन्य शब्दों के पर्यायवाची है।
• पर्वत के अन्य पर्यायवाची शब्द -नग, भूमिधर, भूधर, नगपति आदि

Additional Information

सही विकल्प सर है

Key Points

• दिए गए विकल्पों में से 'सर' शब्द  पानी का पर्यायवाची नहीं है।
• अन्य सभी शब्द 'पानी' के पर्यायवाची शब्द है।
• पानी के अन्य पर्यायवाची शब्द है - तोय, जल, उदक, सलिल, आप, वारि आदि।
• सर के पर्यायवाची शब्द है - शीर्ष, मष्तिस्क, खोपड़ी, माथा  आदि।

Additional Information

सही उत्तर 'बनावट' है।

Key Points

• दिए गए विकल्पों में 'बनावट' शब्द सदैव स्त्रीलिंग में प्रयुक्त होता है।
• अन्य शब्द पुल्लिंग शब्द है।
• उदाहरण : संदूक की बनावट अच्छी है।
• स्त्रीलिंग शब्द -जिन शब्दों से स्त्री जाति का बोध होता है ,वे स्त्रीलिंग शब्द कहलाते है।​

Additional Information

• बुढ़ापा - नियमित व्यायाम करने से बुढ़ापा जल्दी नही आता है।
• लड़कपन - बाल्यावस्था  में बच्चो में लड़कपन होता है।
• हिमालय - हिमालय एक नवीन वलित पर्वत है।
• पुल्लिंग शब्द - जिन शब्दों से पुरुष जाति का बोध होता है ,वे पुल्लिंग शब्द कहलाते है।

वाक्य में विशेषण सम्बन्धी अशुद्धि नहीं है- 'वहाँ ज्वर की सर्वोत्कृष्ट चिकित्सा होती है।'

• 'गोपनीय रहस्य','अच्छा सज्जन',' खूब ठण्ड' शब्दों में विशेषण संबन्धी अशुद्धि है। वाक्य 'वहाँ ज्वार की सर्वोत्कृष्ट चिकित्सा होती है।' में शुद्ध विशेषण है।

Key Points

• अशुद्ध - कहीं से खूब ठंडा बर्फ लाओ।
• शुद्ध - कहीं से ठंडा बर्फ लाओ।
• अशुद्ध - आप जैसा अच्छा सज्जन मैंने नहीं देखा।
• शुद्ध - आप जैसा सज्जन मैंने नहीं देखा।
• अशुद्ध - यह बात एक गोपनीय रहस्य है।
• शुद्ध - यह बात एक गोपनीय है।

Additional Informationविशेषण संबन्धी अशुद्धि:-

• विशेषण का प्रयोग विशेष्य (संज्ञा व सर्वनाम) के लिंग और वचन के अनुसार किया जाता है।
• वाक्य में कई बार अनावश्यक, अनियमित व अनुपयुक्त विशेषण का प्रयोग हो जाता है। जो वाक्य को अशुद्ध कर देते हैं।

भाषा शब्द भाष धातु (क्रिया) से बना है जिसका शाब्दिक अर्थ है विचार प्रकट करना। अतः भाषा विचारो का आदान-प्रदान करने की एक प्रक्रिया है। मातृभाषा वह प्रथम भाषा होती है जो एक बच्चा जन्म लेने के बाद सीखता है। 

Important Points

• बच्चों द्वारा मातृभाषा या घर की भाषा के शब्दों का प्रयोग करते हुए अपनी बात को कहना पूर्णतः स्वभाविक है।
• बच्चे जिस वातावरण में रहते हैं उस वातावरण में बात करने में सहज महसूस करते हैं।
• बच्चों की भाषा में उसकी क्षेत्रीय भाषा की झलक मिलनी स्वभाविक है।
• बच्चे के घर पर बोली जाने वाली भाषा और विद्यालय में व्यवहार में लाई जाने वाली भाषा से अलग होती है।
• विद्यालय में प्रयोग में लायी जाने वाली भाषा अपेक्षाकृत अधिक औपचारिक होती है।
• यदि बच्चा स्कूल की भाषा के साथ ताल-मेल नहीं बैठा पाता तो उसे भाषा सीखने में समस्या होती है तथा उसके साथ-साथ विषयों के नए संदर्भों को समझने में भी समस्या आती है।
• इस प्रकार बच्चा अपने घर की भाषा में कुशल होने पर भी अधिगम में केवल भाषा के कारण पिछड़ जाता है और उसमें पढ़ाई के प्रति अरूचि उत्पन्न हो जाती है।

अतः यह निष्कर्ष निकलता है कि स्कूल की भाषा और घर की भाषा में अन्तर होने से भाषा सीखने में बच्चों को समस्या होती है।

बहुभाषिक कक्षा का अर्थ उस कक्षा से है जहाँ अलग अलग भाषाओं वाले बच्चे एक साथ सामान शिक्षा ग्रहण करते हैं। बहुभाषिक कक्षा में शिक्षण प्रक्रिया के दौरान शिक्षक सदैव विद्यार्थियों को अपनी मातृभाषा में बोलने के अवसर प्रदान करते हैं।

बहुभाषिक कक्षा की विशेषताएं:

• बच्चों को उनकी गृहभाषा में कहने सुनने की आजादी देती है।
• बहुभाषिक कक्षा में बच्चों की मातृभाषा को कक्षा में स्थान दिया जाता है।
• बच्चों को कक्ष के वातावरण से जोड़ कर उनमें भाषाई कौशल को विस्तार देती है।
• बच्चों को संवादात्मक परिस्थितियों का सामना करने की योग्यता प्रदान करती है।

Important Points 

माँ को अपनी-अपनी भाषा में क्या कहते हैं? ऐसे प्रश्न:

• बच्चों को उनकी मातृ/गृहभाषा प्रयोग की अनुमति देंगे।
• बहुभाषिकतावाद को जीवंतता प्रदान कर शिक्षण को सहज बनाएंगे।
• बच्चों को बहुसंवादात्मक परिस्थितियों का सामना करने की योग्यता प्रदान करेंगे।
• बच्चों को मातृभाषा प्रयोग द्वारा कक्ष के  वातावरण से जोड़ कर भाषाई कौशल का विस्तार करेंगे।

अतः, यह कहा जा सकता है कि माँ को अपनी-अपनी भाषा में क्या कहते हैं? प्रश्न कक्षा में बहुभाषिकता को परिभाषित करता है।

​समस्त प्राणी जगत का सीधा सम्बन्ध भाषा से है जिसके बिना समस्त प्राणी जगत संवाद विहीन है। 

मनुष्य की भाषा की विशेषताएं- 

• मनुष्य की भाषा समाज का अंग है।
• मनुष्य की भाषा यादृच्छिक होती है।
• मनुष्य की भाषा अर्जित संपत्ति है, जिसे सबको सीखना पड़ता है।
• मनुष्य की भाषा ध्वनि प्रतीकों का समूह और समाज के अनुसार अलग-अलग व्यवस्था है।
• मनुष्य की भाषा सुव्यवस्थित प्रणाली है।

इन विशेषताओं के आधार पर मनुष्यो तथा जानवरो की भाषा में अंतर होने के निम्नलिखित कारण है-

• मनुष्य की भाषा में व्यवहारिकता होती है जबकि जानवरो की भाषा वैयक्तिक होती है। ये मनुष्य की तरह शब्दों का निर्माण नहीं कर सकते। जानवरो की भाषा सुनिश्चित प्रणाली का हिस्सा नहीं है। अतः उनका अध्ययन और उनकी भाषा का अर्जन करना कठिन है।
• मनुष्यो का मस्तिष्क जानवरो से अधिक विकसित है, क्योकि मनुष्य की भाषा निश्चित व्याकरणबद्ध होती है वह किसी भी भाषा को आसानी से सीख सकते है जबकि एक जानवर दूसरे जानवर की भाषा नहीं सीख सकता।
• मनुष्य की भाषा ध्वनि प्रतीकों का समूह और समाज के अनुसार अलग-अलग है। जबकि जानवरो की भाषा में प्राकृतिक एकरूपता मिलती है।
• मनुष्य की भाषा ध्वनि-प्रतीकों की निजी विशेषता और समाज के अनुसार अलग-अलग सांस्कृतिक व्यवस्था होती है। भाषा के विकास के कारण ही मनुष्य का विकास हुआ जबकि जानवरो की भाषा का विकास न होने के कारण वह आज भी आदिम रूप में है।

अतः यह निष्कर्ष निकलता है कि मनुष्य और जानवरों की भाषा में अन्तर होने का प्रमुख कारण है मानव मस्तिष्क का अधिक विकसित होना।

मौखिक अभिव्यक्ति से तात्पर्य मन के विचारों को स्वतंत्र रूप से बोल कर अभिव्यक्त करने से है। वक्ता द्वारा सूचनाओं का श्रोताओं तक प्रभावपूर्ण संप्रेषण मौखिक अभिव्यक्ति को सार्थक सिद्ध करता है। 

• जब अपने विचारो को दुसरो के समक्ष रखने के लिए भाषा का बोलकर प्रयोग करता है तो उसे मौखिक अभिव्यक्ति कहा जाता है।
• व्यक्तित्व के समायोजन के लिए मनोवैज्ञानिकों ने अभिव्यक्ति को मुख्य साधन माना है।

Important Points 

मौखिक अभिव्यक्ति के विकास में सबसे अधिक प्रभावी गतिविधियाँ निम्नलिखित है-

• कहानी को अपनी बोली/भाषा में कहने का अवसर देना जिससे बच्चे अपने भावों को व्यक्त कर सके।
• बच्चों की आपस में किसी विषय पर परिचर्चा करवाना चाहिए।
• बालको के अनुभव व रूचि के विषयों के बारे में उनसे चर्चा करना चाहिए
• समूह गतिविधियों का आयोजन करना।
• कविता का भाव के साथ पठन करवाना।
• कहानी का संदर्भानुसार उचित अनुतान के साथ सस्वर पठन करना।

अतः यह निष्कर्ष निकलता है कि प्राथमिक स्तर पर बच्चों की मौखिक अभिव्यक्ति के विकास में सबसे अधिक प्रभावी गतिविधि कहानी को अपनी बोली/भाषा में कहना हो सकती है।

सही विकल्प है - 'च् + अ + क् + क् + ई = चक्की'

• चक्की - पत्थर के दो गोल पाटों को एक-दूसरे के ऊपर रखकर बनाया जाने वाला अनाज पीसने का यंत्र, जाँता, चाकी।

Key Points

• वर्ण विच्छेद करते समय हमें स्वरों की मात्रा को पहचानना पड़ता है और उस मात्रा के स्थान पर उस स्वर को प्रयोग में किया जाता है।
• इसमें हम शब्द के स्वर और व्यंजन को अलग-अलग करते है, शब्द और समूह को अलग करने की प्रक्रिया को वर्ण विच्छेद कहते है ।

तत्सम शब्द अपनी भाषा के मौलिक रूप में बिना किसी परिवर्तन के प्रयुक्त होते हैं जबकि, तद्भव शब्द अपना रूप बदल द���ते हैं। इस कथन के परिप्रेक्ष्य में 'अक्षत' शब्द का तद्भव रूप होगा

• अक्षत का तद्भव रूप अच्छत है।
• अक्षत ​- बिना टूटा हुआ/ज़ख्म का, अखत।
• अन्य सभी विकल्प व्याकरण की दृष्टि से गलत है।

Key Pointsतत्सम:-

• तत्सम शब्द संस्कृत भाषा के दो शब्दों, तत् + सम् से मिलकर बना है।
• तत् का अर्थ है – उसके, तथा सम् का अर्थ है – समान। अर्थात – ज्यों का त्यों अर्थात संस्कृत के समान।
• जिन शब्दों को संस्कृत से बिना किसी परिवर्तन के ले लिया जाता है, उन्हें तत्सम शब्द कहते हैं।
• जैसे- अग्नि, आम्र, आलस्य, कर्पूर, क्षेत्र, ग्राहक, गोमय इत्यादि।

तद्भव:-

• तद्भव मूल भाषा संस्कृत के वे शब्द जिनका हिंदी में रूप परिवर्तन हो गया है उन्हें तद्भव शब्द कहते हैं।
• तद्भव शब्द ‘तत्’ एवं ‘भव’ के योग से बना हुआ शब्द है, जहाँ तत् का अर्थ- उससे (संस्कृत) तथा भव का अर्थ- विकसित होता है,
• अतः तद्भव शब्द का शाब्दिक अर्थ- उससे (संस्कृत) विकसित हुआ। 
• जैसे- आग, आम, आलस,  कपूर, खेत, गाहक, गोबर इत्यादि।

The correct answer is 'The carrots became soft and the eggs became hard'.

Key Points

• Read the lines of the passage - "As the daughter did so, she noticed that the carrots which had been hard had become soft. The eggs which were brittle earlier had now turned into hard-boiled eggs"
• After reading the lines we can say that when the mother boiled carrots, they become soft.
• And, when the mother boiled eggs, they become hard.

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Hence, the answer will be - carrots became soft and the eggs became hard.

The correct answer is 'always complaining'. 

Key Points 

• Read the lines of the passage -"You keep grumbling about your problems and let them get the better of you... "
• Grumble means complaining about something in a bad-tempered way.
• After reading this we can say that the daughter is always complaining.

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Hence, the correct answer is 'always complaining'.

The correct answer is 'They gave the water their qualities and sweet smell'. 

Key Point

• Read the lines of the passage - "The coffee beans reacted very differently. It changed the boiling water completely, making it absorb its characteristics and aroma."
• Hence we can conclude that coffee beans lost their aroma and quality and gave the same to the water.
• Thus, the water gained all the qualities and sweet smell of the coffee beans.

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Hence, the answer will be option 4.

The correct answer is ' They completely absorbed the water'. 

Key Points

• The story tells us that the young girl was in a problem, which she can not deal with.​
• She sought her mother's help.
• Her mother listened to her patiently and then took her daughter to the kitchen.
• Through the changing effects of boiling water on carrots, coffee beans and eggs the mother educate her daughter on how to deal with adversities.

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Hence, we can conclude that the mother was very intelligent.

The correct answer is "Change bad time into good one".

Key Points

• The story tells us that the young girl was in a problem, which she can not deal with.​
• She sought her mother's help.
• Her mother listened to her patiently and then took her daughter to the kitchen.
• Through the changing effects of boiling water on carrots, coffee beans and eggs the mother educate her daughter on how to deal with adversities.
• The moral of the story is "When adversity stares at your face, be strong and think of ways to turn the situation to favour you. Be bold and don't let the situation overwhelm you".
  

Hence, we can conclude that the moral is "Change bad time into good one".

The correct answer is "She boiled each separately".

Key Points

• Read the lines of the passage - "Her mother listened to her patiently. She then took her daughter to the kitchen and poured water into three pots and let them on the stove. The mother placed some carrots in the first pot, eggs in the second and coffee beans in the third."
• Hence, we can conclude that the mother boiled eggs, carrots, and beans separately.

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Hence, the answer will be she boiled each separately.

The correct answer is 'The mother wanted her daughter to become like coffee beans'.

Key Points

• Read the lines of the passage - "Or are you going to be like the coffee beans that totally changed the very adversity that was trying to consume it. It changed the boiling water into aromatic coffee. Or in other words it changed the circumstance to its advantage and made it pleasant and appealing."
• After reading the lines, we can conclude that the mother wants her daughter to be like coffee beans.
• Mother taught her daughter that when adversity stares at your face, be strong and think of ways to turn the situation to favour you. Be bold and don't let the situation overwhelm you".

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Hence, the correct answer will be -The mother wanted her daughter to become like coffee beans.

The correct answer is 'over'.

Key Points

• Skim means to move quickly just above or on a surface, or to cause something to move above or on a surface.
• For example:- Skaters skim over the ice.
• In the given sentence, He let his fingers skim (above/on) the back of the pet.
• Hence, 'over' will be an appropriate choice in the blank.

Therefore, the complete sentence is - He let his fingers skim over the back of the pet.

Additional Information

• Let's see the meaning of other options:
• across: From one side to the other of (a place, area, etc.).
• Off: Away from the place in question; to or at a distance.

The correct answer is 'Position of blind matriarch during the Pandemic'.

Key Points

• The central character of Namita Gokhale's novel is a blind matriarch.
• Read the lines of the passage - "The Blind matriarch stops us in our tracks. It is a reminder of the human cost of the last two years, lest we forget."
• Hence, we can say that the situation of the blind matriarch is described in the passage.

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Hence, The passage is about the Position of blind matriarch during the Pandemic.

The correct answer is 'Adjective'.

Key Points

• Scant means barely sufficient or adequate.
• Synonyms are minimal, little, negligible, etc.
• For example:- Companies with scant regard for the safety of future generations.
• In the given sentence it is used as an adjective.

Therefore, the answer will be Adjective.

Additional Information

• Adverb: a word that adds more information about place, time, manner, cause or degree to a verb, an adjective, a phrase or another adverb.

The correct answer is 'Brittle'.

Key Points

• 'Grapple with' means engaging in a close fight or struggle without weapons; wrestle.
• Synonyms are wrestle, struggle, tussle, brawl, fight, etc.
• For example:- Passers-by grappled with the man after the knife attack.
• Brittle means hard but liable to break easily.
• For example:- Her manner was artificially bright and brittle.
• Hence, Brittle is not the synonym of 'Grapple with'.

​Therefore, the answer is Brittle.

Additional Information

• Let's look at the other given words:
• ​Struggle: make forceful or violent efforts to get free of restraint or constriction.
• Tussle: a vigorous struggle or scuffle, typically in order to obtain or achieve something.
• Scuffle: a short, confused fight or struggle at close quarters.

The correct answer is - What did the virus look like?

Key Points

• Read the line of the passage - "What did the virus look like?" Matangi-Ma, the blind matriarch and the central character of Namita Gokhale's novel wonders, "Did the virus have feelings? Was it angry with the world ?"

After reading the lines we can say that "What did the virus look like" this sentence is correct with the reference to the passage.

The correct answer is 'opposites'.

Key Points

• Paradox means a seemingly absurd or contradictory statement or proposition that when investigated may prove to be well founded or true.
• Synonyms are contradiction, self-contradiction, and inconsistency.
• For example:- The uncertainty principle leads to all sorts of paradoxes, like the particles being in two places at once.
• Other options are different from the meaning of 'paradox'.

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Hence, the correct answer will be ''opposites".

The correct answer is 'Active voice'.

Key Points

• When an action performed by the subject is expressed by the verb, it is an active voice.
• Active voice is used when more straightforward relation and clarity is required between the subject and the verb.
• Structure :- Subject + Verb + Object.
• For example:- Sheena does the housework.

Hence, the given sentence is written in Active voice.

Important Points

• Passive Voice – When the action expressed by the verb is received by the subject, it is passive voice. Passive voice is used when the doer of the action is not known and the focus of the sentence is on the action and not the subject.
• Example:- Eggs are laid by hens.

The correct answer is 'Variant'.

Key Points

• Variant means a form or version of something that differs in some respect from other forms of the same thing or from a standard.
• Synonyms are variation, form, etc.
• For example:- Clinically distinct variants of malaria.

Hence, one word for different types of Corona Viruses is variant.

Additional Information

• Let's look at the other given words:
• ​Streaks: a long, thin line or mark of a different substance or colour from its surroundings.
• Varieties: the quality or state of being different or diverse; the absence of uniformity or monotony.

Language skills are necessary for effective communication in any environment and to interact with others. It allows an individual to comprehend and produce language for proper and effective interpersonal communication.

Key Points 

• The four basic language skills and their natural order are listening-speaking-reading-writing. These foundational skills of language are divided into two categories which are receptive and productive skills.

Let's understand it briefly:

• Productive skills: 
• The productive skills of language are speaking and writing because these skills can measure learners' ability to produce language.
• Both skills are concerned with language product or output through speech or written tests.
• Receptive skills:
• The receptive skills of language are listening and reading because these skills don't require the production of language.
• These skills focus on an individual's ability of understanding and comprehend language.

 

 

Hence, from the above-mentioned points, it becomes clear that the four basic language skills are categorized under two broad heads called Receptive and Productive.

Listening is the process of receiving and constructing meaning from and responding to verbal or non-verbal messages.

• Listening skills are the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the communication process.

Key Points

Activities to develop listening skills in the students-

• Giving them auditory exercises: To improve their listening skill the teacher can read a passage to the children and ask questions to check their comprehension. It will help a teacher to know if they were listening carefully or not and to which extent they are able to grasp the content while listening.
• Model good listening for students: The teacher should insist on only one person speaking at a time. He/she can demonstrate good listening skills by listening to his/her students carefully.
• Talk less: Children can effectively listen to roughly half of their age in minutes.

Hence, we conclude that the teacher is trying to develop listening skills in students.

Reading sub-skill refers to the well-planned reading approach which helps the learners to comprehend and perceive the meaning of the text effectively. There are different kinds of reading sub-skills and 'scanning' is one of them.

Key Points 

Scanning 

• It involves quickly glancing through the text to find out a specific piece of information. It is used when looking into a dictionary, invoices, catalogs, etc.
• It involves going through a text in search of a specific piece of information; such as searching for a specific name, date, word, phrase, figures, or percentage.
• Scanning is a reader-driven process and the text is processed at the surface level rather than at the deep structure level.
• For example, looking for your best friend's phone number in your cell phone, looking for specific information in a manual, etc.

Hence, it could be concluded that the above-mentioned reading sub-skill known as scanning.

Additional Information

• Bottom-up model is a reading process that focuses on decoding messages moving from sounds to words, phrases, clauses, and other grammatical elements to sentences.
• Skimming involves going through the text to get its gist or central idea. All the insignificant words are avoided and the focus is on the meaning-bearing elements. For example, looking for the main idea in a chapter of a book.
• Critical reading goes hand in hand with critical thinking. To read a text critically a reader has to employ the ability to question what is before him/her on the page in terms of the context or situation.

Language tests are tests that play a significant role in the teaching-learning process of language. Language tests measure the language skills learnt by learners and also help in finding mistakes and weak areas of the learner in language. 

Key Points 

• The above-mentioned type of test item is known as the cloze test as it is a test in which students are asked to supply words that have been removed/dropped from a passage in order to measure one’s ability to comprehend text.
• In this test, the words are replaced with spaces at regular intervals in a given text and the student has to fill the spaces with suitable words to make meaningful sentences.
• Here the learners need to first understand the passage through reading and analyzing and then putting the correct words in blanks to make the sentence in a way that the meaning, usage of the words, and the sense of the sentence remain correct.

Thus, it is clear that the above-mentioned type of test item is known as the cloze test.

The PPP model of teaching refers to a method, model, paradigm, or strategy for teaching language components. It is the common model methodology used by professional schools all over the world.

• This technique was created early in the '90s. It was created by integrating CLT and traditional approaches to teaching.

Key Points

• The PPP stands for Presentation, Practice, and Production and each word refers to a stage of the learning process.
• Presentation is the first stage where the teacher explains the topic.
• Practice stage is the next stage where students are able to utilize the language in a moderately controlled activity.
• Production is the last stage where the children can use the language freely.
• The steps are simple to follow. The target language is introduced by the teacher. Then it is put into practice with the children, initially in strictly regulated activities, then in more liberated ones.

Hence, we conclude that the 3 components of the PPP model of teaching are Presentation - Practice - Production.

Communication refers to the process of passing messages ideas, facts, opinions, attitudes, information, and understanding, from one person to another. It is a cooperative process between two parties, the one who sends and the one who receives the message.

Key Points

One-way communication:

• In this type of communication, the information is only transmitted in one direction i.e. from the sender to the receiver. There is no way for the recipient to provide the sender with feedback.
• It is linear and limited because it occurs in a straight line from sender to receiver and serves to inform, persuade, or command. SENDER---------> MESSAGE---------> RECEIVER.
• It is often used when the sender wants to impart factual information, convince, or manipulate their audience in order to gain their cooperation.
• Some examples of one-way communication are newspapers, radio and television programs, public address announcements, speeches, telephone customer service recordings, etc.

​Hence, we conclude that radio and television programs, public address announcements, speeches, and telephone customer service recordings are means of one-way communication.

Additional Information

Writing is one of the most productive skills in order to acquire a new language. It involves the selection of appropriate words and sentences for making significant structures, paragraphs, and long texts to convey a message to the readers.

Key Points

• In the above-mentioned situation, the teacher is trying to improve the writing skills of students. It is a Controlled to Free writing approach. It is a sequential approach.
• In this method, the students are provided with sentence exercises, and then paragraphs to copy or manipulate grammatically. They might also change words, clauses, or continue sentences.
• For example, The teacher asks students to make a short paragraph, inserting supplied connectors and coherence markers. Children work with the material provided and apply the strictly prescribed operations to them.
• Students can attempt some free writing only after obtaining a high intermediate or advanced level of competency. This method emphasizes mechanics, grammar, and syntax. As a result, it promotes creativity and accuracy than fluency.

Hence, we conclude that the teacher is trying to improve the writing skills of students.

Teaching materials/aids are tools that are used by teachers to help learners to learn concepts with ease and efficiency. The role of teaching aids in the classroom is to make learning real, practical, and fun for children.

• Teaching aids are of various types and thus are classified and categorized in several ways. They can broadly be classified into three categories i.e. Audio aids, Visual aids, and Audio-visual aids.

Key Points

​Visual Aids:

• It refers to the aids which maximize learning with the help of the visual system. It activates the sense of vision to enrich learners' knowledge and for heightening their intellectual abilities.
• Visual aids used in the Language teaching/learning process help in the attainment of all objectives of teaching, i.e., cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.
• These aids include graphic aids, display boards, charts, television, maps, magazines and newspapers, blackboards, posters, flashcards, printed textbooks, etc.

Hence it could be concluded that radio is not a visual aid.

Hint

• Audio aids are used to maximize learning with the help of the auditory system. Radio provides speeches and debates of eminent educationists to the students on national and international problems. For example, radio, tape recorders, etc.

Remedial teaching can be properly conducted on the basis of the outcomes of 'diagnostic test' as remedial teaching is the last step of diagnostic teaching.

Key Points

Let's understand in brief:

• Diagnostic teaching: It helps the teachers to know the learning difficulties or gaps in the learner's understanding and identify the learner's individual strengths, weaknesses, skills, etc.
• Remedial teaching: It helps the teacher to provide learners with the necessary help and guidance to overcome the problems which are determined during diagnostic teaching.

So it could be concluded that the 'diagnostic test' is the base of remedial teaching.

Additional Information

Group work has become an inevitable part of our educational program. It can be in the form of an assignment, project work or group discussion, presentation, collage, poster, etc.

Key Points

Purpose of Group work:

• It allows students to share diverse perspectives and to interact with peers.
• It helps in breaking complex tasks into simpler ones. It helps in developing stronger communication skills.
• It involves different kinds of activities that is why it caters to the diverse abilities and interests of the learners.
• It provides students with the opportunity to engage in process skills important for information processing, evaluation, and problem-solving.

Hence, we conclude that the above-mentioned activity caters to the diverse abilities and interests of the learners.

The formal written examination is a way to evaluate students. Its purpose is to determine whether the student has retained the material being taught.

Key Points

• It assesses reading for information, comprehension, imagination, creativity, free expression, and the ability to argue and write precisely.
• It tests the child's ability to analyze texts, compare, and understand the meaning of words and phrases. It tests abilities rather than memory.
• It provides learners with the opportunity to express their experiences. It emphasizes using your own words and is not expected to reproduce exactly the language written in the textbooks.

Hence, we conclude that the skill of extensive reading for pleasure can not be tested by formal written examinations.

Hint

• In a formal written examination, which is constrained by time and content one cannot test the extensive reading for pleasure. For the testing of extensive reading for pleasure, one requires open testing procedures and time.  ​

Reading is one of the main skills in language acquisition. The ability to read is essential because without being able to read, a person is deprived of knowledge.​ It gives us an opportunity to learn more, and aids in the learner's overall growth.

Key Points

• Fluency is the connection between recognition and comprehension of words.
• Reading fluency is defined as the ability to read a text accurately, smoothly, easily, and with expression.
• Fluent readers can recognize the words easily and don't struggle with word decoding. Their tone is natural.
• They group words quickly in order to derive the meaning of what they are reading, which leads to a knowledge of the text.
• Fluent readers are competent at drawing connections between the text they are reading and their prior knowledge.

Hence, we conclude that fluency in reading means the ability to read a text at ease with expression.

Language has been defined as a system of symbols that are used to communicate, it could be used in spoken, written, or in form of signs. It is an integral part of our lives and if we think about it apart from communicating with others, we use language even to think.

Key Points

Children use language as a tool:

• to maintain their relationship with society.
• to organize information through words or symbols.
• to form words that allow them to convey their thoughts.
• to understand, apply the words and sentences, and generate new ideas.
• to communicate and store information, converse with others and experiment with varying social roles.

Hence, we conclude that the incorrect statement is "to understand paralinguistic communication".

Hint 

• Paralinguistic communication is a type of non-verbal communication, without words and usually occurs in conjunction with the language.

We have talked about language and society before. When children learn the language they not only learn the language in its correct form, but they also learn the way a given language is used in society.

• Children learn very quickly how to behave linguistically vis a vis people, places, and occasions. This is how they learn the various structures and various styles of language usage.

Key PointsSocial Aspects of Language: 

• In spite of having universal grammar, the child learns the language that he hears from his environment.
• Actually, our choice of words and our selection of sentences are always dependent on the factors such as the context, the person who speak to us, the place where we speak, and the theme.
• You don’t speak to your father about your school work the same way as you speak to your mom about your food, etc. You cannot use the same language with your teachers the language you use with your friends.
• Social differences and stratifications are prominently observed in the way we use language. Sometimes, people of different castes use different styles of the same language.

Hence, it is clear that the above-mentioned statement signifies the social aspect of language.

Additional Information

• Psychological Aspects of Language: Children are born with universal grammar, they have a psychological readiness for language acquisition, and this readiness gets completed with environmental exposure, which is all-natural and untutored. And the journey of language acquisition continues with a tutored setup as he goes to school.

Learning acquisition refers to the subconscious process of learning the mother tongue or native language because of the human brain's innate ability. It is the process of building the ability to understand and use language to communicate with others.

 Key Points

• Children learn language through interaction, including with other kids as well as their parents and other adults.
• All children that grow up in normal households, surrounded by conversation, will acquire the language that is being used around them.
• Lack of opportunities to use a language is a common difficulty while learning a language.
• It leads to mental block which makes the individual unable to form a consistent speech even if she/he is able to read, write and understand the language.

Hence, we conclude that the child is not able to learn a language because of the lack of opportunities to use it.

Constructivism is centered on the idea that human knowledge and learning are actively constructed by the learner, not passively received from the environment. 

Key PointsJean Piaget (9 august,1896) was a Swiss phycologist best known for his theory on cognitive development.

• Piaget proposed a constructivist theory in which he stated that children develop their knowledge based on their experiences.
• A youngster should be allowed to experiment, discover, and make mistakes while learning from them. Every mistake that youngsters make helps them gain knowledge in some manner.
• Learners in a classroom have their individual experiences and a cognitive structure, which are built on those prior experiences.​

​Thus, it can be inferred that "Mistakes of children are helpful in learning" is a thought given by Jean Piaget.

Additional Information 

A learning model encompasses all of the cognitive, emotive, and cognitive processes involved in the acquisition of any new skill or concept.

Key Points The fundamental focus of a learning model is on promoting effective learning; to do so, it is critical to understand-

• what we are learning and how we are learning it.
• what it means to learn something and comprehend the meaning behind it
• The nature of the subject, topic, or skill we are attempting to acquire,
• It is critical for a facilitator to recognize individual differences and regulate the many ways in which individuals learn or acquire knowledge.
• The learning paradigm does not prioritize the acquisition of instructional methods.

Thus, it can be concluded that understanding the methods of learning is not included in " models of learning".

Important Points These three aspects form what we call a model of learning.

• Understanding how a child learns,
• The nature of the subject matter that you want to teach (or what you want children to learn),
• An understanding of what learning is.

The constructivist epistemology is based on the belief that new knowledge is constructed based on prior knowledge.  

Key Points The prior knowledge that learners bring with them to the teaching-learning situation in the classroom needs to be incorporated into the learning experiences that constitute teaching-learning. 

• The teacher should act as a facilitator, creating a learning atmosphere in which children can explore their surroundings, experiment with them, and generate their knowledge.
• Children should be given numerous opportunities to collaborate, share their ideas, and learn from one another.
• Children should be given several opportunities to share their views with the class and to ask questions.

Thus, it can be inferred that except "Children have enough opportunity to practice." all others are a specialty of the constructive classroom.

Hint According to Van Glasersfeld (1989) "constructivism is based on the belief that knowledge is not passively received but actively built up by the cognizing subject and the function of cognition is adaptive and serves the organization of the experiential world, not the discovery of ontological reality."

Given:

Ratio of length and breadth of a rectangular park is 3 : 2.

A man cycling along the boundary at the speed 12 km per hour .

Complete one round in 8 minutes.

Concept used:

Perimeter of rectangle = 2( l + b)

Distance = Speed × time

Area of rectangle = length × breadth

Calculation:

Let length and breadth of rectangular park be 3a and 2a

Perimeter = Distance covered in 1 round = 8 minute

Distance = speed × time

⇒ 12 × 8/60 = 1.6 km

Distance = 2 ( l + b)

⇒ 2(3a + 2a) = 1.6 km

⇒ 10a = 1600 m

a = 160 m

Length = 3a = 3 × 160 = 480 m

Breadth = 2a = 2 × 160 = 320 m

∴ Area of rectangular park = 480m × 320 m = 153600 m²

Given:

A cuboid of dimensions 24 cm × 9 cm × 8 cm

The side of the cube is 3 cm 

Concept :

The volume of the cuboid = L × B × H where L, B, and H are the length, breadth, and height of the cuboid

Volume of cube = a3, where a is side of cube 

Calculation:

The volume of the cuboid = n × volume of the cube  Where n is the number  of cubes 

⇒ L × B × H = n × a3

⇒ 24 cm × 9 cm × 8 cm = n × 33

⇒ (24 × 9 × 8)/ 27  = n

⇒ n = 64

∴ number of cubes = 64

Given:

Edge of a cube = 7 cm

Edge of another cube = 14 cm

Concept used:

Curved surface area of cube = 4a²

Calculation:

Edge of a cube = 7 cm

Curved surface area of cube = 4 × 7² = 196 cm²

Edge of another cube = 14 cm

Curved surface area of another cube = 4 × 14² = 784 cm²

∴ Ratio of their surface areas = 196 : 784 = 1 : 4

Calculation:

We know that,

N (Natural Number) = {1, 2, 3, ...}

W (Whole Number) = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}

Z (Integers) = {..... -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ......}

Q (Rational Number) = {(a/b) : a, b ∈ Z and b ≠​ 0}

Here, 

Natural number < Whole number < Integers < Rational number

The correct  hierarchical chain of number system is:

N → W → Z ​→ Q

“Sum of two odd numbers is an even number.” We prove it by logic.

Key Points Calculation - 

• Let x and y be two odd numbers.
• Then, x = 2m + 1 for some natural number m
• And y = 2n + 1 for some natural number n.
• Sum = x + y = 2m + 1 + 2n + 1 = 2m + 2n + 2 = 2( m + n + 1)
• Here, addition is multiplied by 2,
• ∴ x + y is divisible by 2, and is even.

Hence We proved it by logic.

Additional Information

• Numbers are symbolic representations of entities so it is impossible to prove it by observation as there is nothing to observe.
• Experiments and empirical evidence can be provided for concrete items and numbers are abstract identities.

“Mathematics, as an expression of the human mind, reflects the active will, the contemplative reason, and the desire for aesthetic perfection.

Key Points Teaching plan should be prepared on the basis of hierarchy-

• The nature of Mathematics includes mathematical ideas that progress from-
• concrete to abstract
• grow from particular to general and
• its knowledge is conceptual as well as procedural.
• Teaching math in a set order or hierarchy makes the learning of concepts easier since the student will be able to grasp an advanced level concept if he has a thorough comprehension of the lower level concepts that come before it.

Thus, it can be concluded that the process of learning mathematics could be easy if the teaching plan should be prepared based on hierarchy.

Hint

• At a higher level, a teacher must explain the abstractness of the concept as well as the concreteness of the concept.
• Specification of general thought does not facilitate learning; all it does is make youngsters aware of the general thought underlying each concept.
• Mathematics symbols are the jargon of mathematics; they are very important to learn, and minimizing their use may lead to more confusion in later classes rather than making things easier.

The concept of addition must be followed by its previous concepts such as the number concept and number formation.

Key Points

• The response of the student shows that the child is not adding according to the place value of the digits rather he is just adding the digits in any order.
• It shows that the child lacks the concept of place value.
• The child does not lack the skill of addition as a child is adding the digits properly.

Hence we conclude that the response reflects that the child lacks the concept of place value.

Additional Information

• The addition of regrouping is not shown in this response.
• The concept of order property of addition is not included in this addition question.

Given:

⇒  (\frac{1}{2}) [{-2(2 + 3)*20}/2]

Concept used:

Calculation:

Here, 

⇒  (\frac{1}{2}) [{-2(2 + 3)*20}/2]

⇒ (\frac{1}{2}) [{-2(5)*20}/2]

⇒ (\frac{1}{2}) [{-200}/2]

⇒ -50

Concept used:

Proper fraction: A fraction which has its numerator value less than denominator.

Improper fraction: A fraction which has its numerator value is greater than its denominator

Equivalent fraction: An equivalent fraction can be defined as fraction that may different numerator and denominator but they represent the same value.

Calculation:

a) Equivalent fraction of 7/12 is 21/36.

b) Equivalent fraction of 9/15 is 3/5.

c) 7/11 is proper fraction.

d) 19/5 is improper fraction

∴ a - iii, b - iv, c - i, d - ii

Given:

Total amount = Rs. 4800

Ratio of P/(Q + R) = 5/11

Ratio of Q/(R + P) = 3/13

Calculation:

Let the amount of P and Q are 5x and 3x.

Amount of P, Q and R = 5x + 11x = 16x = 4800

x = 300

∴ Amount of P = 5x = 5 × 300 = 1500 

Amount of Q = 3x = 3 × 300 = 900

Amount of R = 4800 - (1500 + 900) = 2400

∴ R receive Rs. 2400.

Given:

Two trains, X and Y, travel from A to B at average speeds of 80 km/hr and 90 km/hr respectively.

Formula:

Speed = distance/time

Calculation:

Let distance be x km

According to the question

x/80 – x/90 = 1

⇒ (9x – 8x)/720 = 1

⇒ x = 720 km

Given,

A alone can do a work in 20 days

B alone can do the same work in 30 days

C alone can do the same work in 60 days

Formula:

Total work = Efficiency × Time

Calculation:

Let total work be LCM of (20, 30 and 60) = 60 unit

Efficiency of A = 3 units

Efficiency of B = 2 units

Efficiency of C = 1 unit

According to the question

A is assisted by B and C together on every third day

Work done by A in first 2 days = 3 + 3 = 6 unit

Work done by A, B and C on third day = 3 + 2 + 1 = 6

Total work done by A, B and C in 3 days = 6 + 6 = 12 unit

12 units work done by A, B and C in 3 days

∴ 60 unit work A, B and C will be complete in 3/12 × 60 = 15 days

Jerome Seymour Bruner is an American psychologist who has contributed to cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theory in educational psychology, as well as to history and to the general philosophy of education. 

Key Points Bruner realized that the instruction of the learner should be sequenced. He theorized that learners go through three major stages of intellectual development.

Thus, it can be inferred that the "Concrete - pictorial - symbolic" sequence of representation is most appropriate to develop the working skill in children at an abstract level.

Mathematics is an abstract discipline that derives its content from real-life phenomena and processes.

Key Points Knowledge of mathematics consists of theorems, Postulates, proofs, etc.

• Theorem - They are statements that have been derived logically from self-evident statements.
• Defined statements - It is a statement that describes a process or content.
• Proof - The logical explanation to prove a concept or formula or assumption is proof.

Hence we can say that a theorem is a statement that has been derived logically from self-evident statements.

Logic is the science of reasoning. Logic as a discipline trains a person in certain methods, devices, tools, and techniques that help in differentiating right reasoning from wrong ones.

Key Points Depending on the type of logical relationship (probable or necessary) between premises and conclusion, there are two forms of reasoning- inductive and deductive and corresponding two types of logic.

• In inductive reasoning, a conclusion is drawn based on some observed instances. This type of argument begins with sense experience.​

Thus, it can be concluded that the Method to reach the result based on repetitive and similar experiences is called inductive logic.

Concept used:

To convert decimal into %, multiplied by decimal by 100 and add %.

Calculation:

Here, 

⇒ 0.275 = 0.275 × 100% = 27.5%

∴ 0.275 is equivalent to 27.5%

Given:

Principal = Rs. 450, yields = Rs.81

Rate = 4.5%

Formula used:

Simple Interest = (Principal × time × rate)/100

CALCULATION:

⇒ Time = ((100 × 81)/ (450 × 4.5)) years

⇒ (8100/2025) years

⇒ 4 Years

∴ the required time = 4 years

Calculation:

Let the cost price of article = 100

Profit = 5%

Selling price = 100 + 5 = Rs 105

Loss = 5%

Selling price = 100 - 5 = 95

Difference between selling price = 105 - 95 = 10

When difference 10, then cost price = 100

Difference 1, then cost price = 100/10 = 10

Difference 15, then cost price = 10 × 15 = Rs 150

∴ Cost price of an article is Rs 150.

Constructivism is based on the belief that knowledge is not passively received but actively built up by the cognizing subject and the function of cognition is adaptive and serves the organization of the experiential world, not the discovery of ontological reality."

Key PointsAssessments in a constructive classroom should be designed in such a way that-

• ​It aids in making learning more successful by assisting teachers in understanding the thinking processes of children.
• questions or activities should be designed in such a way that they inspire kids to think creatively.
• The primary purpose of assessments should be to facilitate learning rather than to label youngsters.

Thus, it can be inferred that assessments in a constructive class are not made to let the children know, what they could not learn.

Additional Information Driver (1988) listed the following features of the constructivist perspective as it relates to schooling:

• The process of learning is regarded as active in the sense that it entails activity on the part of the learner.
• Knowledge is not a thing that exists out there but is personally and socially constructed.
• Learners are purposive, active, and responsible for their learning.

Mathematics is a science that involves dealing with numbers, different kinds of calculations, measurement of shapes and structures, organization and interpretation of data, establishing relationships among variables, etc.

 Key Points​Conceptual knowledge in mathematics is required for teachers to effectively teach. it is also required for learners to solve problems on their own and learn new concepts.

• While teaching math, a teacher should not encourage the idea of rote learning; instead, the focus should be on the mathematization of the mind, developing mathematical talent by developing conceptual understanding in students.
• To answer any mathematical sum/problem efficiently, children must have both procedural and conceptual knowledge.
• If a child understands the concepts and theories behind the topic, it is much easier for him to understand the technique/procedure to arrive at the answer.

Thus, it can be inferred that Having the knowledge of the concept, children can find the procedure to solve on their own.

Additional Information Mathematics is the study of patterns, numbers, geometrical objects, data, and chance.

• It is a diverse discipline that deals with data analysis, and integration of various fields of knowledge, involves proofs, deductive and inductive reasoning, and generalizations, and gives an explanation of natural phenomena and human behavior.

Concept used:

1 Kilogram = 1000 gram

Paulo Freire, a South American educator, used the term "banking" to describe the banking model of learning, learning is the ability to memorize facts and reproduce them quickly when asked for. 

Key PointsBanking Model of Learning:-

• Memorization and learning are considered to be the same in this model.
• The expectation from the learner in this model is to use the ability to reproduce the answer to a question that has been taught to her/him.
• The teachers deposit knowledge into the brain bank of the students, who then draw the facts out as and when needed

Thus, it can be inferred that the skill of "memorizing the facts and explaining it" developed by a child is an example of the Banking model of learning.

Additional Information These three aspects form what we call a model of learning.

• Understanding how a child learns,
• The nature of the subject matter that you want to teach (or what you want children to learn),
• An understanding of what learning is.

A learning model tries to explain how knowledge develops in the mind. Each individual has a model of the process of learning in their mind. There are various models of learning:

• Banking model
• Constructive model
• Programming model

Key Points Banking model-

• South American educator Paulo Freire coined the term "banking" to characterize this style of education.
• Teachers deposit knowledge into pupils' brain banks, from which they take facts as needed.
• The banking model of learning defines learning as the ability to memorize knowledge and promptly duplicate them when prompted.

Thus, it can be inferred that Paulo Freire has discussed on Banking model of learning.

Additional Information

According to the Programming model, learning is a sequence of programmes to be remembered and followed. Here a child memorizes a chain of instructions and follows it.

Key Points Features of Programming model:

• It considers learning to occur in small pieces, bit by bit.
• It assumes that all children learn in the same way, maybe at different paces.
• So, all it needs for those who have not learnt is to spend some more time on the same programme, doing some more examples. Then they would automatically acquire the same learning.

​Thus, it can be inferred that statements 2 and 4 are related to Programming Model.

Additional Information In the process of learning in the programming model -

• ​Appropriate responses to this stimulus are selected and reinforced by practice. Responses that are not wanted are eliminated.
• Final learning is achieved through the series of responses being shaped to yield the final desired behaviour.

Calculation:

Here, 5929 < 6072 < 6084

⇒ (77)² < 6072 < 78²

Here, 6072 is much closer to 6084 than 5929

∴ We will subtract 6072 from 6084 to get the required number,

⇒ (6084 - 6072) = 12

∴ When we add 12 to 6072, we get 6084, which is perfect square of 78.

∴ Required number is 12.

Given:

The numbers = 43, 91, and 183

Concept:

HCF is the highest common factor of two or more numbers

Calculation:

Let the greatest number be X

According to the question

⇒ 91 - 43 = 48

⇒ 183 - 91 = 92

⇒ 183 - 43 = 140

The H.C.F. of (48, 92, 140)

⇒ 48 = 24 × 31

⇒ 92 = 22 × 231

⇒ 140 = 22 × 51 × 71

The H.C.F. of (48, 92, 140) = 22 = 4

∴ The required result will be 4.

Given:

Average of 40 numbers = 71

Formula used:

Average = sum of all observations/ total number of observations

Calculation:

Sum of 40 numbers = 40 × 71 = 2840

New sum of 40 numbers = 2840 - 100 + 140 = 2880

New average of 40 numbers = 2880/40 = 72

∴ Average increased = 72 - 71 = 1

Alternate Method  Increased in average = change in number/ total numbers 

⇒ (140 - 100)/40 = 40/40 = 1

The map is a representation of the earth on a flat surface. Maps are very much used by motorists, defense personnel, tourists, and so on.

 Key Points For reading of map certain skills are necessary -

• The ability to understand places, distance and direction with respect to the position is necessary for understanding a map.
• Expressing ability is an essential skill for map reading.
• Calculating and using the sketch on a globe are not required for reading a map.
• Drawing and painting are not map reading skills.​

Hence we can say that ability to understand places, distance, and direction with respect to position. Option 3 is the correct solution.

Additional Information Map reading skills include - 

• Noting Directions
• Recognizing the Scale of a map and computing distances
• Reading Colours
• Reading Symbols
• Making Inferences by relating different maps

National Highways:

• National Highways (NH) is one of the significant sources of inter-state movements and transportation of passengers and goods.
• National and state capitals, major ports, rail junctions are all connected by the National Highways.
• The total length of the National Highways is 132500 Km.

Key Points 

• National Highway 44 – It is the longest national highway in India with a length of 3,745 kilometres running from Srinagar in the north to Kanyakumari in the South.
• The NH-44 came into existence after merging full or parts of seven previous differently numbered national highways like NH 1A from Srinagar in Jammu & Kashmir, NH 1 starting from Punjab and Haryana and ending at Delhi, part of NH 2 starting from Delhi and ending at Agra, NH 3 (famously known as Agra-Bombay highway) from Agra to Gwalior, former NH 75 and NH 26 to Jhansi, and finally NH 7 via Nagpur, and Adilabad, Nirmal, Kamareddy, Hyderabad, Kurnool and Mahbubnagar, Anantapur, and Bangalore, Dharmapuri, Salem, Karur, Madurai, Kovilpatti and Tirunelveli terminating at Kanyakumari.
• This highway passes through the 11 Indian states of Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.

Thus, as per the given options, one Monu was on tour from Ladakh to Tamil Nadu.

Additional Information

Asking right and wrong questions in primary classes is not a good strategy to assess students' knowledge.

Key Points

• Sarita didn't ask right and wrong questions from the students as she wanted to know how students are learning and how it is helpful for the next day's lesson.
• Asking descriptive questions instead of yes or no questions gives an insight into students' level of understanding and grasp of concepts.​

Hence we conclude that not asking right and wrong questions is an essential step taken by Sarita as she wants to know how students are learning and how it is helpful for the next day's lesson.

Additional Information

• Right and wrong questions are the most objective types of questions that do not provide the understanding level of students.
• They restrict the assessment objectives of the students.

Concept:

Tobacco:

• Tobacco is a plant whose leaves contain a great deal of nicotine, an addictive substance.
• Tobacco leaves are matured, processed, and cured in a variety of methods after harvest.
• The end results can be applied to the gums as dipping and chewing tobacco, smoked (in cigarettes, cigars, and pipes), or breathed (as snuff).

Explanation:

Emphysema:

• It is a disease that results in damage to the lungs' air sacs (alveoli) walls.
• At the end of the bronchial tubes, deep inside the lungs, are clusters of alveoli, tiny, thin-walled, and extremely delicate air sacs.
• Normally developed lungs contain roughly 300 million alveoli.
• The alveoli expand as you breathe in air, bringing oxygen in and delivering it to the blood.
• Alveoli contract during exhalation, pushing carbon dioxide out of the body.
• The alveoli and lung tissue are damaged as emphysema takes hold.
• The bronchial tubes cannot be supported by the alveoli due to this injury.
• The tubes break down and create a blockage, or "obstruction," which traps air in the lungs.
• Some people may appear to have barrel chests from having too much air trapped in their lungs.
• Additionally, less oxygen will be able to enter the bloodstream since there are fewer alveoli.
• The main factor for emphysema is smoking.
• In addition to destroying lung tissue, smoking also irritates the airways.
• The cilia that border the bronchial tubes are damaged and inflamed as a result of this.
• As a result, the airways swell, produce mucus, and become challenging to clear.
• Breathing difficulties may result from any of these changes.

Thus, tobacco smoking causes inflammation of lung alveoli and causes emphysema.

Additional InformationLung cancer:

• Lung cancer arises when abnormal cells proliferate and grow out of control.
• Primary lung cancer is the name given to lung cancer that develops there.
• Secondary lung cancer is a type of cancer that has spread from another part of the body to the lungs.

Pulmonary T.B.:

• An infectious bacterial illness of the lungs, pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) affects the lungs.
• It could spread to different organs.
• The bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis is what causes pulmonary tuberculosis (M tuberculosis).
• TB spreads easily.
• This indicates that an infected person can readily infect another person with the germs.
• By inhaling airborne droplets from an infected person's cough or sneeze, you can contract tuberculosis (TB).

Bronchitis:

• When you have bronchitis, the bronchial tubes—which transport air to your lungs—become inflamed and bloated.
• The end effect is a protracted cough that produces mucus.
• Either chronic bronchitis comes back often, or it never goes.
• The development of acute bronchitis is more frequent.
• After a few weeks of symptoms, there are usually no repercussions.

Concept:

• A stimulant is a drug that raises the level of physiological or nervous activity in the body.
• They basically speed up the message between brain and body
• Examples of stimulant are caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines etc.

Explanation:

• Tea, cocoa, coffee and cola drinks contain caffeine.
• It is the mildest stimulant available and is popularly used across the world.
• Caffeine is popularly used because they lift the mood as they act on the nervous system.
• Cocaine is powerful stimulants that are very addictive.
• Astringent are chemicals that shrink muscles and can be used to tighten pores and remove oils.
• Tannins are commonly found in the bark of trees, wood, leaves etc and are used for their protection.

∴ The stimulant present in tea, cocoa, and cola drinks is caffeine.

Additional Information

• Astringents are commonly used as cosmetics.
• Cocaine is abused as drugs.
• Tannins protect plants from being infected by bacteria and fungi.

Concept:

Hallucinogenic properties:

• Drugs known as hallucinogens alter a person's experience of reality.
• Hallucinogens are also referred to as "psychedelic substances."
• They cause a person to perceive things that are not real or alter their perception of what is happening around them.
• Some take effect quickly, while others don't for a while.

Explanation:

All of the above:

Dhatura:

• The completely poisonous plant Datura stramonium, popularly known as thorn apple or jimson weed, contains alkaloids.
• Atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine are the plant's poisonous ingredients that are toxic when consumed.
• Its psychedelic qualities have led to centuries of usage all across the world.

Atropa:

• The deadly nightshade plant, atropa belladona, is toxic.
• It is a plant belonging to the solanaceae family.
• It contains the belladonna alkaloids , hyocyamine, atropine, and scopolamine in its leaves, roots, and fruits.

Erythroxylon:

• The coca plant, also known as Erythroxylum coca in botanical terms, is cultivated in tropical areas such as Southeast Asia, South America, and Africa.
• Cocaine is one of the numerous alkaloids found in coca leaves.
• Cocaine is a strong, hazardous, and addictive stimulant that is extracted from the leaves of the E. coca plant.
• Cocaine is a white, crystalline alkaloid.
• Cocaine, is a nerve stimulant that raises the level of dopamine, a neurotransmitter linked to the reward circuit in the brain, making the user feel happy and energised.

Thus, all of the above plants possess hallucinogenic properties.