UGC NET Paper 2: Sociology 13th Dec 2023 Shift 2 (Previous Year Paper)

World Conflicting is not a part of typology of new religious movement as given by sociologist Roy Wallis.

Key Points

• New Religious Movement (NRMs)
• ​are different from mainstream religions and belief systems that are already established.
• often regarded as countercultural.
• Often combine the teachings, beliefs and practices from variety of belief systems.
• They are associated with offering innovative responses to the contemporary conditions of the modern world.
• They thrive under the charismatic and authoritarian leaders, believed to have been chosen on account of his extraordinary power.
• Their rise and popularity is directly correlated to uncertainity and fast pace of modernity, pluralism and scientific worldview.
• Examples of NRMs are Sects, Cults, Alternative or Minority religions and Spiritual or New Age movements.
• Roy Wallis Scheme of New Religious Movement
• World Affirming
• Accept the world as reality and main focus is on helping their members cope with it.
• Generally do not involve belief in God and make few demands on their members.
• Key teachings are centered around self-improvement, personal fulfillment and prosperity.
• Examples: Prosperity gospel preaching churches, Scientology and Transcendental Meditation.
• World Rejecting
• Are critical of the secular world and work towards its radical transformation.
• Examples: ISKCON- The Hare Krishna Movement.
• World Accomodating
• ​Focus on inner spirituality and individual transformation.
• They do not seek to radically change or reject the secular world.
• Examples: Osho Rajneesh movement.

Additional Information 

• Roy wallis
• ​Known for creating seven signs that differentiate a religious congregation from a secterian church.
• Researched on 'Sociology of Scientology'.
• Gave the distinction between world-affirming, world-rejecting and world-accomodating religious movement.
• He published his in-depth analysis of the Sociology of Scientology in his book "The Road to Total Freedom (1976)".
• His major works include The Elementary forms of New Religious Life, Salvation and Protest: Studies of Social and Religious Movements and Sectarianism: Analyses of Religious and Non-Religious Sects etc.

A - IV, B - III, C - II, D - I is the correct answer.

Key Points

• The Post modern condition: A report on knowledge (1979) book by Jean Francois Lyotard.
• argues that post modern world marks the end of grand narratives/theories or metanarratives.
• He introduces the term postmodernism into philosophy and social sciences.
• Initially it was written as a report of influence of technology in exact sciences.
• The Mirror of Production (19730 was written by Jean Baudrillard.
• Presents a systematic critique of Marxism.
• He criticised Marx's assumptions about political analysis in his theory of historical materialism.
• He argued that role of signs and symbols in the production process was ignored.
• The Consequence of Modernity (1990) authored by Anthony Giddens.
• He argues that we have not yet entered in post modern world.
• Rather than post-modernity we are entering into period of 'high modernity'.
• Modernity is a double edged phenomenon.
• Features of this 'high modernity'- Capitalism, Industrialism, Militarism and Surveillance.
• Modernity and the Holocaust (1989) is a book by Zygmunt Bauman.
• explores the relationship between modernity and holocaust.
• criticism of the view that modernity means development.
• argues that modernity and its technological advancement led to The Holocaust.

T.K. Oommen identified four important bases of socio-cultural identity in India: religion, caste, tribe and language.

Key Points

• T.K. Oommen
• His work centered primarily in following areas- social movements, social transformation, political sociology and professions, political sociology.
• He criticised western sociology for making generalisations by not taking Indian data into consideration.
• His doctoral thesis, 'Charisma, Stability and Change (1972)' was first book in India dealing with social movement (Gramdaan movement).
• His work titled 'Doctors and Nurses' was first in its category to study a modern occupation.
• He categorised his position as 'pluralist'.
• He called for combining theroretical eclecticism with historical diversities and reconciling alien- indigenous.
• served as president of ISA (International Sociological Association).
• In his lecture titled 'Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Linguistic States in India', he identified religion, caste, tribe and language as four bases of socio-cultural identity.

Additional Information

• Yogendra Singh
• Belonged to civilisational perspective.
• Proponent of integrated approach to study society.
• He was in favour of employing theory within a context.
• His famous work is "Modernisation of Indian Tradition (1973)" where he lists out heterogentic and orthogenetic forces of changes.
• T.N. Madan
• an anthropologist.
• most noted work titled "Family and Kinship among Rural Pandits of Kashmir".
• The book presents description about their social life.
• His major known works include 'Modern Myths, Locked Minds: Secularism and Fundamentalism in India', 'Images of the World' and 'Sociological Traditions: Methods and Perspectives in the Sociology of India'.
• Andre Beteille
• Applied Interpretivist approach in indian society.
• Weber's influence on his work. Wrote 'Caste, Class and Power' where he employed trinitarian approach.
• conducted fieldwork in Sripuram, Tamilnadu.
• Worked on civil society, democracy, equality and on question of reservation.

Feminists were instrumental in drawing attention to 'dark side' of the family  life.

Key Points

• Feminism
• a women-centered perspective of looking at social reality/structures of the world.
• emerged as a reaction to lack of women-centric understanding of the world.
• has critical and activist undertones to it.
• brings attention to unequal, exploitative and discriminatory treatment being meted out to women in society.
• presents alternative concepts and paradigm as solutions.
• to produce an inclusive world that takes into account women’s understanding and experience.
• Diverse forms of Feminism are available- Liberal, Socialist, Radical, Existential, Psychoanalytical, Ecological.
• Waves of Feminism
• ​First Wave
• late 19^th century and early 20^th century
• main cause was recognising women as individual and not as property.
• Championed the cause of right to vote.
• accused of being centred only on issues of upper class white women.
• were Liberal Feminists i.e. they believed in reforming the institutions through legal means.
• Second Wave
• ​1960s- 1980s
• Built on first wave feminism, civil rights movement and the backdrop of vietnam war.
• was extended further to include exploitation and oppression faced by women in domestic sphere.
• Carol Harisch "Personal is Political".
• Three streams of feminists active in this wave: liberal, cultural and radical.
• Third Wave
• mid 1990s- 2011.
• the term third wave was coined by Rebecca Walker.
• In this period, women enjoyed considerabal freedom with respect to their life choices.
• more and more reclaiming of public sphere was being done.
• Kimberely Crenshaw: Intersectionality concept took shape.
• Fourth Wave
• 2012- Present
• Feminism via internet.
• MeToo movement is good example of this wave feminism.
• resurgence of attacks on women's rights.
• feminist literature and voices making their agenda work through social networking sites.

Additional Information

• Liberals
• A political philosophy with moral undertones.
• recognise individual as being endowed with rights.
• earliest seeds to be found in works of John Locke and Rousseau.
• Its extension in economic activities had led to emergence of principle of lassie faire (free markets with no or minimal intervention of the state).
• They place protecting and enhancing freedom of the individual to be the main concern of politics.
• Functionalists
• ​It is a perspective in social sciences to approach the social reality.
• It conceptualises society akin to an organism who has many parts working in tandem with one another.
• Their main concern is maintaing social order and integration.
• Famous functionalists are Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, R.K. Merton, Malinowski and Radcliffe Brown etc.
• Structuralists
• ​Its origin lies in the liguistic studies; in the work of Ferdinand de Saussure (symbol, signifier and signified).
• Claude Levi Strauss credited with bringing structuralism to social sciences.
• Gang of four in structuralism refers to Levi Strauss, Barthes, Lacan and Foucault.
• Rejected human freedom and autonomy.
• Human behavior is shaped by basic underlying structures that are reflection of structures present in human mind.

Census is not qualitative but a quantitative method of data collection.

Key Points

• Open ended Questions
• can not be answered with simple yes or no.
• usually descriptive in nature.
• Respondents are asked to give their subjective answers.
• help us see things from respondents perspective.
• Text and Image Analysis
• ​Data analysis method for analysing qualitative data: text and Image.
• Text analysis is also called document analysis.
• Themes and Pattern interpretation
• ​also called thematic analysis.
• Also a qualitative method of data analysis.
• employed to identify, analyse and report patterns within the data.

Additional Information

• Quantitative methods
• ​These methods are named so because data is quantitative in nature.
• Examples: Census, Survey, Experiment, Questionnaire and Opinion polls etc.
• Qualitative methods
• ​These methods are named so because data is qualitative in nature.
• Examples: Intensive interviews, open-ended surveys, focus group, content analysis, oral history and life history etc.
• census
• ​Quantitative method of data collection.
• Employs close ended questions where options to chose from are already fixed.
• Here the data is collected from each and every member of the sample population.

A - IV, B - III, C - II, D - I is the correct answer.

Key Points

• Regional Difference in family structure in India (1987) is a work by Pauline Kolenda.
• gave different types of family structure in India.
• Gave twelve types of family structure.
• The categorization involve both nuclear and joint family.
• Kinship Organization in India written by Irawati Karve.
• Identifies four cultural zones- Northern, Southern, Central and Eastern.
• A comparative analysis of kinship systems prevalent in these cultural zones.
• Contains information about linguistic terminologies, rules of marriages, mate selection etc.
• Sociology of Kinship is work authored by Leela Dube.
• covers description of marriage, kinship, family, tribal societies, inheritance patterns, exchange and alliance theories and so on.
• In this work, she bridged the disciplinary gap between anthropology and sociology.
• Linked kinship studies with sociology of the family, within 'modernisation' paradigm.
• Kinship and Marriage written by Robin Fox.
• He attempted to systematize the findings about family structure by the anthropologists.
• He identified four universal principles of family structures: 
• women giving birth.
• men making women pregnant.
• men exercising control over women.
• restriction on mating of primary kin.
• tried to reconcile 'alliance' and 'descent' theories of marriage and family.

A - II, B - III, C - I, D - IV is the correct answer.

Key Points

• Claude Levi Strauss wrote the book 'The Savage Mind (1962)'. 
• translated as 'Wild Thought'.
• refers to untamed human thought rather than inferior-superior debate.
• argues that savage thought resembles bricoleur (like a collage) that is made of the material available.
• This book belongs to structural anthropology and has greatly influenced the structuralist and post structuralist trends.
• Bronislaw Malinowski is credited with work 'Sex and Repression in the Savage Society (1927).
• presented as critique of Freud's psychoanalysis which was popular craze of the day.
• argues that Odepius complex is not universal.
• cites example of matriarchal society of Trobriand islanders, where maternal unlces fulfill the role of father.
• Fear and power were the forces behind the conflicts not sexual jealousy.
• Alfred Radcliffe Brown wrote the book titled 'The Andaman Islanders'.
• was result of Brown's stay in Andaman Islands for period of eighteen months.
• Contains description about material culture, religious practices, social organization etc.
• Also includes functional explanation of the customs and beliefs.
• Tries to construct archaic culture of Andaman Islands by employing comparative method.
• Talcott Parsons wrote 'Social Structure and Personality'.
• collection of essay where he deals with problem of social structure and personality.
• argues that one can't understand compex reality by ignoring either one of them in his analysis.
• concludes that their interdependence is quite intimate.
• Similar to Anthony Giddens work on Structuration Theory (Structure and Agency).

"Just as modernization dissolved the structure of feudal society, modernization today is dissolving industrial society and another modernity is coming into being" is a statement by Ulrich Beck.

Key Points

• Ulrich Beck
• ​focused on questions of uncontrollability, ignorance and uncertainty in the modern age, and he coined the terms "risk society" and "second modernity" or "reflexive modernization".
• Risk society was coined by Ulrich Beck and Anthony Giddens during the 1980s.
• Globalization creates risks that concern people from all different classes; for example, radioactivity, pollution, and even unemployment.
• He points out that risks are also socially constructed and some risks are perceived as more dangerous because they are discussed in mass media more frequently, such as terrorism.

Additional Information

• Zygmunt Bauman
• ​wrote on issues modernity, holocaust, liquid modernity, globalisation, morality and post-modern consumerism.
• His major works include Liquid Modernity, Liquid Love, Liquid Life, Liquid Times: Living in the age of uncertainty, Wasted Lives and Modernity and The Holocaust.
• Anthony Giddens
• ​theory of structuration (gives primacy neither to structure nor individual) and late-modernity.
• He says that we are living in 'late- modernity'. This kind of modernity has four fundamental institutions- Capitalism, Industrialism, Surveillance and Military power.
• 'Modernity is a juggernaut' and 'Self is a reflexive project'.
• His major works include The class structure in advanced societies, The Constitution of society, The Consequences of Modernity, Transformation of intimacy, Beyond Left and Right, and Third Way.
• Jean Baudrillard
• ​Best known for analysis of media, Technological communication and contemporary culture.
• His conceptual framework include hyperreality, simulation and simulacrum.
• Most well known works are Seduction, The Gulf War did not take place, Simulacra and Simulation, The Mirror Production, The System of Objects and The Consumer Society: Myths and Structures.
• often seen as part of post-structuralists. However he criticises both post-structuralism and post-modernism.

'Human have no right to reduce the richness and diversity of nature to satisfy their vital needs' is not a principle of deep ecology.

Key Points

• Deep Ecology
• ​initiated by Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess in the year 1972.
• At its core, it has two main ideas:
• shift from anthropocentrism to ecocentrism (the belief that every living thing has inherent value regardless of its utility for humans).
• humans are part of nature; neither superior nor apart from it.
• Thus, everykind of life on earth must be protected.
• It has philosophical and ethical dimensions.
• drew inspiration from Baruch Spinoza (17^th century philosopher) and Mahatama Gandhi.
• He called his 'environment philosophy' as 'Ecosophy'.
• He conceived two types of environmentalism- Shallow ecology movement and Deep Ecology movement.
• Shallow ecology- fighting against pollution and resource depletion
• Deep Ecology- in-depth questioning the cause of environmental degradation and reimagining human systems to preserve ecological diversity.
• promotes ecological egalitarianism and anti-class posture.
• Deep Ecology Principles
• In 1984, George Sessions, American philosopher and environmentalist, compiled eight principles of deep ecology.
• They were published in work titled 'Deep Ecology: Living as if Nature Mattered'.
• The well-being and flourishing of human and nonhuman life on Earth have value in themselves.
• Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realization of these values and are also values in themselves.
• Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy vital needs.
• Present human interference with the nonhuman world is excessive, and the situation is rapidly worsening.
• The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a substantial decrease in the human population. The flourishing of nonhuman life requires such a decrease.
• Policies must therefore be changed. The changes in policies affect basic economic, technological, and ideological structures. The resulting state of affairs will be deeply different from the present.
• The ideological change is mainly that of appreciating life quality (dwelling in situations of inherent worth) rather than adhering to an increasingly higher standard of living. There will be a profound awareness of the difference between big and great.
• Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation directly or indirectly to participate in the attempt to implement the necessary changes.

​

The concept of glocalization is given by Roland Robertson.

Key Points

• Glocalization
• ​This term coined in the Harvard Business Review in 1980 by Ronald Robertson.
• Term is formed by combination of globalisation and localisation i.e. an interaction of global with local.
• Global products and services getting adapted to the local context. For example: Masala Maggi, Maharaja Chicken tikka burger etc.
• Robertson used this term in his work 'Glocalization:Time-Space and Homogeneity-Heterogeneity'
• It is employed to destroy the narrative of homegenised culture as a result of globalization.
• According to Robertson, glocalization means that global infleunces are being interpreted and given meanings in light of local culture.
• Roland Robertson
• ​undertones of phenomenological and psycho-social approach
• first one to use the term 'globalization' in the title of a sociological bulletin.
• first ever definition of globalisation "compression of the world and intensification of the consciousness of the world as a whole."
• coined the term glocalization in 1992.
• lays down the 'progression of phrases' and claims that global uncertainty has been reached.

Additional Information

• Immanuel Wallerstein
• well known for world systems theory.
• most important work has been 'The Modern World System',
• argued that development of capitalist world economy is deterimental to large proportion of world population.
• gave a core- semi periphery- periphery model to understand global economic relations.
• M. Waters
• her major works are focused on immigrants and their strategies to integrate in the host society; racial and ethnic identity.
• gave concept of ethnic option which means that future generations of immigrants have option to either to identify with the ethnicity of their ansectors or not.
• Her major works include  Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America Black Identities: West Indian Immigrant Dreams and American Realities and The New Race Question: How the Census Counts Multiracial Individuals.

A, B and C are correct answer.

Key Points

• ICT Revolution
• refers to exponential rate of rise of Information Communication and Technology.
• Involves set of devices which help us to transcend the time-space matrix.
• can connect to anyone, anytime and anywhere.
• Time and cost efficiency has increased manifold.
• ICTs have now penetrated in almost all spheres of life- social, cultural, political and economical.
• Impacts of ICT Revolution
• Greater access to information.
• Greater opportunities for people.
• Rise of knowledge economy.
• Increasing importance of service sector based occupations.
• Less paperwork, easy to manage vast amount of data.
• led to decentralisation of work (rise of remote/work from home jobs)
• Post-industrial Society 
• ​The concept was given by Daniel Bell in his work titled 'The Coming of post-industrial society'.
• Common themes that emerge with advent of post-industrial society:
• Transition from factory based production to production of services.
• Knowledge becomes the axis around which society is organised.
• Learning and upgrading skills becomes crucial part of employment scene.
• Professions based on service sector rise in prominence.
• Huge role of ICTs in all spheres of life.​​

Westermark proposed the idea that family was the outcome of male possessiveness and jealousy, and growth in property and of the sense of property.

Key Points 

• Lewis Morgan
• ​He worked on kinship and social structure, theory of evolution and Ethnography of Iroqouis.
• proposed that earlier clan was matrilineal clan, not patriarchal.
• contemporary of Marx and Engels.
• Three major stages of evolution: savage, barbarism and civilisation.
• His well known works are System of consanguinity and Affinity in Human Society and Ancient Society.
• Westermark
• studied exogamy and incest taboo.
• first darwinian sociologist or sociobiologist.
• Argues that historically monogamy preceeded polygamy.
• 'Marriage is rooted in family rather family is rooted in marriage'.
• Gave the concept of westermark effect- early sexual imprinting leads to desentisation towards sexual attraction.
• His well known works are ' The History of Human Marriage', 'Ritual and Belief in Morocco' and 'Marriage ceremonies of Morocco'.
• Robert Lowie
• ​was an ethnologist.
• known for pioneering salvage anthropology.
• was a student of Franz Boas.
• He is known for presenting logical refutation of existing theories of culture.
• He was fully committed to his vision of treating cultural ethnology as scientific discipline.
• Best known works include History of Ethnology Theory, Primitive Society, Primitive Religion etc.
• P.N. Prabhu
• ​wrote a book titled 'Hindu Social Organisation'.
• utilises social psychological perspective.
• Focuses on areas like Education, Family, Marriage, Place of Women in society and the system of caste.
• Argued that individual's association with family is based on moralism- thus when traditional becomes modern- the joint family becomes nuclear family.

A satisfactory statisctical unit should possess Appropriateness, Clarity and Measurability- Comparability.

Key Points

• Statistical Unit
• ​A unit of observation or measurement for which data is collected.
• Building block for compiling and tabulating statistical data.
• concerns the result side of research analysis.
• It could be both living and non-living.
• Usually it is a single member out of larger set of entities (population universe/sample)
• Features of statistical Unit​
• Homogeneity: A statistical unit must be homogeneous, that is, it must contain similar events or entities.
• Clearly defined: Statistical units should have clear definitions so that there is no uncertainty about what constitutes a unit.
• Mutually Exclusive: means that each unit should only be in one group or institution to ensure accuarcy of analysis.
• Collectible: Data collection on statistical unit should be empirically possible. It should not be illegal or prohibited.
• Appropriateness or relevance: Must be appropriate for analysis. It should give us only those facts which help solve research question.
• Stability: data should be stable throughout the period of study to ensure reliability and validity of measurements.
• Accessibility: Information on statistics should be available or available from reliable sources.
• Consistency: Statistical information should be consistent throughout the data collection process and across years.

The correct answer is  A, B, C, D. 

Key Points

• Durkheim's classification of societies represents a progression from simple and homogeneous groups to larger, more complex societies with greater social differentiation and specialization.

Each type of society builds upon the previous one, adding layers of complexity while still retaining certain fundamental characteristics such as kinship ties and social cohesion

• Sequence of societies according to Emile Durkheim's classification:
• Simple Society (the horde): This is the most basic form of society characterized by small groups of people who are generally nomadic hunter-gatherers. Social structure is simple, often based on kinship ties, and there is little division of labor or specialization.
• Simple polysegmentary societies: These societies are slightly more complex than the simple horde. They are still relatively small and simple in structure but may exhibit some division of labor based on age or gender. However, there is still a strong sense of kinship and solidarity among members.
• Simply compounded polysegmentary societies: In this type of society, there is further development in social organization and division of labor. The society becomes larger and more differentiated, with multiple segments or subgroups within the overall structure. These segments may have specific roles or functions within the society, but there is still a relatively simple and cohesive social structure.
• Doubly compounded polysegmentary societies: This is the most complex form of society in Durkheim's classification. In doubly compounded polysegmentary societies, there is a high degree of social differentiation and specialization. The society is large and organized into multiple layers or levels of social hierarchy, with various segments or subgroups interacting in complex ways. Division of labor is extensive, and there is a more formalized system of social control and coordination.

Additional Information

• Religion: Durkheim explored the role of religion in society, emphasizing its function in promoting social solidarity and providing a framework for shared beliefs and values. He argued that religious rituals and symbols reinforce the collective consciousness and contribute to social cohesion.
• Anomie: Durkheim introduced the concept of anomie to describe a state of normlessness or moral confusion that arises when there is a breakdown in social norms and regulations. Anomie can occur during times of rapid social change or when individuals feel disconnected from society's moral order.
• Social Facts: Durkheim emphasized the importance of studying social facts, which are external to individuals and exert a coercive influence on behavior. Social facts include norms, values, institutions, and other aspects of social structure that shape individuals' actions and experiences.

Thus,  Emile Durkheim outlined a classification of societies. Arrange these societies in a proper sequence - Simple Society (the hordeS), imple polysegmentary societies, Simply compounded poly segmentary societies, Doubly compounded poly segmentary societies

The correct answer is An object vested with spirit and power. 

Key Points

• Totemism is a belief system found in many indigenous cultures around the world, particularly among Native American, Australian Aboriginal, and African societies. At its core, totemism involves the attribution of spiritual significance and power to certain natural objects, plants, animals, or symbols, known as totems.
• These totems are believed to possess a sacred essence or spirit that is revered and respected by the community.
• Totemism is a belief system centered around the veneration of natural objects imbued with spiritual significance and power. It encompasses a complex set of beliefs, symbols, and practices that reinforce cultural identity, social cohesion, and environmental ethics within indigenous societies.
• Sacred Objects: Totemic beliefs often center around specific natural objects or animals that are considered sacred by a particular community or clan. These objects could be animals like wolves, eagles, or bears, plants like trees or flowers, or even natural landmarks like mountains or rivers. The choice of totem is often influenced by local ecology, myths, and cultural traditions.
• Spiritual Significance: Totems are believed to embody spiritual qualities or powers that are revered by the community. They are seen as intermediaries between the human and spiritual worlds, possessing knowledge, wisdom, and guidance. Totems are often associated with creation myths or ancestral spirits, connecting individuals to their cultural heritage and collective identity.
• Symbolism and Representation: Totems serve as symbols that represent the values, beliefs, and identity of a community or lineage. They are often depicted in art, ritual objects, and ceremonial regalia, serving as visual reminders of cultural continuity and connection to the natural world. Totemic symbols may also be used to mark territorial boundaries, clan affiliation, or social status within the community.
• Social Cohesion and Identity: Totemic beliefs play a crucial role in fostering social cohesion and solidarity within indigenous societies**. They provide a shared framework of meaning and belonging, reinforcing bonds of kinship and mutual obligation** among community members. Totems are often the focus of rituals, ceremonies, and communal gatherings, strengthening interpersonal relationships and reinforcing collective values.

Additional Information

• Animism: Animism is a belief system that attributes spiritual significance to all elements of the natural world, including plants, animals, rocks, and even natural phenomena like rivers or mountains. Similar to totemism, animism involves the belief in spirits or essences inhabiting these objects, contributing to a holistic worldview where everything is interconnected and imbued with sacredness.
• Shamanism: Shamanism is a religious practice found in many indigenous cultures, characterized by the belief in shamans or spiritual intermediaries who can communicate with the spirit world. Shamans often play a central role in totemic rituals and ceremonies, serving as healers, guides, and mediators between humans and the spiritual realm.
• Symbolism: Symbolism refers to the use of symbols to convey abstract concepts or ideas. Within totemism, totems and other symbolic representations hold deep cultural and spiritual significance, serving as visual cues for understanding collective identity, kinship relations, and cosmological beliefs.

Thus, Totemism is a belief in An object vested with spirit and power.

The correct answer is B, A, D, C, E. 

Key Points

• The correct sequence of L.T. Hobhouse's proposed classification of societies in terms of intellectual development is as follows:
• Formation of the elements of articulate thought in primitive societies: This stage represents the earliest forms of intellectual development in human societies. In primitive societies, individuals began to develop rudimentary forms of language, communication, and abstract thought. While their understanding of the world was limited compared to later stages, primitive societies laid the groundwork for the development of more complex intellectual processes.
• Proto-science in the ancient East (Babylonia, Egypt, and ancient China): In this stage, societies in the ancient East, such as Babylonia, Egypt, and ancient China, made significant strides in intellectual development. They began to engage in systematic observation, recording, and analysis of natural phenomena, laying the foundations for early forms of science and proto-scientific inquiry. These societies developed mathematical systems, astronomical observations, and medical practices that represented early attempts to understand and manipulate the natural world.
• The stages of reflection in the later East (China, Palestine, and India): Building upon the proto-scientific achievements of the ancient East, later societies in regions such as China, Palestine, and India entered a stage characterized by deeper reflection and philosophical inquiry. Intellectuals and scholars in these societies developed complex religious, philosophical, and ethical systems, grappling with fundamental questions about the nature of existence, morality, and human consciousness.
• The stage of critical and systematic thought in Greece: Ancient Greece represents a crucial stage in the intellectual development of human societies. Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle introduced rigorous methods of critical thinking and systematic inquiry that laid the groundwork for Western philosophy, science, and political theory. Greek scholars made significant contributions to various fields, including mathematics, astronomy, ethics, and political philosophy, shaping the intellectual landscape of Western civilization.
• The stage of 'experimental reconstruction' (modern science): Finally, the stage of experimental reconstruction represents the emergence of modern science in the Western world. Beginning in the Renaissance and continuing through the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment, Western societies underwent a profound transformation in their approach to understanding the natural world. Modern science emphasizes empirical observation, experimentation, and the formulation of testable hypotheses, leading to dramatic advances in fields such as physics, biology, chemistry, and medicine.

Additional Information

• L.T. Hobhouse, born Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse, was a prominent British social theorist, sociologist, and philosopher who made significant contributions to the fields of sociology, political science, and ethics during the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries. His work focused on understanding the dynamics of social change, the nature of freedom, and the role of the state in promoting social welfare.
• Social Evolutionism: Hobhouse was interested in the process of social evolution and the development of human societies over time. He rejected deterministic theories of social evolution and instead emphasized the role of human agency and conscious social reform in shaping the trajectory of social progress. In his work "The Metaphysical Theory of the State" (1918), Hobhouse argued against the idea of the state as a static entity and instead proposed a dynamic view of the state as an evolving institution that adapts to changing social conditions and values.
• Theory of Social Solidarity: Building on the work of sociologists such as Émile Durkheim, Hobhouse developed a theory of social solidarity to explain the cohesion and stability of modern societies. He distinguished between different forms of social solidarity, including mechanical solidarity (based on shared values and traditions) and organic solidarity (based on interdependence and division of labor). Hobhouse argued that modern societies exhibit organic solidarity, characterized by the complex division of labor and the interdependence of individuals and social groups.

Thus,  a correct sequence of the categories is Formation of the elements of articulate thought in primitive societies, Proto-science in the ancient East (Babylonia, Egypt, and ancient China), The stages of reflection in the later East (China, Palestine, and India), The stage of critical and systematic thought in Greece, The stage of 'experimental reconstruction' (modern science).

The correct answer is G.A. Almond and S. Verba. 

Key Points

• Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney Verba developed the classification of mixed types of political culture into parochial, subject, and participant. This classification provides insights into the attitudes and behaviors of individuals towards politics within a society
• Almond and Verba's classification of political culture provides a framework for understanding the different ways in which individuals relate to politics within a society. By identifying the prevailing political culture, researchers and policymakers can better understand patterns of political behavior and attitudes, as well as the factors that shape them.
• Parochial Political Culture: Parochial political culture is characterized by low levels of political awareness, involvement, and participation among the population. In societies with a parochial political culture, individuals are typically preoccupied with local concerns and have limited awareness or interest in national or broader political issues. Political authority is often viewed as distant and irrelevant to everyday life**. People in such societies may have limited access to political information** and may rely on traditional or informal mechanisms for resolving conflicts or making decisions. Parochial political cultures are commonly found in rural or isolated communities where there is limited contact with the broader political system.
• Subject Political Culture: Subject political culture refers to a situation where individuals have a passive or submissive attitude towards politics and government. In subject political cultures, people may recognize the authority of the government and comply with its directives, but they do not actively engage in political activities or express their opinions. Citizens may feel powerless or disenfranchised, believing that their actions have little impact on political outcomes. Subject political cultures often emerge in authoritarian regimes where there are limited opportunities for political participation and dissent is suppressed.
• Participant Political Culture: Participant political culture is characterized by high levels of political awareness, engagement, and participation among the population. In societies with a participant political culture, individuals are actively involved in politics, expressing their opinions, participating in elections, and engaging in political activities such as protests or advocacy campaigns. Citizens feel a sense of efficacy and believe that their actions can influence political outcomes. Participant political cultures are commonly associated with democratic systems where there are opportunities for political participation, freedom of expression, and respect for individual rights.

Additional Information

• Robert E. Ward: Ward was an American political scientist known for his research on political development and modernization theory, particularly in the context of South Asia. He emphasized the importance of understanding the historical and cultural factors shaping political institutions and behavior in developing countries. Ward's work highlighted the complex interplay between traditional and modern elements in South Asian societies and their impact on political processes.
• Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph: The Rudolphs were influential scholars of South Asian politics and society, known for their extensive research on India. They explored various aspects of Indian politics, including state-society relations, democracy, and political culture. Their work emphasized the enduring significance of traditional values and social structures in shaping India's political landscape, while also acknowledging the challenges of modernization and social change.
• M. R. Davi (Mohammed Rafiuddin Davi): Davi was a Bangladeshi political scientist known for his research on political development and democratization in South Asia, with a focus on Bangladesh. His work addressed issues such as state-building, political institutions, and civil-military relations in post-colonial societies. Davi's research shed light on the challenges of democratic consolidation and governance in Bangladesh, as well as the impact of historical legacies and social cleavages on political stability and development.
• Vernon A. Lewis: Lewis was an American political scientist whose research focused on comparative politics and international relations, with a particular interest in South Asia. He examined issues such as ethnic conflict, nationalism, and state-building in the region, drawing on interdisciplinary approaches to analyze the complexities of political dynamics. Lewis's work contributed to a deeper understanding of the role of identity politics and social mobilization in shaping political outcomes in South Asia.

Thus, The classification of mixed types of political culture into parochial, subject, and participant was developed by Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney Verba.

The correct answer is - B, C, and D only. 

Key Points

• The three types of social processes—assimilation, accommodation, and competition— are fundamental in understanding how individuals and groups interact, adapt, and negotiate within societies. They influence patterns of social change, conflict resolution, and the maintenance of social order across diverse cultural, economic, and political contexts.
• Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the process by which individuals or groups adopt the cultural traits, values, and norms of another culture, often the dominant one while relinquishing aspects of their own culture. This process typically occurs when there is prolonged contact and interaction between different cultural groups. Assimilation can lead to social cohesion and integration but may also result in the loss of cultural identity for the assimilating group.
• Accommodation: Accommodation refers to the process of adapting or adjusting to differences and conflicts within a society or between different social groups. It involves compromise, negotiation, and the creation of shared norms and institutions to facilitate coexistence and cooperation. Accommodation allows for the peaceful resolution of conflicts and the maintenance of social stability despite cultural, religious, or ideological differences.
• Competition: Competition is a social process characterized by rivalry and conflict over resources, status, or power. It drives individuals and groups to strive for success and advantage within society, leading to innovation, social mobility, and the redistribution of resources. Competition can be both cooperative, leading to mutual benefits, and conflictual, resulting in winners and losers. It plays a crucial role in shaping social hierarchies, economic systems, and political dynamics within societies.

Additional Information

• Differentiation: Differentiation refers to the process through which social systems become more complex by developing specialized roles, functions, and institutions. It involves the emergence of distinct social structures, such as economic, political, religious, and educational systems, each performing specific tasks within society.
• Acculturation: Acculturation refers to the process of cultural exchange and adaptation that occurs when individuals or groups from different cultures come into contact with each other. It involves the borrowing, blending, or modification of cultural traits, values, and practices between interacting groups.
• Cultural Hybridization: Cultural hybridization refers to the blending or mixing of cultural elements from different cultural traditions to create new forms of expression, identity, and practice. It occurs through processes such as acculturation, globalization, and cultural exchange.

Thus, the appropriate types of social process would be Assimilation, accommodation, and Competition.

The correct answer is Newspaper. 

Key Points

• Newspapers typically fall under the category of print media, rather than audio-visual digital methods. While newspapers provide valuable qualitative information, they are primarily textual and visual, lacking the audio-visual components typically associated with digital media.
• While newspapers provide valuable qualitative information, they are not considered as qualitative audio-visual digital methods due to their primary reliance on text-based content and lack of audio-visual components.
• Newspapers are traditionally printed publications that provide news, information, and commentary in a textual format. While they may include visual elements such as photographs, illustrations, and infographics, newspapers primarily convey information through written articles and headlines.
• Unlike audio-visual digital methods such as videos, podcasts, and multimedia presentations, newspapers do not incorporate audio or moving images as primary means of communication. While some newspapers may offer digital editions or online platforms with multimedia features, the core content remains text-based.
• Newspapers do provide qualitative information through in-depth reporting, analysis, and opinion pieces. They offer context, perspective, and interpretation of current events and issues, allowing readers to engage with complex topics in a meaningful way. However, the qualitative nature of newspapers stems from the depth and quality of written content, rather than audio-visual elements.

Additional Information

• Film: Film is a medium of visual storytelling that utilizes moving images to convey narratives, ideas, and emotions. It involves the recording and projection of sequential frames of images, often accompanied by sound, music, dialogue, and special effects. Films can be produced in various genres, including drama, comedy, action, documentary, and animation, catering to diverse audiences and interests.
• Photograph: A photograph is a visual image captured by a camera that freezes a moment in time, preserving a scene, event, or subject in a two-dimensional format. Photographs can be black and white or color, and they can depict a wide range of subjects, including people, landscapes, objects, and abstract compositions.
• Computer Messages: Computer messages refer to electronic communications transmitted and received through computer networks, such as the Internet, email, instant messaging, and social media platforms. They encompass text-based messages, multimedia content, and interactive exchanges between individuals and groups.

Thus, a Newspaper cannot be considered a Qualitative audio-visual digital method.

The correct answer is 1976. 

Key Points

• Michel Foucault wrote his famous book "The History of Sexuality" in 1976. This groundbreaking work, originally published in French as "Histoire de la sexualité," is a seminal text in the fields of philosophy, sociology, and cultural studies.
• In it, Foucault examines the historical development and social construction of sexuality, challenging conventional understandings of power, knowledge, and identity.
• Foucault's "The History of Sexuality" emerged during a period of significant social and intellectual change, particularly regarding sexual politics and the study of human sexuality. Foucault's work was influenced by the broader movements of post-structuralism and critical theory, which challenged traditional assumptions about power, knowledge, and subjectivity.
• In "The History of Sexuality," Foucault conducts a historical analysis of how discourses surrounding sexuality have evolved. He argues that Western societies have undergone a shift in their understanding and regulation of sexuality, from a focus on repression and prohibition to one centered on the management and production of sexuality.
• Foucault argues that sexuality is not an innate or natural aspect of human existence but rather a historically contingent and socially constructed phenomenon. He explores how discourses about sexuality have been produced, disseminated, and contested throughout history, shaping individuals' experiences and identities.

Additional Information

• Discourse: Foucault's concept of discourse refers to systems of knowledge, language, and power that shape and regulate social reality. Discourses encompass not only language and communication but also institutions, practices, and forms of knowledge production. Foucault analyzes how discourses construct and govern social norms, identities, and hierarchies, influencing individuals' perceptions, behaviors, and experiences.
• Power/Knowledge: Foucault's theory of power/knowledge explores the interrelationship between power and knowledge, suggesting that knowledge is always intertwined with mechanisms of power and control. Power operates through various forms of knowledge production, dissemination, and normalization, shaping individuals' subjectivities and social realities. Foucault emphasizes the productive and constructive aspects of power, highlighting how power/knowledge shapes social practices, institutions, and discourses.
• Panopticism: The concept of panopticism originates from Foucault's analysis of Jeremy Bentham's Panopticon, a theoretical prison design characterized by a central observation tower surrounded by individual cells. Foucault uses the Panopticon as a metaphor to illustrate how disciplinary power operates in modern societies. The constant visibility and potential surveillance inherent in the Panopticon create a sense of internalized discipline and self-regulation among individuals, leading to the internalization of social norms and compliance with societal expectations.

Thus, In 1976, Michael Foucault wrote his famous book, 'The History of Sexuality'.

The correct answer is A - IV, B - III, C - I, D - II. 

Key Points

• Imaging the Modern City (1999) by James Donald: James Donald is a cultural theorist known for his work on media, culture, and urban spaces. In "Imaging the Modern City," Donald explores the representation of cities in visual culture, including film, photography, and art. He examines how media technologies shape our perceptions of urban environments and contribute to the construction of urban identities. Donald's analysis delves into how modernity is depicted and contested through images of the city.
• Post-Modern Urbanism (1995) by Nan Ellin: Nan Ellin is an urban theorist whose work focuses on postmodern urbanism and its implications for urban planning and design. In this book, Ellin investigates how postmodern theories and practices influence the built environment and urban experiences. She explores concepts such as fragmented urban landscapes, the blending of architectural styles, and the role of cultural diversity in shaping contemporary cities. Ellin's work challenges traditional notions of urbanism and calls for new approaches to understanding and designing cities in the postmodern era.
• Urban Question; A Marxist Approach (1977) by Manuel Castells: Manuel Castells is a sociologist known for his critical analysis of urbanization, capitalism, and social movements. In "The Urban Question," Castells applies Marxist theory to examine the dynamics of urban development and class struggle. He explores how capital accumulation, political power, and social conflict shape the spatial organization of cities and the lives of urban residents. Castells' work highlights the role of urbanization in reproducing social inequalities and the potential for transformative change through collective action.
• The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961) by Jane Jacobs: Jane Jacobs was an urban activist and writer whose work revolutionized urban planning and design. In this seminal book, Jacobs critiques modernist urban renewal policies and advocates for a community-based approach to city planning. She celebrates the diversity, vitality, and complexity of urban neighborhoods, arguing for the importance of mixed-use development, pedestrian-friendly streets, and local participation in shaping the built environment. Jacobs's ideas have had a profound impact on urban policy and design, inspiring generations of planners, activists, and scholars.

Additional Information

• Richard Florida: Richard Florida is an urban studies theorist known for his research on the creative class and urban competitiveness. His book "The Rise of the Creative Class" explores the role of creativity and innovation in driving economic growth and urban revitalization. Florida's work has influenced urban policy debates and economic development strategies in cities around the world.
• Sharon Zukin: Sharon Zukin is a sociologist known for her research on urban culture, consumption, and gentrification. Her book "The Naked City" examines the transformation of New York City's neighborhoods in the context of globalization and neoliberalism. Zukin's work highlights the social and cultural dimensions of urban change and the experiences of marginalized communities in gentrifying neighborhoods.
• William H. Whyte: William H. Whyte was an urbanist and sociologist known for his research on urban public spaces and pedestrian behavior. His book "The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces" investigates the factors that contribute to the success or failure of urban plazas and parks. Whyte's work emphasizes the importance of human-scale design and community engagement in creating vibrant and inclusive urban environments.

Thus, 

The correct answer is 1 and 3. 

Key Points

• A community is an area of social living marked by some degree of social coherence**. The basis of community is locality and Community Sentiment.**
• Locality: Locality refers to the geographical or physical aspect of a community. It involves the spatial proximity of individuals living within a defined area, such as a neighbourhood, village, town, or city**. The shared physical space allows residents to interact with one another regularly,** fostering social connections and networks within the community.
• Locality plays a crucial role in shaping the social dynamics and identity of a community. It provides a sense of place and belonging for its members, as they share common landmarks, resources, and environmental features. Locality also influences the distribution of social amenities, services, and infrastructure within the community, shaping residents' everyday experiences and quality of life.
• Community Sentiment: Community sentiment refers to the emotional attachment, solidarity, and sense of belonging that individuals feel towards their community. It involves the shared values, norms, traditions, and symbols that define the collective identity and culture of the community. Community sentiment is often rooted in shared experiences, memories, and traditions that bind residents together.
• Community sentiment is nurtured through social interactions, interpersonal relationships, and collective rituals within the community. It fosters a sense of mutual trust, reciprocity, and support among residents, as they come together to address common challenges, celebrate achievements, and commemorate shared milestones.

Additional Information

• Community Resilience: Community resilience refers to the ability of a community to withstand and recover from adverse events, such as natural disasters, economic downturns, or social disruptions. It involves the capacity of individuals, organizations, and systems within the community to adapt, collaborate, and mobilize resources in response to challenges. Building community resilience requires investments in social cohesion, infrastructure, and disaster preparedness.
• Civic Culture: Civic culture refers to the norms, values, and practices that shape civic engagement and participation within a community. It encompasses attitudes towards democracy, citizenship, and collective responsibility, as well as the willingness to participate in public affairs and contribute to the common good. A strong civic culture fosters a sense of civic duty, trust in institutions, and a vibrant civil society.
• Social Capital: Social capital refers to the networks of relationships, trust, and reciprocity that exist within a community. It encompasses the social connections and resources that individuals and groups can access through their interactions with others. Strong social capital is associated with increased community resilience, cooperation, and collective action.

Thus, A community is an area of social living marked by some degree of social coherence. The basis of community is locality and Community Sentiment.

The correct answer is B, A, D, C, E. 

Key Points

• The sequence of family forms proposed by Lewis Henry Morgan are:
• The Consanguine Family: According to Morgan, the Consanguine family was the earliest form of family structure. In this type of family**, kinship ties were organized based on blood relationships rather than marital ties**. Individuals were grouped into broad categories, such as generations or lineages, and marriage was permitted within these broad categories. The consanguine family was characterized by flexible and fluid marital arrangements, with individuals marrying cousins or other relatives within the same kin group.
• The Punaluan Family: Following the Consanguine family, Morgan identified the Punaluan family as the next stage of family evolution. In Punaluan families, small groups of related families formed close-knit social units. Multiple husbands and wives were shared within each group, and marriage was practiced collectively among members of the same kin group. Punaluan families practiced group marriages and communal child-rearing practices, emphasizing cooperation and mutual support among extended kinship networks.
• The Syndyasmian Family: The Syndyasmian family represented a further development in family structure according to Morgan's evolutionary sequence. In this form of family, individuals engaged in more structured and stable pairings known as syndyasm, or serial monogamy. While individuals formed long-term partnerships, these relationships were not necessarily lifelong, and partners could separate and form new unions over time. Syndyasmian families allowed for greater flexibility and autonomy in marital choices compared to earlier forms of family.
• The Patriarchal Family: Morgan identified the patriarchal family as the next stage in the evolutionary sequence. Patriarchal families were characterized by hierarchical relationships and the dominance of male authority. In patriarchal families, authority and inheritance were passed down through the male line, and the male head of the household exercised control over family members and resources. Patriarchal families were typically organized around the nuclear family unit, with a focus on lineage and patrilineal descent.
• The Monogamous Family: Finally, monogamy represented the most advanced stage of family evolution according to Morgan. In monogamous families, individuals form exclusive, lifelong partnerships with a single spouse. Monogamous families were characterized by greater stability and permanence compared to earlier forms of family, with a strong emphasis on the nuclear family unit as the primary social structure. Monogamy allowed for greater emotional intimacy and mutual dependence between spouses, as well as the inheritance of property and wealth through direct descent lines.

Additional Information

• Kinship Systems: Kinship systems refer to the social structures and cultural rules governing relationships between individuals based on family ties, descent, and marriage. Different societies have diverse kinship systems, including bilateral, patrilineal, matrilineal, and cognatic kinship, which influence patterns of inheritance, residence, and social organization.
• Evolutionary Anthropology: Evolutionary anthropology examines human biological and cultural evolution over time, including the development of social institutions such as the family. This interdisciplinary field integrates insights from genetics, archaeology, primatology, and cultural anthropology to understand the origins and diversity of human societies.
• Family Ecology: Family ecology explores the interactions between families and their environments, including physical, social, and cultural factors that shape family dynamics and behavior. This perspective considers how environmental conditions, such as resource availability, population density, and social norms, influence family structure, function, and adaptation.

Thus, The order of evaluation is The Consanguine family, The Punaluan family, The Syndyasmian family, The Patriarchal Family, and The Monogamous family.

The correct answer is A-II, B - III, C - IV, D - I. 

Key Points

• Ho - Sing-Bonga: The Oraon community belongs to the Sing-Bonga category. The Oraon, also known as Kurukh, is an indigenous tribal community primarily found in the Indian states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and West Bengal.
• Bhotia - Rangbang: The Ho community belongs to the Rangbang category. The Ho people are an indigenous ethnic group primarily found in the Indian states of Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, and Bihar.
• Oraon - Jonkerpa: The Bhuiya community belongs to the Jonkerpa category. The Bhuiya people are an indigenous tribal group found mainly in the Indian states of Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, and Bihar.
• Bhuiya - ​Dhangarbassa: The Bhotia community belongs to the Dhangarbassa category. The Bhotia people are an ethnic group found mainly in the Himalayan regions of India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet.

Additional Information

• Social Stratification: Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups within a society based on factors such as wealth, power, prestige, and social status.
• Cultural Relativism: Cultural relativism is the principle that an individual's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood within the context of their own culture rather than judged by the standards of another culture.
• Cultural Typologies: Cultural typologies involve the categorization of cultures or societies into different types or classifications based on shared cultural traits, economic systems, social structures, or religious beliefs.

Thus, 

The correct answer is A, B, C, D, and E. 

Key Points

• All knowledge and all ideas are bound to a location: Mannheim emphasizes that knowledge and ideas are not abstract or detached from social reality but are inherently situated within specific historical, cultural, and social contexts.
• It refers to a theory of the social or existential conditioning of thought: Mannheim's sociology of knowledge is indeed concerned with understanding how social factors condition and shape individual and collective thought processes.
• Ideas are rooted in different locations in historical time and social structure: Mannheim contends that ideas do not emerge in a vacuum but are rooted in specific historical periods and social structures. Different historical epochs and social contexts give rise to distinct worldviews, ideologies, and belief systems.
• At times a particular group can have more access to the understanding of a social phenomenon than other groups: Mannheim acknowledges that power dynamics and social inequalities can influence individuals' access to knowledge and understanding of social phenomena.
• No group has total access to understanding of a social phenomenon: Mannheim emphasizes that knowledge is always partial and situated, reflecting the perspectives and interests of particular social groups. Even dominant groups do not have a monopoly on truth or knowledge.

Additional Information

• Critical Theory: Critical theory emphasizes the critique of power structures and social injustices within society.
• Standpoint Theory: Standpoint theory suggests that individuals' social positions and perspectives shape their knowledge and understanding of the world.
• Postmodernism: Postmodernism challenges the idea of objective truth and questions the stability of knowledge and meaning.

Thus, according to Karl Mannheim the sociology of knowledge A, B, C, D, and E.

The correct answer is B, C, A, D. 

Key Points

• Capitalism and Modern Social Theory (1971): This book was one of Giddens' earliest works, where he critically examines the theories of Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Emile Durkheim in the context of modern capitalist societies.
• New Rules of Sociological Method (1976): Following his exploration of classical social theories, Giddens published this book, which presents a revised framework for sociological analysis.
• The Consequences of Modernity (1990): This book represents a significant development in Giddens' thinking as he delves into the profound transformations brought about by modernity.
• Runaway World: How Globalization is Shaping Our Lives (1999): Building upon his earlier work on modernity, Giddens explores the implications of globalization for contemporary society in this book.

Additional Information

• Structuration Theory: Giddens' concept of structuration theory proposes that social systems are both the product of human actions (agency) and the structures that constrain and enable those actions.
• Reflexive Modernization: Giddens, along with Ulrich Beck and Scott Lash, developed the concept of reflexive modernization to describe how modern societies are increasingly characterized by self-awareness, reflexivity, and the questioning of traditional beliefs and institutions.
• Globalization: Giddens' work on globalization explores the complex social, economic, and cultural processes associated with increased interconnectedness and interdependence on a global scale.

Thus, the correct chronological sequence is Capitalism and Modern Social Theory, New Rules of Sociological Method, The Consequences of Modernity, Runaway World: How globalization is shaping our lives

The correct answer is James Ferguson. 

Key Points

• The phrase "anti-politics machine" is used by James Ferguson, an anthropologist, in his book titled "The Anti-Politics Machine: 'Development,' Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho.
• " In this book, Ferguson examines how development projects in Lesotho, a small country in southern Africa, serve to depoliticize local issues and perpetuate bureaucratic power structures rather than addressing the root causes of poverty and inequality.
• He argues that development interventions often function as "anti-politics machines" by marginalizing local voices and reinforcing technocratic approaches to governance.

Additional Information

• Robert Chambers is a well-known development practitioner and researcher who has made significant contributions to the field of participatory development. He is best known for his work on participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and participatory development, advocating for approaches that involve local communities in decision-making processes.
• Keith Hart is an economic anthropologist who has conducted extensive research on economic development, informal economies, and money. He is recognized for his pioneering work on the informal sector, which refers to economic activities that are not regulated or protected by the state.
• Thomas B. Hansen is a political anthropologist whose research focuses on politics, governance, and citizenship in Africa, particularly in Nigeria. He has conducted fieldwork on topics such as urban governance, religious movements, and the dynamics of political power in African societies.

Thus, James Ferguson uses the phrase "anti-politics machine".

The correct answer is Max Weber. 

Key Points

• Weber argued that traditional India lacked the necessary socio-cultural conditions for the development of rational-legal authority and bureaucratic social structures.
• He contrasted India with Western societies, particularly those influenced by Protestantism, where he believed the ethos of rationality, individualism, and bureaucratic organization had facilitated the emergence of modern capitalism and state institutions.
• Weber's analysis of Indian society is found in his seminal work "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism."
• While acknowledging the richness and complexity of Indian culture, Weber contended that certain cultural and institutional factors had hindered the development of rational-legal authority.

Additional Information

• Harold D. Lasswell: Harold D. Lasswell was an American political scientist and communication theorist known for his work on political psychology, propaganda, and the analysis of political communication. He is best known for his model of communication.
• F.W. Riggs (Fred W. Riggs): F.W. Riggs was an American political scientist and public administration scholar known for his contributions to the study of comparative public administration and development administration. He is best known for his concept of the "prismatic society.
• Daniel Lerner: Daniel Lerner was an American political scientist and communication scholar known for his work on modernization theory and communication studies. He is best known for his book "The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East."

Thus, Max Weber said traditional India did not have a developed socio-cultural foundation for the growth of rational-legal authority and bureaucratic social structures.

The correct answer is The belief that the universe is God. 

Key Points

• Pantheism is a philosophical and religious worldview that posits the identification of the universe (or nature) with God or a divine force.
• In pantheism, the term "God" is often understood not as a separate, personal deity but as an immanent and all-encompassing presence that permeates and transcends the natural world.
• Pantheism holds that the natural world, including the cosmos, Earth, and all living beings, is sacred and imbued with divine essence.
• Nature is not merely a creation of God but is God itself. This perspective often leads to a deep reverence for the environment and a sense of interconnectedness with all living things.

Additional Information

• Animism: Animism is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence or soul.
• Naturalism: Naturalism is the philosophical position that the natural world is all that exists and that there are no supernatural or divine entities. While pantheism acknowledges the sacredness of nature and identifies it with the divine, naturalism typically does not attribute any transcendent or supernatural qualities to the natural world.
• Monism: Monism is the philosophical view that all of reality is fundamentally one substance or essence.

Thus, Pantheism means The belief that the universe is God.

The correct answer is - M. Maffesoli.

Key Points

• The statement "We now live in the time of the tribe" is attributed to Michel Maffesoli.
• Maffesoli's concept of "the time of the tribe" reflects his observation of a societal shift towards a reconfiguration of social bonds.
• People seek out and form smaller, more intimate communities reminiscent of tribal societies.
• He contends that people are forming smaller social groups or "tribes" based on shared interests, lifestyles, or identities.
• These tribes offer a sense of belonging, solidarity, and emotional connection.
• Michel Maffesoli is a French sociologist known for his work on postmodernism and the sociology of everyday life.
• He introduced the concept of "neo-tribes" or "tribal society" in his influential book titled "The Time of the Tribes: The Decline of Individualism in Mass Society," which was originally published in French in 1988.

Additional Information

• ​Grace Davie is a British sociologist known for her work in the sociology of religion. While her work may not be directly associated with the "time of the tribe," she has contributed significantly to the understanding of religion in contemporary society.
• Michel Maffesoli, as previously discussed, is a French sociologist who introduced the concept of the "time of the tribe." His work explores the shift from traditional individualism to a more communal, emotionally driven social structure characterized by neo-tribes.
• Claudio Barone is an Italian sociologist known for his contributions to cultural sociology. His work often focuses on the intersection of culture, identity, and social structures.

Thus,  The statement "We now live in the time of the tribe" is attributed to Michel Maffesoli.

The correct answer is - A, C, B, E, D

Key Points

• Research Questions (A)
• The research process begins by identifying the research questions that the study aims to answer.
• Literature Review (C)
• Existing literature is reviewed to understand previous research and identify research gaps.
• Data Collection (B)
• Data is collected using appropriate methods and instruments based on the research design.
• Data Analysis (E)
• The collected data is systematically analyzed to answer the research questions.
• Writing-up (D)
• The final stage involves presenting the methodology, findings, analysis, and conclusions in written form.

Additional Information

• Research Questions
• Define the specific issue or problem that the research intends to investigate.
• Literature Review
• Examines existing studies, theories, and findings related to the research problem.
• Helps establish the context and research gap.
• Data Collection and Analysis
• Data collection produces the empirical information required for the study.
• Data analysis involves organizing and interpreting the collected data to derive findings.
• Writing-up
• Communicates the complete research process and its findings in a structured research report.

The correct answer is - Interview.

 Key Points

• ​An interview is a method of data collection where a researcher directly interacts with participants to gather information.
• This can be done in person, over the phone, or through other means.
• Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, depending on the level of formality and flexibility.
• "Interview" itself is not a study design; rather, it is a method within various study designs.
• Study designs refer to the overall plan or strategy that researchers use to address their research questions or hypotheses.
• "Interview" as a data collection method involves gathering information directly from individuals through face-to-face conversations, phone calls, video calls, or written correspondence.

Additional Information

• Cross-Sectional - Study design: Involves the collection of data from participants at a single point in time.
• Interview - Data collection method: Involves direct interaction between the researcher and the participant to gather information.
• Cross-Cultural - Not a specific study design but may be considered as a factor in research design. It refers to the comparison of different cultures in a study.
• Longitudinal - Study design: Involves collecting data from the same group of participants over an extended period,

Thus, among the options given, "Interview" is the one that is not a study design.

The correct answer is - B, A, D, C. 

Key Points

• The Division of Labour in Society (1893): This was Durkheim's first major work, in which he explored the role of division of labor in shaping social cohesion and solidarity in societies. Durkheim argued that as societies progressed from mechanical solidarity (based on similarities and shared traditions) to organic solidarity.
• The Rules of Sociological Method (1895): In this book, Durkheim outlined his methodological approach to the study of sociology. He emphasized the need for sociology to be treated as a distinct scientific discipline, with its methods and principles of inquiry.
• Suicide: A Study in Sociology (1897): In "Suicide," Durkheim applied his sociological method to the study of suicide rates in different societies. He argued that suicide rates were not merely individual acts but were influenced by social factors.
• The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912): In his final major work, Durkheim examined the nature and functions of religion in society. He focused on primitive or "elementary" forms of religious belief and practice, such as totemism.

Additional Information

• Social Facts: Durkheim emphasized the importance of studying social facts, which are external to individuals and exert a coercive influence over their behavior.
• Collective Consciousness: Durkheim proposed the idea of collective consciousness, which refers to the shared beliefs, values, and moral sentiments that bind members of a society together.
• Anomie: Durkheim introduced the concept of anomie to describe a state of normlessness or moral confusion that occurs when there is a breakdown of social norms and regulations.

 Thus, the correct chronological sequence of Emile Durkheim's writings is: The Division of Labour in Society, The Rules of Sociological Method, Suicide: A Study in Sociology, and The Elementary Forms of Religious Life.

The correct answer is - A, B, and D only.

 Key Points

• The hypothesis must be conceptually clear: A clear and well-defined hypothesis is essential for effective research.
• It should articulate a specific relationship or expectation between variables.
• The hypotheses should have empirical referents: Empirical referents mean that the variables and relationships proposed in the hypotheses should be observable and measurable.
• The hypotheses should be related to a body of theory: Hypotheses gain strength and relevance when they are connected to existing theories or conceptual frameworks.

Additional Information

• Conflict Theory Hypotheses: Conflict theory emphasizes the role of power dynamics, inequality, and conflict in shaping social structures and relationships.
• Symbolic Interactionism Hypotheses: Symbolic interactionism emphasizes the significance of symbols, meanings, and interactions in shaping social life.
• Quantitative Hypotheses: In quantitative sociology, hypotheses often involve predictions about the relationships between variables that can be measured and analyzed statistically.

Thus, usable hypotheses should be conceptually clear, have empirical referents, and be related to a body of theory.

The correct answer is - A, B, and D only.

 Key Points

• Histograms Technique: Histograms are a graphical representation of a frequency distribution. They consist of bars that represent the frequencies or relative frequencies of different data intervals. The width of the bars corresponds to the intervals, and the height represents the frequency.
• Frequency Polygons: Frequency polygons are another graphical representation of a frequency distribution. They involve connecting the midpoints of the tops of the bars in a histogram with straight lines. This creates a polygon that visually represents the distribution of data.
• Percentile: While percentiles are not directly a graphical representation, they are related to summarizing and understanding the distribution of data. Percentiles indicate the percentage of data points that fall below a certain value. Graphical methods like cumulative frequency curves or cumulative percentage polygons can be used to illustrate percentiles.
• Smoothed Frequency Curves: Smoothed frequency curves, such as kernel density plots or smoothed histograms, are graphical techniques used to represent the distribution of data with a smoothed curve rather than discrete bars. These curves provide a visual representation of the data's density.

Additional Information

• Inferential Statistics: Inferential statistics involve making inferences and predictions about a population based on sample data.
• Data Visualization: Data visualization refers to the graphical representation of data to communicate information effectively and efficiently.
• Descriptive Statistics: Descriptive statistics are numerical measures used to summarize and describe the characteristics of a dataset.
• Smoothed Frequency Curves: Smoothed frequency curves, also known as frequency curves or frequency density curves, are graphical representations of frequency distributions that use smooth lines to connect the data points.

Thus, Histograms, frequency polygons, and smoothed frequency curves are graphical representations of frequency distributions.

The correct answer is B, A, D, E, C.

Key Points

• The growing understanding that many rural communities have not benefited from development has led to a rise in the popularity of rural development planning in recent years.
• Simultaneously, it has been acknowledged that the planning structure and organization need to be changed in order for policies and programs to adequately address the development requirements of rural areas.
• Following is the correct sequence for planning and implementing a Rural Development Project:
• B. Base-line Survey-A baseline survey is conducted to obtain a complete assessment of the project region, including population, socio-economic situation, and water and sanitation infrastructure.
• A. Selection of Beneficiaries-To get people actively involved in the planning and execution of projects, ongoing needs assessments are necessary. Area and beneficiary needs must be identified for this purpose.
• D. Selection of Schemes- Schemes like Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), the Rastriya Sama, Vikas Yojana (RSVY), the Indira Awas Yojana (IAY), the Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY), the Integrated Tribal Development Project (ITDP), and the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana((PMGSY) are provided by government for the Rural Development.
• E. Execution of the Programme-The main functions of the Panchayat Samitis are planning, execution and supervision of all developmental program in the Block.
• C. Monitoring and Evaluate- This is the last step to monitor the progress of the development program and evaluate the results.

Additional Information Following are the need and importance of rural development:

1. To develop rural area as whole in terms of culture, society, economy, technology and health.
2. To develop infrastructure of rural area.
3. To develop rural institutions like panchayat, cooperatives, post, banking and credit.
4. To restore unused land, construct irrigation systems, and encourage farmers to use better fertilizers, seeds, crop cultivation packages, and soil conservation techniques.
5. To improve rural people's participation in the development of state and nation as whole.

The correct answer is - Anthony Giddens.

Key Points

• Giddens is associated with the concept of "Time-Space distanciation."
• Time-space Distanciation refers to the process through which social relations become disembedded from local contexts and stretched across greater distances in both time and space.
• Giddens' concept of time-space Distanciation is closely linked to globalization.
• Giddens' structuration theory explores the relationship between social structures and individual agency.
• Giddens has also discussed the concept of the risk society, where modernity brings about new types of risks and uncertainties.

Additional Information

• ​Habermas is known for his theory of communicative action, emphasizing the importance of rational discourse and communication in the development of society.
• He introduced the concept of the public sphere, where citizens engage in critical discussions about societal issues.
• Bourdieu introduced the concept of habitus, which refers to the system of dispositions individuals acquire through socialization and which shapes their behaviors and perceptions.
• Said's seminal work "Orientalism" examines how Western scholars have historically portrayed and constructed the East, influencing perceptions and power dynamics.

Thus, while each of these sociologists has made significant contributions to sociology, Anthony Giddens is the one directly associated with the concept of "Time-Space Distanciation" in the context of globalization and modernity.

The correct answer is A,C,D and E only.

Key Points

• The IT Revolution has opened up new possibilities of economic and social transformation. A robust growth is seen in IT enabled industry.
• There are various stages of IT revolution which are discussed as follows:
• A. Microelectronics, Computers and Telecommunications Convergence: This stage is Technological convergence. It is a direct result of media content digitalization and Internet popularity, combining the "three C's": Computing, Communication and Content.
• C. The creation of internet: The creation of internet in 1980s has brought up new dimensions to Information Technology. The internet was fully commercialized in US by 1995. Then later on, it started to spread in other countries as well.
• D. Network technologies and pervasive computing: Any technology that allows two or more devices to connect and communicate with one another is referred to as network technology. The latest trend in embedded microprocessor technology is called "Pervasive Computing," which allows everyday objects to share information. For example, use of multiple bluetooth devices like smartwatch, headphones etc. all are synced so well just through one wireless connection.
• E. Technologies of Life - Bio - technology (Genetic Engineering): According to some critics, alarming reproductive technologies and sex pre-selection is altering human behaviour through genetic engineering. Cloning, or creating exact replica represents most extreme form of genetic engineering. Very soon, scientist might try to clone human beings and that would be really dangerous for our future.
• Since IT revolution has nothing to do with environment, option B gets eliminated.

Additional Information There are four major Science and Technology policy in India:

1. Scientific Policy Resolution, 1958
2. Technology Policy Statement, 1983
3. Science & Technology Policy, 2003
4. Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, 2013

The correct answer is I.P. Desai.

Key Points

• I.P. Desai studied the structural and functional unity of joint family in Mahuva, Gujarat. His study title was 'Some Aspects of Family in Mahuva: A Sociological study of Jointness in small town'(1964).
• According to I.P. Desai, sharing a home and a common kitchen are less crucial aspects of joint families than intra-family relationships.
• He believes that a joint family is formed when two families with kinship relationships live separately but share common authority.
• Desai finds the following five types of degrees of jointness based on degree, intensity, and orientation with regard to functions and obligations which people perform for each other:

1. Households with zero degree of jointness.
2. Households of low degree of jointness. (Joint by way of the fulfillment of mutual obligations)
3. Households with high degree of jointness (Jointness by way of common ownership of property)
4. Households with higher degree of jointness (Marginally joint families)
5. Households of the highest degree of jointness. (Traditional joint families)

Additional Information

• I.P. Desai had categorized three types of joint family:

1. Functional Joint Family- Living separately but working under same authority.
2. Traditional Joint Family- Three generations living together.
3. Substantially Joint Family- On the basis of common property ownership.

The correct answer is Industrial Society.

Key Points

• Mass society theory was developed by William Kornhauser in his book 'The Politics of Mass Society (1959)'.
• Kornhauser defines mass society as a social order in which elites are easily influenced by non-elites.
• Simultaneously, non-elites (particularly those in marginal positions in society) are very susceptible to mobilization because to their lack of affiliation with autonomous groups, the local community, voluntary associations, and occupational groups.
• Social conditions resemble a "mass society" in which people and elites can emotionally encourage one another to extreme behavior.
• Industrial society is closely associated with mass society as large scale phenomenon is prevalent in both the societies such as mass production and consumption, mas media etc.
• According to mass society theory, industrialization and related social changes have separated and alienated people.
• Irrespective of high density population, relations are mostly impersonal which lead them to a sense of isolation.

Additional Information

• Other works of William Kornhauser are as follows:

1. Scientists in Industry: Conflict and Accommodation (1962)
2. The Politics of Resentment: Shopkeeper Protest in Nineteenth-century Paris (2017)

The correct answer is option 2. 

Key Points

• Emile Durkheim work, 'The Elementary Forms of Religious Life(1912)' analyzes religion as a social phenomenon.
• In this work, he presents a detailed account and analysis of the 'clan system' and the practice of "totemism in the Arunta tribe" of Australian Aboriginals.
• He proposes a general theory of religion based on the study of the simplest and most "primitive" religious institutions, as well as a sociological interpretation of the fundamental forms of human thinking that is still relevant in contemporary sociology of knowledge.
• Durkheim defined religion as a division of the world into two distinct categories: Sacred and Profane.
• The sacred includes things that people have classified as distinct and deserving of particular religious treatment, such as religious ideas, rituals, deities, or anything socially believed as sacred. Durkheim underlines that "the sacred thing" is something the profane should not touch.
• According to Durkheim, the binding force of religion is found in shared beliefs and rituals that build social cohesion among individuals.

Additional Information Following are the famous works of Emile Durkheim:

1. The Division of Labour in Society (1893)
2. The Rules of Sociological Method (1895)
3. Suicide (1897)
4. Education and Sociology (1922)
5. On morality and society (1973)

The correct answer is Caitlin Flanagan.

Key Points

• Caitlin Flanagan, an American writer and journalist, authored the essay "Why Marriage Matters."
• In this piece, Flanagan delves into the significance of marriage in contemporary society, exploring its impact on individuals, families, and communities.
• She examines the cultural, social, and personal dimensions of marriage, arguing for its enduring relevance and importance despite evolving attitudes and challenges.
• Flanagan's essay reflects her nuanced understanding of gender dynamics, family dynamics, and the complex interplay between tradition and modernity in the institution of marriage.

Additional Information

Jesse Ellison: A journalist and writer who has covered various topics including social issues, women's rights, and culture.

John Gottman: A psychologist known for his research on marital relationships and his work on predicting marital stability and divorce.

The correct answer is Portfolio worker.

Key Points

• A portfolio worker can be simply defined as a person who is working for multiple companies or organization at the same time.
• Following are the characteristics of a portfolio worker:

1. They have multiple sources of income.
2. They can work remotely from anywhere.
3. Their job hour is highly flexible as per their choice.
4. They can undertake projects for different organization at the same time.

Example: A person is working as a freelancer on multiple platform, working remotely and earning well.

Additional Information

• A portfolio workers are highly skilled and expert in multiple field.
• Hence, people with diverse qualifications and skills prefer to work as a portfolio worker.

The correct answer is option 2.

Key Points

• In Modern sciences, a theory will always have a component of tentativeness. There is no such thing as absolute theory in modern sciences considering its evolving nature.
• A theory in modern science is supported by evidence that can be tested multiple times to give same result or repeatedly confirmed.
• Modern science theories are constantly updated or modified as more evidence is gathered, resulting in increased accuracy in predictions over time.
• A scientific theory can be investigated in order to verify or deny empirical findings.
• A modern science theory can be modified or disproved on the basis of supporting evidence, if found any.
• We can say that a modern science theory is a proven hypothesis, it is not just a hypothesis.

The correct answer is "Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explaination of A".

Key Points Assertion: The average temperature have risen 0.8°C around the world since 1880. It has caused massive climate changes reflected in forms of heatwaves, ocean warming, rise in sea level and glacier melting.

• Major studies by the scientist and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change have carefully examined over 100 years of measurements and concluded that the average global temperature has risen about 0.8 degree Celsius since 1880.
• The climate crisis has raised the average global temperature, resulting in more frequent high-temperature extremes like heatwaves.
• As the climate gets warmer, rainfall patterns shift, evaporation accelerates, glaciers tend to melt, and sea levels rise.
• Hence, the assertion is correct.

Reason: From the time of the Industrial Revolution the amount of carbon dioxide that humanity has produced has risen tenfold.

• Since the Industrial Revolution, human activities have emitted substantial amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, impacting the earth's climate.
• The gradual rise in temperature is due to the release of greenhouse gases such as CO2 (carbon dioxide) and, most likely, human activity.
• Since 1970, CO2 emissions have increased by roughly 90%, with emissions from fossil fuel burning and industrial processes accounting for approximately 78% of the total greenhouse gas emissions increase from 1970 to 2011.
• Hence, the reason is correct.

Therefore, we can conclude from the above discussion that both assertion and reason are correct and the reason provided above is correct in this instance.

The correct answer is Max Muller.

Key Points

• Max muller has developed the theory of naturism.
• Naturism means the belief that the forces of nature have supernatural power.
• According to him, naturism is essentially formed on man's sensory experience, from which logical arguments are drawn.
• Man acquires the surfaced experience of reality through his sensory organism, which enables him to draw logical conclusions.
• Man is further assisted by his senses in differentiating between living and inanimate objects.
• According to him, the source of religious inspiration should be located in the profound influence that nature exerted on the mind of early man in all of its forms.

Additional Information Following are the important works of Max Muller:

1. A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature (1859)
2. Introduction to the Science of Religion (1870)
3. India: What can it teach us? (1883)
4. The Science of Thought (1887)
5. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy (1899)

The correct answer is Louis Dumont.

Key Points

• Kinship is a system of recognizing relationship by blood, marriage and social relationship.
• Louis Dumont is regarded as the proponent of the 'alliance theory' in the study of kinship patterns.
• According to Louis Dumont ‘alliance’ refers to the repetition of intermarriage between larger or smaller groups.
• Louis Dumont looked at Dravidian kinship as a form of marriage. He saw affinity as a structure that ensures continuity between generations.
• Dumont demonstrated the existence of a preferential cross-cousin marriage rule, or an explicit rule determining that a man should marry a woman who is either a true cross-cousin or who is classified as such by kinship terminology, in his study of the Tamil Kallar kinship system in South India.
• Dravidian kinship terminology is clearly linked to cross-cousin marriage rules.

Additional Information Some of the important works of Louis Dumont are as follows:

1. Hierarchy and Marriage Alliance in South Indian Kinship (1957)
2. Homo Hierarchicus (1966)
3. Essays on Individualism (1983)
4. Homo Aequalis (1984)

The correct answer is C, A, B, D.

Key Points

• Claude Levi Strauss(1908-2009) is known as father of Structural Anthropology and Modern Anthropology. He is a Structuralist in the purest form.
• He considers culture as a system of symbolic communication and inculcated linguistics in anthropology.
• He focused on individual cognitive structures rather then collective consciousness.
• Following are the chronological sequence of the work of C. Levi Strauss:

1. The Elementary Structure of Kinship(1949)- ​According to Levi Strauss, one cannot attribute a cultural phenomenon like unilateral cross-cousin marriage to personal feelings. He has briefly discussed Alliance Theory of Kinship and Positive marriage rules.
2. Structural Anthropology(1958)- Claude Levi-Strauss postulates that all cultures are equal since all civilizations have unchangeable underlying structures and, as a result, all cultural behaviors have counterparts in other cultures.
3. The Savage Mind(1962)- Levi-Strauss's study of the myth and its function in human society is one of the book's major contributions. He contends that myths are complex systems of symbols and meanings that represent deep societal beliefs and values rather than stories.
4. The Raw and the Cooked: Introduction to a Science of Mythology(1964)-Levi Strauss contributed the idea of the binary opposition in this book. There are categorical opposites that arise from everyday experience with the most fundamental types of things, such as raw and cooked, fresh and rotten, and so on.

Additional Information

• Following are the major contributions and ideas of Levi Strauss through his work:

1. Linguistics and Phonology in understanding culture
2. Mechanical and Statistical Model
3. Deep underlying structure
4. Alliance theory of Kinship
5. Raw and cooked folktales of South America
6. Bricolage
7. Role of Binary opposition

The correct answer is A, B and D only.

Key Points

• The framework of a researcher's chosen research methods and techniques is known as Research design.
• Descriptive research design is used to describe the characteristics of phenomenon, event, organization or population that is being studied.
• This form of research specifically answers the "what" question rather than the "how," "why," and "when" questions. This type of research provides knowledge on a phenomenon's current state but not its cause.
• Descriptive research designs are frequently used for classification, finding relevant variables, and developing new research questions.
• In this research design, the results have higher reliability and less biasness.
• A prior formulation of specific hypothesis is must in Descriptive research design.

Additional Information

• Experimental research design is used to test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.
• Cause and effect relationship is studied in experimental research design.
• Therefore, option C is eliminated.

The correct answer is A, C and D only.

Key Points

• Technological revolution began right after the 1960s when the Industrial revolution was coming to an end. It is highly characterized by productivity enhancement.
• Technological advances such as automobiles, airplane, television, cellular phones, computers etc. have brought major advances and changes to the world.
• The 20^th century technology has completely changed the way people meet, interact, work and learn.
• We are living in the midst of technological revolution and it has its impact on both society as well as political institutions.
• This revolution has more room for analyzing the needs for new institutions as well as modifying the old ones.
• Social responses and impact to new innovations is different in each societies. For example, the revolution in Information and Communication Technology(ICT) has increased the digital divide in various societies. However, as a response to it, various institutions are working on bridging this gap.
• Improvements in technology leads to increase in knowledge and information to uncover the means to create a better technology.

Additional Information

• Following are the important theories in sociology related to Technology:

1. Technological Evolution: It is a theory of radical transformation of society through technological development. This theory was originated by Radovan Richta. Richta defines technology as a material entity created by the application of physical and mental effort to nature in order to achieve some value. He claims that technology evolves in three stages namely tools, machine and automation.
2. Technological Determinism: This term was coined by Thorstein Veblen. It is a reductionist theory that assumes that a society's technology determines the development of its social structure and cultural values. He believed that technology was a force that induced cultural and social change but did not assumed that change means progress.

The correct answer is A,B and D only.

Key Points

• Sociologist have distinguished between various types of societies:

1. Agrarian Societies: Also known as agricultural society, it is characterized by agricultural based economy. Agrarian society is deeply linked with farming and various agricultural practices. Agrarian societies are communities that rely on land cultivation and animal husbandry for their primary source of income. However, with the extent of urbanization, several changes has been seen in the agrarian relations in the contemporary agrarian society.
2. Industrial Societies: Industrial societies have came into existence since the advent of Industrial revolution in the 18^th century. The period of industrial revolution was characterized by global transformation of economy and mechanization. The economy of industrial society was highly based on the usage of machines and technology. The division of labour was very prevalent in industrial society. The production was not just for survival but also they produced for surplus value.
3. Hunting and Gathering Societies: This is the oldest form of society that has ever existed. The people in this society relied on hunting of wild animals and eating them for their survival. This society lacked an organizational structure and the population density was very minimal in these societies. Their lifestyle was acenstrally derived. They were highly skilled in hunting as it was their primary need to sustain in the society.

Additional Information

• Modern Society is a very generalized category. It does not hold any sociological relevance. Hence, this option was eliminated.
• In Sociology, there are multiple categorization of societies given by various sociologist which are as follows:

1. L.H Morgan: Savagery, Barbarism and Civilization
2. Robert Redfield: Folk and Urban societies
3. Daniel Bell: Post Industrial society
4. Gidden Sjoberg: Pre Industrial society
5. F. Tonnies: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
6. Herbert Spencer: Simple compound, compound, Doubly compound and Trebly compound societies
7. Emile Durkheim: Simple, SImple Polysegmentary, Simple Compounded Polysegmental and Doubly Compounded Polysegmentary societies

The correct answer is Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A. 

Key Points

• Independent Variables (IV): These are the variables that researchers manipulate or control in an experiment.
• Dependent Variables (DV): These are the variables that researchers measure or observe to determine the effect of the independent variable.
• The manipulation of the independent variable causes changes in the dependent variable, leading to specific outcomes or results.
• By controlling or manipulating the independent variable**, researchers can observe how changes in it affect the dependent variable.**
• This manipulation allows researchers to establish causal relationships between the independent and dependent variables, demonstrating how changes in one variable lead to changes in the other.

Additional Information

• Hypotheses: A hypothesis is a testable statement or prediction about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
• Randomization: Randomization involves assigning participants to different experimental conditions or groups randomly.
• Confounding Variables: These are extraneous variables that are not controlled for in an experiment and may inadvertently influence the dependent variable.

Thus, Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A. Reason R provides the correct explanation for Assertion A by highlighting the causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables in experimental research.

The correct answer is- A, C and D only.

Key Points

• Social Justice means equal social, political, and economic opportunities.
• Social justice has several aspects to it and here we are talking about distributive justice.
• Distributive justice refers to the socially equitable allocation of resources, goods, and opportunities in a society.
• Following are the pillars of Social justice:

1. Wealth - Equitable distribution of wealth is ensured by welfare policies of the Government, progressive taxation, etc.
2. Opportunities- Adequate opportunities for everyone is ensured through provision of education, health, access to public amenities to all, etc.
3. Privileges- Social Justice can be ensured only by removing any kind of privileges to any person or group in Society by creating a level playing field.

Additional Information

Following are the important books in Sociology related to Social justice:

• A Theory of Justice(1971) - John Rawls
• The Idea of Justice(2009) - Amartya Sen

The sequence of Talcott Parsons's scheme of social evolution is Primitive, Advanced Primitive, Archaic, Advanced Intermediate , Modern.

Key Points

• Evolutionary scheme of Parsons
• ​He proposes western europe to be the origin of modernization.
• Culture system is central to his scheme of social evolution.
• For him, the hallmark of higher order systems is rise in differentiation and autonomy from restraints imposed by physical environment.
• In simple terms, he saw evolution as rise in human acapability to overcome nature.
• The order he gives is
• Primitive (hunter-gathering societies),
• Advanced Primitive (beginnings of civilization, early forms of writing and rule of law)
• Archaic (advancements in agriculture),
• Advanced Intermediate ( early industrial societies with rudimentary form of nation-state)
• Modern (Late industrial and post-industrial)

Additional Information

• Talcott Parsons
• ​A structural functionalist.
• well known for putting forth grand narratives.
• His conceptual framework include value consensus, structure of social action, AGIL system, cybernetics, sick role, instrumental- expressive role etc.
• His major works include Structure of Social Action, A voluntaristic Theory of social Action, The Social System, Social Structure and Personality etc.

There are four elements identified by R.K. Merton to be ethos of science- Universalism, Communism, DIsinterestedness, Organized Skepticism.

Key Points

• Merton's ethos of Science
• ​In 1942, He identified four set of institutional imperatives as ethos of science.
• These were CUDOS (Communism, Universalism, Disinterestedness, Organized skepticism).
• He explained them in his book 'The Sociology of Science'.
• ​Communism as an ethos
• meant common ownership of scientific knowledge/discourse
• Collective collaboration
• Universalism as an ethos
• Scientific observations and results are mutually exclusive with the status of the observer.
• The findinds are objective and thus extend to all individuals alike.
• Disinterestedness as an ethos
• Not for personal gain but for benefit for humanity at large.
• Organized skepticism as an ethos
• Scientific claims before they get fully accepted should be subjected to critical scrutiny.
• The habit of doubt and cross-questioning are the spirit of doing science.

Additional Information

• R.K. Merton
• ​He is oftenly called 'neo-functionalist'. He modified the existing functionalism with his 'functional analysis'.
• Gave the concepts of latent-manifest functions, non-function and dysfunction, strain theory of deviance, self-sulfilling prophecy, membership/non-membership reference groups and anticipatory socialization.
• He credited with developing focus- group method and middle range theories (bridged the gap between macro and micro).
• His important works include Social Theory and Social Structure, Sociology of Science and The Travels and adventures of Serendipity, On the Shoulders of Giant.
• Humanism
• ​is a philosophy that believes in critical thinking and evidence.
• Rejects dogma, stereotypes and superstition.
• A humanist follows three key principles
• ​In order to create peace and trust among people, every human being should be treated with respect.
• People should have autonomy over their lives i.e. should be able to take their own decisions.
• Choices should be directed towards making human life and world around them better.

The correct answer is A - III, B - IV, C - I, D - II. 

Key Points

• Cultural Ecology: A theoretical paradigm that explores the relationship between human culture and the physical environment. It explores how human societies adapt to and interact with their natural surroundings, including how cultural practices, beliefs, and technologies shape environmental behavior and resource use.

Cultural ecologists study how cultural factors such as subsistence strategies, settlement patterns, land tenure systems, and belief systems influence human-environment interactions.

• Carbon Footprint: A personal measure of how much carbon dioxide you create and how much you contribute to climate change. A carbon footprint is a measure of the total amount of greenhouse gases, specifically carbon dioxide (CO2), emitted directly or indirectly by human activities, typically expressed in equivalent tons of CO2 per year. It represents an individual's or organization's contribution to climate change through the production of greenhouse gases.
• Environmental Racism: It shows the pattern by which environmental hazards are greatest in proximity to poor people, especially minorities. Environmental racism refers to the disproportionate burden of environmental hazards and pollution borne by marginalized and disadvantaged communities, particularly low-income neighborhoods and communities of color. It reflects systemic inequalities in the distribution of environmental benefits and burdens, perpetuating social injustices and health disparities.
• Ecological Footprint: It refers to human demand per hectare of land per person. The ecological footprint is a measure of human demand on the Earth's ecosystems, representing the amount of biologically productive land and water required to sustain a population's consumption and absorb its waste. It quantifies the ecological resources consumed and waste generated by human activities relative to the Earth's carrying capacity.

Additional Information

• Sustainability: Sustainability refers to the ability to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It encompasses environmental, social, and economic dimensions and involves balancing resource use, environmental protection, and social equity to ensure long-term well-being and resilience.
• Environmental Justice: Environmental justice is a movement and framework that addresses the disproportionate distribution of environmental benefits and burdens among different social groups. It advocates for fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people, regardless of race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status, in environmental decision-making and policy processes.
• Climate Change: Climate change refers to long-term shifts in global or regional climate patterns, primarily due to human activities such as greenhouse gas emissions from burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes. Climate change poses significant environmental, social, and economic challenges, including rising temperatures, sea level rise, extreme weather events, and disruptions to ecosystems and human societies.

Thus, 

The correct answer is B, C, and D only. 

Key Points

• The sociologists who belong to the Frankfurt School of critical theory are:
• Herbert Marcuse: Herbert Marcuse was a German-American philosopher, sociologist, and political theorist closely associated with the Frankfurt School. He is known for his influential works on critical theory, Marxism, and the critique of contemporary capitalist society. Marcuse's most famous work is "One-Dimensional Man" (1964), in which he explores the idea of technological rationality and its role in shaping modern society. He argues that advanced industrial societies create a form of social control and manipulation that stifles dissent and perpetuates domination, resulting in a "one-dimensional" society devoid of genuine freedom and human fulfillment.
• M. Horkheimer: Max Horkheimer was a German philosopher and sociologist who served as the director of the Institute for Social Research, also known as the Frankfurt School, during the 1930s and 1940s. He played a central role in shaping the critical theory tradition. Horkheimer's seminal work, "Dialectic of Enlightenment" (1947), co-authored with Theodor Adorno, is a critical analysis of modernity, rationality, and the Enlightenment project. The book explores how instrumental rationality, when applied to all spheres of life, leads to domination, alienation, and the erosion of human freedom.
• Eric Fromm: Erich Fromm was a German-American psychoanalyst and social psychologist associated with the Frankfurt School. He is known for his interdisciplinary approach to understanding human behavior, combining insights from psychology, sociology, and philosophy. Fromm's work often focused on the psychological dimensions of social life, exploring concepts such as alienation, authoritarianism, and the pursuit of humanistic values. His book "Escape from Freedom" (1941) examines the psychological consequences of modern capitalism, arguing that individuals may seek refuge in authoritarian ideologies or conformist behaviors as a response to feelings of isolation and insecurity.
• These three sociologists were key figures associated with the Frankfurt School, a group of interdisciplinary scholars who developed critical theories of society, culture, and politics.

Additional Information

• Juergen Habermas: Juergen Habermas is a German philosopher and sociologist known for his work on communicative action, discourse ethics, and the public sphere. He is considered one of the most influential contemporary theorists in the tradition of critical theory.

Habermas expanded on the ideas of the Frankfurt School, particularly the concept of communicative rationality, which emphasizes the importance of rational discourse and mutual understanding in democratic societies.

• Michel Foucault: Michel Foucault was a French philosopher, social theorist, and historian of ideas known for his critical analyses of power, knowledge, and discourse. Although not directly associated with the Frankfurt School, his work has influenced critical theory and sociological thought. Foucault's major contributions include his critiques of institutions such as prisons, hospitals, and mental asylums, which he analyzed as sites of power and disciplinary control.
• Pierre Bourdieu: Pierre Bourdieu was a French sociologist known for his theories of social reproduction, cultural capital, and habitus. His work combines elements of structuralism, Marxism, and phenomenology to analyze the social dynamics of power, inequality, and cultural production.

Thus, Sociologists belong to the Frankfurt School of critical theory: Herbert Marcuse,  M. Horkheimer, Eric Fromm.

The correct answer is A, B, C, and D only. 

Key Points

• New forms of energy: Industrialization led to a shift from traditional sources of energy such as human and animal power to new forms of energy such as coal, steam, and later electricity. These new energy sources powered machinery in factories, railways, and other industries, driving economic growth and urbanization.
• Manufacturing and mass production: Industrialization revolutionized manufacturing processes by introducing machinery and mechanized production methods. Factories replaced artisan workshops, and goods were produced on a larger scale to meet growing demand. Mass production allowed for increased efficiency, reduced costs, and the production of standardized goods for wider distribution.
• Division of labor and specialization: Industrialization led to the division of labor, where tasks were broken down into specialized, repetitive tasks performed by different workers. This specialization increased productivity and efficiency but also contributed to the alienation of workers from the products of their labor and each other.
• Introduction of wage labor: Industrialization transformed work relationships by introducing wage labor, where workers exchanged their labor for wages paid by employers. This shift from traditional forms of labor, such as agriculture or skilled crafts, to wage labor in factories and industries created new social and economic dynamics, including employer-employee relationships and labor exploitation.

Additional Information

• Urbanization: Urbanization refers to the process of population concentration in urban areas due to rural-to-urban migration and natural population growth. Industrialization often coincides with rapid urbanization as people move from rural areas to cities in search of employment opportunities in factories and industries. Urbanization leads to the growth of cities, expansion of urban infrastructure, and changes in social structures and lifestyles.
• Social Stratification: Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals and groups within society based on factors such as wealth, income, education, occupation, and social status. Industrialization can exacerbate social stratification by creating disparities in wealth and opportunities between industrialists, factory owners, and workers. The division of labor and specialization introduced by industrialization can also lead to the emergence of distinct social classes with different levels of access to resources and power.
• Labor Movements: Labor movements emerged in response to the social and economic changes brought about by industrialization, advocating for workers' rights, better working conditions, and fair wages. As industrialization leads to the growth of factories and the employment of large numbers of workers in industrial sectors, labor movements organize collective action such as strikes, protests, and labor unions to negotiate with employers and demand improvements in working conditions, wages, and labor rights.

Thus, changes were brought about by industrialization in society New forms of energy, Manufacturing and mass production, Division of labor and specialization, and Introduction of wage labor.

The correct answer is to Generate a new system of culture. 

Key Points

• The institution of education within a formal bureaucratic structure is typically designed to achieve specific goals such as providing knowledge, skills, and socialization to individuals within a society. However, its primary aim is not necessarily to generate a new system of culture.
• Education plays a crucial role in socializing individuals into the norms, values, and behaviors of their society. Through formal instruction, informal interactions, and extracurricular activities, educational institutions impart cultural knowledge and social norms to students. This process of cultural reproduction reinforces the dominant cultural narratives and social structures within society.
• Innovation and Cultural Change: While the primary function of education is not necessarily to generate a new system of culture, it can contribute to cultural innovation and change indirectly. Educational institutions serve as sites of intellectual inquiry, critical thinking, and creativity, where individuals may challenge existing cultural norms and contribute to cultural evolution. Research, scholarship, and artistic expression within educational settings can lead to the emergence of new ideas, perspectives, and cultural forms.
• Social Control and Legitimation: Educational systems are often influenced by broader social, political, and economic forces that shape the curriculum, pedagogy, and educational priorities. In some cases, educational institutions may serve as mechanisms of social control, reinforcing dominant ideologies and power structures within society. The curriculum may reflect the interests and values of the ruling elite, legitimizing existing social hierarchies and inequalities.

Additional Information

• Cultural Reproduction: Cultural reproduction refers to the process by which social and cultural values, beliefs, and practices are transmitted from one generation to the next. In the context of education, schools and other educational institutions play a significant role in reproducing cultural norms, ideologies, and social structures. Through formal education, students are socialized into the dominant culture and social order, which can perpetuate existing power dynamics and inequalities.
• Bureaucracy: Bureaucracy refers to a hierarchical organizational structure characterized by formalized rules, procedures, and specialized roles. In the context of education, bureaucratic structures are often present in schools, colleges, and universities, where administrators, teachers, and staff members operate within established bureaucratic systems. Bureaucratic features such as standardized curricula, grading systems, and administrative protocols can shape the functioning and dynamics of educational institutions.
• Formal Education: Formal education refers to structured, organized learning experiences that take place within institutionalized settings such as schools, colleges, and universities. Formal education typically follows a prescribed curriculum, involves certified teachers or instructors, and leads to recognized credentials or qualifications. It is often distinguished from informal and non-formal forms of education, such as self-directed learning or community-based education programs.

Thus, The institution of education is a system of formal bureaucratic structure designed not to Generate a new system of culture.

The correct answer is A, B, and D only. 

Key Points

• Social mobility: Social mobility can foster technological development. When individuals have the opportunity to advance socially and economically, they may be motivated to innovate and create new technologies to improve their circumstances or gain a competitive advantage.
• Policy of rewarding the inventors: Implementing policies that reward inventors can serve as a significant incentive for technological development. By providing recognition, financial incentives, or intellectual property rights to inventors, societies can encourage innovation and investment in research and development.
• Specialization: Specialization allows individuals and organizations to focus on specific areas of expertise, leading to advancements in technology within those domains. By allocating resources and expertise efficiently, specialization can drive innovation and technological progress.

Additional Information

• Research and Development (R&D): Research and development activities conducted by public and private organizations are fundamental to technological advancement. Investment in R&D enables the discovery of new scientific knowledge, the development of cutting-edge technologies, and the improvement of existing products and processes. Policies that promote R&D funding, collaboration, and knowledge exchange contribute to accelerating technological development.
• Digitalization and Data-driven Innovation: Digitalization and data-driven innovation involve the integration of digital technologies, data analytics, and artificial intelligence into various aspects of economic and social life. These trends enable the creation of new digital products and services, the optimization of business processes, and the generation of actionable insights for decision-making, driving transformative changes across industries and sectors.
• Globalization and Open Innovation: Globalization and open innovation refer to the increasing interconnectedness and collaboration among individuals, organizations, and countries in the innovation process. Globalization facilitates the exchange of ideas, talent, and resources across borders, while open innovation models encourage collaboration, co-creation, and knowledge sharing among diverse stakeholders, fostering creativity and breakthrough innovations.

Thus, Social factors fostering technological development are Social mobility, the Policy of rewarding the inventors, and Specialization.

The correct answer is the Evolutionist Method. 

Key Points

• The functional approach in sociology emerged as a reaction against the evolutionist method primarily because it was dissatisfied with the deterministic and linear perspective of social change advocated by evolutionism.
• Unlike evolutionism, which emphasized linear progression and the superiority of certain societies over others, the functional approach adopted a more relativistic and holistic perspective.
• It recognized that different societies may have different structures and institutions that serve similar functions, and it sought to understand the interdependence and interconnectedness of these social elements.
• The functional approach critiqued evolutionism for its ethnocentrism, teleology, and oversimplified view of social change.
• It rejected the notion that Western societies represented the pinnacle of human development and instead emphasized the diversity and complexity of social systems across cultures and historical periods.

Additional Information

• Social Anthropology: Social anthropology is a branch of anthropology that focuses on the study of human societies and cultures. It seeks to understand the diversity of human customs, beliefs, institutions, and practices across different societies and historical periods.
• Interactionism: Interactionism is a sociological perspective that emphasizes the significance of face-to-face interactions, symbolic communication, and the subjective meanings that individuals attach to their social experiences.
• Functionalism: Functionalism is a sociological perspective that views society as a complex system composed of interrelated parts, each of which serves a function or contributes to the stability and maintenance of the whole.

Thus, the Functional Approach in sociology appeared as a reaction against the evolutionist Method.

The correct answer is Randall Collins. 

Key Points

• Randall Collins coined the term "credential society" to describe a phenomenon where individuals in a society increasingly rely on educational credentials, such as diplomas and degrees, as evidence of their competence and qualifications for specialized occupational roles.
• The emergence of the credential society can be attributed to several interconnected factors, including the expansion of higher education systems.
• The prevalence of the credential society has significant implications for individuals, educational institutions, employers, and society as a whole.
• Employers and organizations rely on educational credentials as screening mechanisms to filter and select candidates for employment. In many professions and industries, possessing the requisite credentials has become a de facto requirement for entry-level positions, even if the actual job tasks may not necessitate such qualifications.

Additional Information

• Pierre Bourdieu: Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002) was a French sociologist known for his theories of social reproduction, cultural capital, and symbolic power.
• Ivan Illich: Ivan Illich (1926–2002) was an Austrian philosopher, social critic, and theologian known for his critiques of institutionalized systems and his advocacy for decentralization, autonomy, and conviviality.
• Anthony Giddens: Anthony Giddens (1938–2019) was a British sociologist known for his influential contributions to social theory, particularly his development of structuration theory and his analysis of modernity and globalization.

Thus, Randall Collins coined the term 'credential society' for societies where people view diplomas and degrees as evidence of their ability to perform specialized occupational roles.

Ethnomethodology as a research method, was developed by Harold Garfinkel and is focused on the study of everyday life and how individuals, through their communication and interaction, create a sense of social order.

Key Points

• Ethnomethodology does not focus on the analysis of society at a macro level - such as social structures or institutions - but rather investigates the everyday methods that individuals use to produce social order. It proposes that people are continuously engaged in the work of interpreting and giving meaning to their world, their actions, and the actions of others around them.
• Crucially, ethnomethodology is about the practical, situational understandings and common-sense knowledge - or 'ethnomethods' - that individuals use to navigate their world and engage in social interaction. For example, the practice of forming a queue in a coffee shop is a common-sense method of organizing a seemingly basic social activity, but it encompasses a variety of unwritten rules and conventions that everyone is expected to understand and follow.

The correct answer is A-II, B - I, C - IV, D - III.  

Key Points

• Mythologies - Claude Levi-Strauss: Claude Levi-Strauss was a prominent French anthropologist known for his work in structural anthropology. "Mythologies" is one of his notable works where he explores the structural analysis of myths. Levi-Strauss proposed that myths reflect underlying structures of the human mind and society. He examined myths from various cultures, identifying recurring patterns and themes. Levi-Strauss's approach to understanding myths as expressions of universal cognitive structures has had a significant influence on anthropology, literary studies, and cultural theory.
• A Scientific Theory of Culture - B. Malinowski: Bronislaw Malinowski was a pioneering anthropologist known for his foundational contributions to the field of ethnography and his development of functionalism. "A Scientific Theory of Culture" is one of his influential works where he outlines his methodological approach to the study of culture. Malinowski emphasized the importance of conducting fieldwork to understand cultures in their natural contexts. He argued for the empirical study of social practices and institutions to uncover their functional significance for individuals and societies.
• Taboo - Alfred R. Radcliffe-Brown: Alfred R. Radcliffe-Brown was a British social anthropologist known for his structural-functional approach to the study of society. In his work, he explored the concept of taboo, which refers to culturally prohibited or sacred practices. Radcliffe-Brown analyzed taboos as mechanisms for regulating social behavior and maintaining social order within communities. He viewed taboos as integral components of social structure and argued that they serve important functions in reinforcing group norms and values.
• The Structure of Social Action - Talcott Parsons: Talcott Parsons was a prominent American sociologist known for his contributions to structural functionalism and social theory. "The Structure of Social Action" is one of his major works where he develops his theory of social action. Parsons proposed a comprehensive theoretical framework for understanding social systems and the interrelations between individuals, institutions, and society. He emphasized the role of social norms, values, and institutions in shaping human behavior and maintaining social order.

Additional Information

• Cultural Relativism: Cultural relativism, a concept associated with Malinowski and Levi-Strauss, emphasizes the importance of understanding cultural practices and beliefs within their cultural contexts, without imposing external judgments or values. It challenges ethnocentrism and encourages researchers to adopt a perspective of cultural empathy and understanding when studying diverse societies.
• Culture and Symbolism: Both Levi-Strauss and Malinowski emphasized the importance of culture and symbolism in shaping human behavior and society. Culture encompasses the shared beliefs, values, norms, and practices of a society, while symbolism refers to the use of symbols to convey meaning within cultural contexts. Understanding cultural symbols and their significance is essential for comprehending social interactions, rituals, and institutions.
• Social Structure: The concept of social structure, explored by Radcliffe-Brown and Parsons, refers to the underlying patterns of social organization that shape individuals' behaviors and interactions within society. Social structure encompasses various elements such as social institutions, roles, statuses, and relationships. It provides a framework for understanding the regularities and constraints that influence human behavior in social contexts.

Thus, 

The correct answer is Collective Consumption. 

Key Points

• The concept of "Collective Consumption" as used by Manuel Castells refers to the utilization of shared or common goods and services provided by urban environments, particularly those that are promoted or facilitated by the city itself.
• Collective consumption involves the utilization of goods and services that are accessible to and used by a broad segment of the urban population. These may include public transportation systems (such as buses, trains, or subways), public parks and recreational facilities, cultural institutions (such as museums or theaters), public libraries, and other amenities that contribute to the quality of life in urban areas.
• Castells emphasizes that collective consumption is often promoted, facilitated, or managed by municipal governments or urban authorities. Cities play a crucial role in providing and maintaining the infrastructure and services necessary for collective consumption, often through public investment and policy initiatives aimed at enhancing the urban environment and meeting the needs of residents.
• Collective consumption fosters social cohesion and inclusion by providing access to essential resources and amenities for all members of society, regardless of their socioeconomic status or background. Public goods and services offered through collective consumption contribute to the social fabric of cities, enabling diverse communities to interact and participate in shared urban life.

Additional Information

• Control Consumption: Control consumption could refer to the regulation or management of consumption patterns, either at an individual or societal level. In the context of urban studies, it might involve policies or strategies implemented by governments or authorities to control or influence patterns of consumption within a city. This could include measures aimed at promoting sustainable consumption, regulating the consumption of certain goods or services, or addressing issues such as consumerism and overconsumption.
• Civil Consumption: Civil consumption could pertain to the consumption practices and behaviors of citizens within a civil society context. It might encompass how individuals engage with goods and services in their daily lives while adhering to principles of civility, social responsibility, and ethical consumption. Civil consumption could involve considerations of sustainability, social justice, and community well-being in consumer choices and behaviors.
• Comparative Consumption: Comparative consumption might refer to the process of comparing patterns of consumption across different contexts, regions, or demographic groups. It could involve analyzing variations in consumption behaviors, preferences, and expenditures between populations or over time. Comparative consumption studies may explore factors influencing consumption patterns, such as cultural differences, economic conditions, social norms, and technological advancements.

Thus, A concept used by Manuel Castells to refer to processes of consumption of common goods promoted by the city, such as transport services and leisure amenities is called Collective Consumption..

The correct answer is Both Statement I and Statement II are true. 

Key Points

• Statement I: The informational economy is global.
• This statement accurately reflects the nature of the informational economy in the contemporary era. The informational economy, characterized by the production, distribution, and consumption of information goods and services, transcends national boundaries and operates on a global scale.
• Statement II: A global economy is historically a new reality, distinct from a world economy.
• This statement accurately captures an important distinction between a global economy and a world economy. While the terms "global economy" and "world economy" are often used interchangeably, they represent different conceptualizations of economic interconnectedness.
• In summary, both Statement I and Statement II accurately describe key aspects of the contemporary global economy.

Additional Information

• Globalization: Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of economies, societies, and cultures across the world.
• Information Age: The Information Age, also known as the Digital Age or the Computer Age, is a period characterized by the widespread adoption and use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in all aspects of human life.
• Knowledge Economy: The knowledge economy is an economic system in which knowledge, innovation, and intellectual capital are primary drivers of economic growth and development.

Thus, Statement I: The informational economy is global, Statement II: A global economy is historically a new reality, distinct from a world economy. Both Statement I and Statement II are true.

The correct answer is Manuel Castells. 

Key Points

• The concept of "Timeless Time" was coined by Manuel Castells. 

Castells discusses the concepts regarding the transformation of time in the context of the information age, particularly in his seminal work "The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture."

• "Timeless Time" refers to a dimension of time that is divorced from the traditional linear understanding of time and instead emphasizes the experience of timelessness or the suspension of ordinary temporal markers.
• Castells' analysis of the information age, he discusses how information and communication technologies (ICTs) have transformed the temporal dynamics of society, leading to what he describes as a "timeless time"

Additional Information

• Ulrich Beck: Ulrich Beck was a German sociologist known for his work on risk society, reflexive modernization, and cosmopolitanism. Beck also discusses the concept of "reflexive modernization," which refers to the ongoing process of self-reflection and adaptation in response to the challenges of modernity.
• David Held: David Held is a political scientist known for his work on globalization, cosmopolitanism, and global governance. Held's work emphasizes the importance of democratic governance and accountability in the context of global interconnectedness.
• Scott Lash and John Urry: Lash and Urry discuss the concept of "post-Fordism" to describe the shift from mass production to flexible production systems based on information, communication, and knowledge-intensive processes.

Thus, The concept of "Timeless Time" was given by Manuel Castells.

The correct answer is - A, B, C and D only

Key Points

• Collingridge dilemma
• Describes the difficulty in regulating technology due to the contrasting challenges at different stages of adoption.
• Initial Stage Regulation
• At the early stage of technology adoption, regulation is difficult because its potential dangers may not yet be evident (true for option A).
• Mature Stage Regulation
• By the time the dangers of technology are identified, the technology may be too entrenched to regulate effectively (true for option B).
• Early regulation can hinder technological development and innovation (true for option C).
• Regulation at a mature stage may be limited in its efficacy and ability to prevent accidents (true for option D).

Additional Information

• Technology Regulation Challenges
• The Collingridge dilemma highlights the difficulty of making regulatory decisions with incomplete information at early stages.
• Balancing Innovation and Safety: Regulatory bodies must balance the need for innovation with the need to protect public safety and welfare.
• Examples of Collingridge dilemma
• Genetic engineering: Initially promising but can have unforeseen long-term effects.
• Artificial Intelligence: Potential ethical and societal impacts become evident only after widespread adoption.

The correct answer is Emile Durkheim. 

Key Points

• The book "The Rules of Sociological Method" was written by the French sociologist Émile Durkheim.
• Durkheim's work focused on understanding the social forces that shape individual behavior, collective consciousness, and societal cohesion.
• In "The Rules of Sociological Method," Durkheim sets out to establish sociology as a scientific discipline with its distinct methods and principles of inquiry. The book serves as a methodological treatise, outlining Durkheim's approach to studying social phenomena and formulating sociological explanations.
• The book also discusses Durkheim's methodological approach to studying social solidarity, crime, religion, and other social phenomena.

Additional Information

• Auguste Comte: Auguste Comte (1798–1857) was a French philosopher and sociologist who is often regarded as the founder of sociology. He developed the concept of positivism, which emphasized the use of scientific methods to study society.
• Karl Marx: Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German philosopher, economist, and social theorist whose ideas profoundly influenced sociology, economics, and political theory. He is best known for his critique of capitalism and his theory of historical materialism.
• Max Weber: Max Weber (1864–1920) was a German sociologist, philosopher, and political economist. Weber's major works include "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" (1905) and "Economy and Society" (1922).

Thus,  Emile Durkheim wrote the book 'The Rules of Sociological Method' ?

The correct answer is – A man who regularly dresses as a woman

Key Points

• Transvestite woman
• Refers to a man who regularly dresses in women’s clothing.
• The practice is associated with cross-dressing, not with change of biological sex.
• It relates to gender expression rather than gender identity.

Additional Information

• Transvestism
• Involves wearing clothes traditionally associated with the opposite gender.
• Does not imply sex reassignment or transgender identity.
• Distinction from other options
• A woman dressing as a man refers to female transvestism, not a transvestite woman.
• Sex change and reproductive rights are unrelated to transvestite behaviour.

The correct answer is A, C, D, and E only. 

Key Points

• Acts of cybercrime encompass a wide range of illegal activities that are facilitated through the use of computer networks and digital technologies.
• Illegal Hacking: Unauthorized access to computer systems, networks, or data with the intent to steal, manipulate, or damage information. This can include breaching cybersecurity defenses, exploiting vulnerabilities, and gaining unauthorized control over computer resources.
• Unleashing of Malware: Malware, or malicious software, refers to any software specifically designed to disrupt, damage, or gain unauthorized access to computer systems or data. Examples of malware include viruses, worms, Trojans, ransomware, and spyware.
• Uploading Illegal Materials: This involves the dissemination or distribution of illegal or illicit content through online platforms. This may include copyrighted materials distributed without authorization, child pornography, hate speech, terrorist propaganda, or other forms of illegal content that violate laws and regulations.
• Cyber Stalking: Cyberstalking involves the use of electronic communications, social media, or online platforms to harass, intimidate, or threaten individuals. Cyberstalkers may engage in persistent monitoring, surveillance, or unwanted contact with their victims, causing emotional distress and invading their privacy.

Additional Information

• Digital Forensics: Digital forensics is the process of collecting, preserving, analyzing, and presenting digital evidence in legal proceedings or investigations. It involves using specialized tools and techniques to investigate cybercrimes, recover digital artifacts, and attribute malicious activities to specific individuals or entities.
• Social Engineering: Social engineering refers to the manipulation of individuals' psychology and behavior to deceive them into divulging confidential information, performing unauthorized actions, or compromising security controls. Common social engineering techniques include phishing emails, pretexting, baiting, and tailgating.
• Cyber Warfare: Cyber warfare involves the use of cyber attacks as a means of waging war or conducting military operations against adversaries. It includes offensive cyber operations, such as sabotage, espionage, and disruption of critical infrastructure, as well as defensive measures to protect national security interests and deter cyber threats.

Thus, acts of cybercrimes are Illegal Hacking, Unleashing of malware, Uploading illegal materials, Cyberstalking.

According to the given passage, The Power Structure of the study villages comprised of those having better education and high social status, Urban Contact, Active participation in village politics.

Important PointsThe Power Structure of the study villages comprised of those having -

• better education
• high social status,
• urban contacts,
• active participation in village politics.

The correct answer is - A, B and D only.

Important PointsThe lower class in the village was comprised of :

• Lowest order caste
• Agricultural labourers
• Marginal Farmers

The correct answer is - A, B and C only.

Important PointsThe Peasant class in the village has following characteristics:

• High Status
• Make up a "Dominant Caste"
• High Income

The correct answer is - A, B and D only .

Key Points According to the given passage we can see that the two villages were similar in the following ways:

• In caste and religious structure
• Both religious groups divided in caste/caste like structures.
• Both the villages had a dominant caste.

The correct answer is - A, B and C only.

Important PointsThe structure of middle class in the study villages comprised of -

• Less wealthy agriculturalists
• Artisans
• Occupational Castes

The correct answer is - A and C only.

Key PointsThe newer concept of environment, apart from external factors, also includes:

• Economic conditions
• Social factors

The correct answer is - A, B and D only.

Important PointsThe adverse environmental factors which can affect human health are:

• Poor housing conditions
• Water Contamination
• Presence of animal reservoirs

The correct answer is - ​B and D only.

Important PointsThe basic requirements to ensure "Health for all" are:

• Healthy Environment
• Healthy Life Style

The correct answer is - ​A, C and D only.

Important Points

Man is responsible for the pollution of his environment through various activities like:

• Urbanization
• Industrialization
• Migration

The correct answer is - Wastes.

Important PointsThe passage states that "environment " can be divided into three components:

1. Physical,
2. Biological and
3. Social components.

The "social" component includes customs, cultures, income, occupation etc. but not wastes.