UGC NET Paper 2: Sociology 1 Oct 2022 Shift 2 (Previous Year Paper)

Option (3) is correct i.e (A) is true but (R) is false.

Important Points

• N.K Bose emphasized the need to bring ethnology and Indology together in the study of Indian Society.
• He was a renowned anthropologist known for his journal 'Man in India.'
• He also fought alongside Mahatma Gandhi and other prolific leaders for the freedom of India from British rule.
• Hence, Assertion (A) is correct.
• Structure of constitution is based on the textualist approach and the originalist approach.
• Hence, Reason (R) is not correct

Additional Information

• The Indian constitution was adopted on November 26, 1949.
• The Indian Constitution is the supreme law of India.
• The document lays down the framework that demarcates fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens.

Option 3: A, D, E, B, C is the correct answer. 

Important Points

• Positivism, structuralism, functionalism, symbolic interactionism, and post modernism are the sociological schools of thought  arranged chronologically.
• Positivism is the oldest school of thought that dates back to the 17^th century.

Additional Information

• Structuralism is a theoretical approach that emphasizes the importance of social structures and their influence on individual behavior.
• Functionalism is a theoretical approach that views society as a complex system with various interdependent parts that work together to maintain social stability.
• Symbolic Interactionism is a theoretical approach that focuses on how individuals interpret and create meaning through their interactions with others.
• Post modernism is a theoretical approach that challenges the idea of universal truth and highlights the diversity and complexity of human experience.

Option 2: A - II, B - I, C - IV, D - III is the correct answer.

Important Points

• Auguste Comte is associated with the level of intellectual development.
• Emile Durkheim studied size and density.
• Karl Marx studied economic influence.
• Herbert Spencer is associated with the study of evolution and complexity.

Additional Information

• Comte's level of intellectual development is a three-stage theory of social evolution where societies move from a theological stage to a metaphysical stage and finally a positivistic stage.
• Durkheim's size and density is of the idea that the size and density of a society can affect its social structure, solidarity, and collective conscience.
• Marx's economic influence is of the belief that economic relationships and class struggles are the primary driving forces in social development and change.
• Spencer's evolution is a social evolutionary theory that applied Darwin's theory of natural selection to human societies, suggesting that they evolve and progress towards increasing complexity and efficiency.

Option 1) A - IV, B - I, C - III, D - II is the correct answer.

Important Points

• World Risk Society is a book written by Ulrich Beck.
• End of Millennium was written by Manuel Castells.
• Development as Freedom was penned down by Amartya Sen.
• Ecofeminism is a book by Vandana Shiva.

Additional Information

• World risk society is a concept that characterizes contemporary society as one where risks and uncertainties are global in scope and impact.
• End of millennium is a term used to describe the cultural and social changes that occurred during the end of the 20^th century, particularly in relation to globalization and postmodernism.
• Development as freedom is a theory that suggests that economic development should be measured not just by economic growth but also by the expansion of individual freedoms and capabilities.
• Ecofeminism is a perspective that explores the connections between the domination and exploitation of women and the natural world, and seeks to promote social and environmental justice.

The correct solution is Option 3: Institutional Ethnography

Important Points

• Dorothy Smith was a famous feminist and sociological scholar who developed the concept of Institutional ethnography.
• Institutional ethnography is a tool of social research used to analyze how people's every activity is structured by different institutions.
• Institutional Ethnography examines the social relations that structure people's lives, especially by looking at how people interact with one another in different institutional contexts like school, marriage, etc.
• Thus institutional ethnography is an ethnography of interactions that have been institutionalized and ordinary daily life becomes the site of investigation for an institutional ethnographer.

Additional Information

• Case study is also one of the tools of social research where researchers investigate in great detail a particular individual or group.
• Content analysis is also a method of social research that is used to identify patterns in recorded communication or to identify the meaning of certain words or concepts within the qualitative data.
• Participatory action research is a qualitative research tool in which both researcher and participants collaborate to understand social issues and take actions to bring about social change.

The correct solution is Option 4

Important Points

• Values are the individual beliefs that guide our actions.

• Values are culture-specific and individuals learn their values through the process of cultural socialization.

• Examples of values include honesty, kindness, discipline, obedience, courage, etc.

• Values are not specific guidelines of action as some people may choose not to follow and obey values.

Additional Information

• Status is the social position that a person occupies in society.
• Status is part of our social identity and helps define our relationship with others.
• The role is the expected behavior of someone who holds a particular status.
• A person holds status and performs a role.
• Socialization refers to the lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential and learn the culture.

The correct solution is Option 4

Important Points

• The Parliament passed the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 on December 16, 2016.
• This Act replaced the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights, and Full Participation) Act 1995.
• The number of disabilities has increased from the existing 7 to 21 and new disabilities like speech and language disabilities, acid attack victims, etc have been added for the very first time.
• Reservation in higher education and government jobs has increased from 3 % to 4% for certain persons with benchmark disabilities.
• District-level committees are established by state governments to address the concerns of the person with disabilities.
• Special courts are also designated to handle cases related to the violation of the rights of persons with disabilities.

Additional Information

• It is the responsibility of governments to take appropriate steps to ensure that persons with disabilities enjoy their rights equally with others.
• Public transport, public places, and public buildings should be made accessible to persons with disabilities and government should take effective steps in this regard.
• As disability is an evolving and dynamic concept so the Disabilities Act of 2016 has increased the number of disabilities from 7 to 21 and the Central Government has the right to add more disabilities.

The correct solution is Option 4

Important Points

• R. Cohen has identified five types of diasporas by adopting a historical approach to the dispersal of people.
• Victim diasporas are those people who are forced into exile such as the Jewish, African, and Armenian diasporas.
• Labor diasporas are those people who migrate in search of jobs opportunities and economic opportunities such as the Indian and Turkish diasporas.
• Trading diasporas are those people who migrate seeking to open trade routes and links such as Chinese and Lebanese diasporas.
• Imperial diasporas are those people who migrate as they are keen to serve and maintain empires such as the British and French diasporas.
• Cultural diasporas are those who move through a process of chain migration such as the Caribbean diaspora.

Additional Information

• Diaspora is the movement or migration of people from their homeland and being scattered in different parts of the world.
• Robert Cohen has talked about the different types of diasporas in his book "Global Diasporas: An Introduction".
• His classification of diasporas includes not only people who voluntarily migrate from one place to another but also those people who are forced to migrate due to war, aggression, persecution, etc.

The correct solution is Option 4

Important Points

• Sociological research is of two types, one is quantitative research and the other is qualitative research based on the tools and techniques used for the collection of data.
• Quantitative research involves large data which can be carried out by surveys and experiments and generally involves the analysis of numerical data.
• Qualitative research is carried out by conducting personal interviews, observations, and case studies, where the data gathered is not numerical.

Additional Information

• Statistics is the method used to analyze **numerical data.**​
• Therefore statistical analysis is required in quantitative research to analyze data.
• A large sample size can be studied by using quantitative research while only a small sample can be studied by using qualitative research.
• Inferential statistics help us to make predictions about a large population based on inferences from a small sample that represent the entire population.

The correct solution is Option 1

Important Points

• The outbreak of the recent COVID-19 pandemic made all of us aware of borderless diseases.
• These borderless diseases are contagious and spread very fast and rapidly among people.
• In the past few decades, there is a rise in the spread of borderless diseases.
• Swi Flu, Ebola Virus, Corona, SARS, etc are some of the fast-spreading borderless diseases across the world in recent years.
• Therefore Assertion (A) is correct.

Additional Information

• With the advent of industrialization and modernization, there is an increase in the migration of people.
• People are migrating from rural underdeveloped regions to urban industrialized places in search of jobs and better opportunities.
• Transport and communication facilities have also helped people to migrate from one place to another.
• As a result of which people are coming in contact with different types of diseases which did not originate in their country of origin.
• These diseases are contagious and as a result, spread very rapidly with people traveling from one place o another.
• Therefore, Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A).

The main features of class are Individualism, Economic and professional Values and Rationalism.

Important Points

• Features of class are :
• Hierarchy of status group: It is a system of hierarchy of the status group. In general, there are 3 classes – the upper, middle & lower classes.
• Social ranking: It is a system of social ranking based on occupation, wealth, education, age, sex.
• Inequality: It is a system marked by unequal distribution of wealth and power.
• Open system: people of one particular class can change into another status, thus there is greater social mobility from lower to higher social class. It is a system in which status is achieved by one’s own efforts rather than ascribed.

Additional Information

• Class consciousness: Wherever a class is formed, there arises the feeling of in-group i.e. we-feelings that lead to the conflicting between the haves and have nots and when the proletariats (i.e. working class) become conscious of the situation where the upper class is exploiting them, then they unite and revolt.
• Distinct mode of lifestyle: It is a system where each social class has a distinctive mode of life (lifestyle), behavior, a set of values, and cultural expressions of each class.
• Feeling of superiority & inferiority: It is a system based on the recognition of superiority and inferiority about those who stand or are below the social hierarchy.
• Social restriction: In general there is endogamy in a class. To maintain their status & position they mix among themselves & it is seldom that marriage between upper & lower class is wished.

The correct solution is Option 3

Important Points

• Phenomenology is the philosophical study of the structures of experience and consciousness.
• As a philosophical movement, it was founded by Edmund Husserl and was later expanded upon by Alfred Schutz.
• Phenomenology is a radical alternative to positivism as it is primarily concerned with the systematic reflection on and the study of the structures of consciousness.
• Constructionism is a theory of knowledge that asserts that characteristics that are believed to be biological such as gender, sexuality, race, caste, etc are actually shaped by our culture.
• Therefore we say that gender is a social construct as individuals are socialized from childhood to act and behave like a particular gender.

 Additional Information

• In logic, we refer to two broad forms of reasoning: deductive and inductive approaches.
• Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally called a “top-down” approach.
• We start with a theory and then we narrow it down into a hypothesis that we test.
• For example, All humans are mortal, Ram is a human. So Ram is mortal.
• Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories.
• Informally, we sometimes call this a “bottom-up” approach.
• In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.
• For example, Ram is mortal, and Shyam is mortal. So all humans are mortal.

The correct solution is Option 1

Important Points

• George Simmel has given the concept of Metropolis and Mental Life
• Louis Wirth has given the concept of Urbanism as a Way of life.
• Manuel Castells has given the concept of a Network Society.
• Ferdinand Tonnies has given the concept of Gesellschaft.

Additional Information

• The Metropolis and Mental Life discusses the individual’s position in the big city urban life and his phycological coping with its form of existence.
• Human interactions in the metropolis become short and instrumental, lacking the emotional and personal involvement that can be found in small communities in rural areas.
• Urbanism as a way of life discusses the complex social relations in cities that arise as a result of rapid social change, social differentiation, greater social mobility, rationality, lack of emotions, etc.
• The network society is the term coined by Manuel Castells in 1991 which is the spread of network, digital, and information technologies as a result of globalization and post-industrial society.
• Ferdinand Tonnies characterized key characteristics of simple and modern societies with the German words Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft.
• The pre-modern societies are the Gemeinschaft where there is strong collective consciousness but as societies grew and industrialized and as people moved to cities, Tonnies said, social ties weakened and became more impersonal.
• Tonnies called this situation a  Gesellschaft and found it dismaying.

The correct solution is Option 1

Important Points

• The countries of the world are divided into three categories i.e. developed, developing, and underdeveloped.
• The classification of the countries is on the basis of the level of economic development and growth.
• The developed countries of the world are the rich high-income countries and far more advanced than the rest of the world in all aspects like economy, industry, infrastructure, transport and communication, information technology, etc.
• Developing countries are the ones that are middle-income countries trying to embark on the path of development.
• Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (BRICS) are rapidly developing countries as they have embarked successfully on a process of rapid industrialization.
• Therefore Statement I is correct.

Additional Information

• Newly Industrializing Countries (NIC) are the ones whose economic development is between developing and highly developed countries.
• The NIC has moved from an agriculture-based economy to an industrial economy.
• The NIC has substantial growth of their gross domestic product (GDP) and therefore higher economic growth and progress.
• Development can also be seen in other sectors like an increase in education, improved health facilities, awareness of people, etc.
• Examples of NIC include Hongkong, Singapore, India, Brazil, Malaysia, Mexico, Thailand, etc.
• Therefore some developing countries that have embarked on rapid industrialization are the Newly Industrializing Countries.
• Thus Statement II is also correct.

The correct answer is R. Benedict.

Key Points

• The book, "Patterns of Culture" is written by R. Benedict.
• Patterns of Culture (1934), Benedict's major contribution to anthropology, compares Zuñi, Dobu, and Kwakiutl cultures in order to demonstrate how small a portion of the possible range of human behavior is incorporated into any one culture; she argues that it is the "personality"
• R. Benedict (1887–1948) was one of the twentieth century's foremost anthropologists and helped to shape the discipline in the United States and around the world. Benedict was a student and later a colleague of Franz Boas at Columbia, where she taught from 1924. Margaret Mead was one of her students.

Additional Information

• Benedict Richard  Anderson (August 26, 1936 – December 13, 2015) was an Anglo-Irish political scientist and historian.  Anderson is best known for his 1983 book Imagined Communities, which explored the origins of nationalism.
• Evan Pritchard: an ethnographer he conducted substantial periods of fieldwork between 1926 and 1939 in eastern Africa with the Azande, Nuer, Anuak, Shilluk, and Nilotic Luo peoples, producing five major ethnographic monographs and numerous articles and shorter notes
• Malinowski, one of the most important anthropologists of the 20^th century who is widely recognized as a founder of social anthropology and principally associated with field

Thus, The book, "Patterns of Culture" is written by R. Benedict.

The correct answer is Socialization.

 Key Points

• Socialization is a way through which society transmits its culture from generation to generation and maintains itself.
• It is a process by which an individual learns social behavior and develops himself.
• Socialization takes place at three levels:
• The Primary stage involves the socialization of the young child in the family.
• The Secondary Stage involves the school.
• The Third Stage is adult socialization.

Additional Information

• Institutionalization is the process of embedding some conception within an organization, social system, or society as a whole.
• Structuration is a social theory by Anthony Giddens, including Structure and Agency. All social action involves structure and all structure involves social action.
• Alienation is a concept given by Karl Marx that refers to a strange feeling of non-belongingness, estrangement, being out of place, or frustration.

Thus, A biological being is transformed into a social being with the help of Socialization.

The correct answer is G.S Ghurye.

Key Points 

• The book, "Castes and Race in India" is written by G.S Ghurye.
• Ghurye presents his views on the history and the origin of the caste system as well as its evolution amongst the Hindus of India in his book "Castes and Race in India".
• The book contains a series of accounts dealing with the features of the caste system, the nature of caste groups, caste through the ages, race and caste, elements of caste outside India, its origin, and contemporary developments.
• Over The Years This Book Has Remained A Basic Work For Students Of India Sociology And Anthropology And Has Been Acknowledged As A Bona-Fide Classic.

Additional Information

• AR Desai was an Indian Sociologist, Marxist and social activist. His famous books are "The Sociological Background of Indian Nationalism (1948)" and "Slums and Urbanization of India (1970, 1972)."
• Louis Dumont was an eminent Sociologist and Indologist. His famous books are "Hierarchy and marriage alliance in South India (1957)" and "Homo Hierrchicus: The Caste System and its implications (1966, 1970)".
• M.N. Srinivas the famous Indian sociologist explained the concept of Sanskritization in his book “Religion and society among the coorgs of South India” to describe the cultural mobility in the traditional caste structure of Indian society.

Thus, The book, "Castes and Race in India" is written by G.S Ghurye.

The correct answer is Food habits.

Key Points

• According to anthropologists, a tribe is a group of people living in isolated forests and hills. Their language is different from the language spoken by the mainstream people.
• The major characteristics of tribal societies are as follows: Tribal societies are completely united by kinship bonds.
• Tribal societies have a communitarian basis of landholding.
• the tribe has a definite territory in which its members reside.

Additional Information

• A common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy a common territory and is not usually endogamous though originally it might have been so.
• The term “tribe” originated around the time of the Greek city-states and the early formation of the Roman Empire.
• Kinship ties are bonds between people based upon many factors and which also depend upon the culture in which someone lives. The most common form of kinship is through what is called blood relations. This means people who are related biologically are usually based on descent and parentage.
• The territory is a theoretical and methodological concept that explains and describes the spatial unraveling of social relationships that human beings establish in cultural, social, political, or economic areas; it is an empirical reference, but it also represents a theoretical concept

Thus,  Food habits are NOT a defining feature of tribe.

The correct answer is Grounded Theory.

 Key Points

• Grounded theory is a systematic methodology that has been largely applied to qualitative research conducted by social scientists. The methodology involves the construction of hypotheses and theories through the collection and analysis of data.
• B.Glaser was an American Sociologist and one of the founders of the Grounded Theory Methodology.
• A.Strauss was also an American Sociologist and known as a medical sociologist, especially for his pioneering attention to chronic illness and death as a developer (with Barney Glaser) of Grounded Theory, an innovative method of qualitative analysis widely used in sociology, nursing, education, social work, and organizational studies.

Additional Information 

• Conflict theory, first developed by Karl Marx, is a theory that society is in a state of perpetual conflict because of competition for limited resources. Conflict theory holds that social order is maintained by domination and power, rather than by consensus and conformity**.**
• The structural-functional theory is an orientation that focuses on structure – the patterning of roles, the form of institutions, and the overall articulation of institutions in a society – and seeks to explain these structures in terms of their functions – contributions to the stability and persistence of societies**.**
• Functionalism is basic to Durkheim's sociology. Like other functionalists, he focused on the problem of order and the positive effects of social institutions, explaining their existence in terms of their functionally necessary contributions

Thus, the Grounded theory was first developed by sociologists, B. Glaser and A. Strauss (1967), in an attempt to come to grips with their clinical research in medical sociology.

The correct answer is A, B, and C only.

Key Points

• The nominal Scale is the crudest among all measurement scales but it is also the simplest scale. In this scale, the different scores on a measurement simply indicate different categories. The nominal scale does not express any values or relationships between variables
• Gender (Male, Female, and Transgender) cannot be ordered from high to low. Hence, it is a nominal measure.
• Religious affliction (Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, etc) cannot be ranked from high to low. Hence, it is a nominal measure.
• Birth Place where someone is born has no inherent order and can only be a nominal measure.

Additional Information

• Ordinal Scale involves the ranking of items along the continuum of the characteristic being scaled. In this scale, the items are classified according to whether they have more or less of a characteristic.
• Social Classes represent the various classes in the society like the higher class, middle class, and lower classes. It is an ordinal measure.
• Intellectual Sophistication segregates people with high and low intellectual levels. It is an ordinal measure.

Thus, Examples of nominal measures are Gender, Religious affiliation, and Birthplace.

The correct answer is Family.

Key Points

• Family constitutes the basic unit of production and consumption in the tribal economy.
• All the family members together form the unit of production and are directly engaged in the economic process of production and consumption.
• The decision-making processes of allocation of labor and production are governed by familial stipulations.
• The tribal household production is mainly geared toward fulfilling their consumption needs rather than for the market.
• Hence, it is appropriate to call the tribal economy a subsistence economy.

Additional Information  

• A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clans may claim descent from a founding member or apical ancestor. Clans, in indigenous societies, tend to be endogamous, meaning that their members can marry one another.
• A village community is often regarded as a primary group. It is characterized by the predominance of personal and as such relatively durable relations. There is comparative simplicity and sincerity in human relationships. Kinship groups play crucial roles in the context of the village community.
• Kinship is the web of social relationships that form an important part of the lives of all humans in all societies.

Thus, The unit of production in the tribal economy is Family.

The following statements are correct :

• Quantitative Approach : Post-Positivist world-view, experimental, strategy of enquiry and pre and postest measures of attitudes
• Qualitative Approach : Constructivist worldview,  ethnographic design and observation of behaviour
• Qualitative Approach : Pariticipatory worldview, narrative design and open-ended interviewing
• Mixed-method Approach : Pragmatic worldview, collection of both qualitative and quantitative data sequentially.

Important Points

• Qualitative Approach includes constructivist knowledge, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, case study, narrative design and open-ended interviewing.
• Quantitative Approach includes post-positivist knowledge, surveys, experiments, and close-ended interviewing.
• Mixed Method Approach includes pragmatic knowledge, open and close-ended interviewing, and collection of both qualitative and quantitative data sequentially.

The middle attribute in the ranked distribution of observed attributes is known as the Median.

Important Points

• Median is defined as the middle value of a sorted list of numbers.
• The middle number is found by ordering the numbers.
• The numbers are ordered in ascending order.
• Once the numbers are ordered, the middle number is called the median of the given data set.

Additional Information

• Mean refers to the average of the set of values. It is one of the measures of central tendency.
• Mode is the most frequent value or attribute. It is also one of the measures of central tendency
• Standard Deviation is the square root of the mean of square deviation of values from their mean. It is one of the measures of dispersion.

According to Louis Wirth, the following variables are important in making urban life impersonal :

• Size
• Density
• Heterogeneity

Important Points 

• Louis Wirth was an American Sociologist and member of the Chicago School of Sociology.
• Urbanism as a way of life and Ghetto are his concepts.
• His books are :

1. The Ghetto (1928)
2. The Urban mode of life (1937)
3. Urbanism as a way of life (1938)
4. On cities and Social life (1964)

In his famous work on the changing stratification of a Tanjore village, Andre Beteille observed the changes in Caste System, Class System and Power System.

Important Points 

• Andre Beteille was a follower of Max Weber. He followed weber's famous tripartite model of social stratification i.e Caste, Class and Power.
• The book "Caste, Class and Power : Changing patterns of stratification in Tanjore Village (1965)" mentions Beteille's tripartite model of Stratification.

Both statements are true.

• Correspondence analysis reveals the relative relationships between and within two groups of variables, based on data given in a contingency table (A contingency table is a 2-dimensional table with groups of variables on the rows and columns). Hence, Statement I is true.
• Pierre Bourdieu applied geometric data analysis, as a part of multiple correspondence analysis of "the complete system of social relations that make up the true principle of the force and form specific to the effects recorded in such correlation" using correspondence analysis of the data. Well-known applications of correspondence analysis are presented by Pierre Bourdieu in Distinction. Hence, Statement II is correct.

Important Points  

• Pierre Bourdieu, a french sociologist, mainly concerned with the study of power and how it is transferred through generations, he calls it social reproduction.
• His book, "Distinction : A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste" (1984) demonstrates that culture can be a legitimate object of scientific study. He attempted to reintegrate culture in the sense of "high culture" with the anthropological sense of culture, which looks at all its forms, both high and low.

The correct answer is - Yogendra Singh 

Key Points

• Yogendra Singh
• Yogendra Singh is a notable Indian sociologist known for his work on Indian society and culture.
• His statement emphasizes the dynamic and evolving nature of cultural identities, influenced by historical events and societal changes.
• He explored the intersection of tradition and modernity in Indian society, analyzing how cultural practices evolve over time.

Additional Information

• T. K. Oommen
• T. K. Oommen is another prominent Indian sociologist known for his studies on social movements, and development.
• He has not specifically focused on the evolution of cultural identities in the same comprehensive manner as Yogendra Singh.
• E. B. Tylor
• E. B. Tylor is often called the father of anthropology and is known for his definition of culture as a complex whole.
• He did discuss the evolution of culture but his works were more foundational, focusing on the basic components of culture rather than how cultural practices and beliefs evolve over historical experiences.

Levirate is the term to describe women marrying the brother of her deceased husband.

Important Points 

• Levirate marriage is a type of marriage in which the brother of a deceased man is obliged to marry his brother's widow.
• Levirate marriage has been practiced by societies with a strong clan structure in which exogamous marriage (i.e. marriage outside the clan) is forbidden.

Additional Information 

• Sororate marriage the marriage of one man to two or more sisters usually successively and after the first wife has been found to be barren or after her death.
• Amitate refers to the special relationship that persists between a nephew/niece and their paternal aunt. This usage is found in patriarchal societies.
• Avunculate refers to the special relationship that persists between a nephew/niece and their maternal uncle. This usage is found in matriarchal societies.

Theodor Adorno criticized the effects of "mass media" and "culture industry" on the population.

Important Points 

• 'Culture industry’ is a term coined by Adorno & Horkheimer.
• It refers to popular culture being akin to factories that produce standardized cultural goods (e.g., films, radio, magazines) used to manipulate mass society in various ways.

Additional Information 

• Ulrich Beck propounded the famous theory of Risk Society which means that advancements in science and technology have accelerated modernization and globalization, processes which have created more societal risks alongside their positive impacts on the world.
• Alfred Schutz was an Austrian-born U.S. sociologist and philosopher who developed a social science based on phenomenology. He drew attention to the social presuppositions underlying everyday life and to the creation of social reality through symbols and human action. His work laid the basis for the field of ethnomethodology, the study of people’s common understanding of the structure of social interaction. His principal work is The Phenomenology of the Social World.
• Ernest Burgess was a Canadian-American urban Sociologist. Burgess's collaborative research with Park focused on urban land use and the social aspects of the urban community.

The disharmony between the rapid growth of technology and the slower transformation of Social Institutions and beliefs is known as Cultural Lag.

Important Points 

• The difference between material culture and non-material culture is known as cultural lag.
• The term cultural lag refers to the notion that culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, and the resulting social problems that are caused by this lag.

Additional Information  

• Technological Lag when people fail to adjust to the rapid environmental and technological changes, it will cause a lag or a gap between the cultures. This resonates with ideas of technological determinism, which means that technology determines the development of its cultural values and social structure.
• Communication Lag occurs when it takes a few hours for someone to respond to a message. A conversation gets lost in a Slack channel.
• Information Lag is the time it takes for information to be disseminated worldwide.

The concept of "modes of individual adaptation " was given by R.K. Merton.

Important Points 

• Merton follows the functionalist notion stated that society is a system of interrelated parts.
• Merton hypothesized that deviance results when there is a disconnect between the cultural and social realms.
• He propounded the following five modes of individual adaptation.

1. Conformity
2. Innovation
3. Ritualism
4. Retreatism
5. Rebellion

Additional Information 

• Emile Durkheim was a functionalist, a macro-thinker and gave the famous theory of Suicide.
• Talcott Parsons was also a functionalist and the propounder of the AGIL Model.
• Peter Blau was an American Sociologist. He gave the Social Exchange Theory.

The correct answer is Social networks.

Key Points

• A social network is a social structure made up of a set of social actors (such as individuals or organizations), sets of dyadic ties, and other social interactions between actors.
• Each connection, or relationship, between actors, is known as a network tie. The connection between actors., while each actor, or point on the network, is referred to as a node.
• The point, often another individual or actor, where two other actors are connected.
• A social network indicates the way that people and organizations are connected through various social familiarities, ranging from casual acquaintances to close familial bonds.

Additional Information

• In sociology, a social organization is a pattern of relationships between and among individuals and social groups. Characteristics of social organization can include qualities such as sexual composition, spatiotemporal cohesion, leadership, structure, division of labor, communication systems, and so on.
• Social development is about improving the well-being of every individual in society so they can reach their full potential. The success of a society is linked to the well-being of each and every citizen. Social development means investing in people.
• A social institution is a group or organization that has specific roles, norms, and expectations, which functions to meet to social needs of society. The family, government, religion, education, and media are all examples of social institutions.

Thus, A structure of relationships linking social actors, or the set of actors and the ties among them is Social networks.

Option 3 is correct. 

Important Points

• The Sociology of Disaster is written by Thomas E. Drabek.
• Environment Sociology is written by John Hannigan.
• The Age of Sustainable Development is written by Jeffery D. Sachs.
• Social Problems in India is written by Ram Ahuja.

Hence, correct answer is  A - III, B - IV, C - I, D - II.

Additional Information 

• Thomas E. Drabek is famous for his researches on group and organizational responses to large-scale disasters.
• John Hannigan's research focuses on social movements, the sociology of media, sociology of the postmodern city, and environmental issues and problems.
• Jeffery D. Sachs is known for his work on sustainable development, economic development, and the fight to end poverty.
• Ram Ahuja analyzed Indian Society with different perspectives such as religio-philosophical, historico-political and Maxian.

Female proletarianization refers to an increasing number of women working in low-status, poorly paid manual jobs.

Important Points

• Female proletarianization is the social process whereby people move from being either an employer, unemployed or self-employed, to being employed as wage labor by an employer.
• Female Proletarianization is often seen as the most important form of downward social mobility.

Additional Information

• Feminization of poverty refers to a trend of increasing inequality in living standards between men and women due to the widening gender gap in poverty.
• Feminization of labor refers to women's increased participation in paid work as well as to the deterioration of working conditions in previously male jobs.

Key Points 

• Pandurang Hegde is associated with the Appiko Movement.
• Mahesh Chandra Mehta is a public interest attorney from India. He single-handedly won numerous landmark judgments from India’s Supreme Court since 1984, including introducing lead-free gasoline to India and reducing the industrial pollution fouling the Ganga and eroding the Taj Mahal.

He was awarded the Goldman Environmental Prize in 1996 for his continuous fights in Indian courts against pollution-causing industries.

• Marimuthu Yoginathan, popular as The Tree Man (born 1969), is an Indian environmental activist. He planted over 1 lakh 20 thousand trees in the last 28 years.

The Hon'ble Vice-President of India has awarded Yoganathan the “Eco Warrior” award,

• Amrita Devi was an Indian environmental and social activist who led the Bishnoi movement.

Additional Information

• The Chipko Movement was a forest conservation movement in India where people hugged trees to protect them from being cut down.
• The Appiko Movement was a similar environmental movement in India that focused on conserving forests through non-violent means and sustainable harvesting of forest resources.​
• The Bishnoi Movement is a religious and environmental movement founded in the 15^th century by Guru Jambheshwar in Rajasthan, India.

Hence option 1 is the correct answer.

Option 3 (A - III, B - IV, C - II, D - I) is the correct answer. 

Important Points

• G.H. Mead was a sociologist who developed the concept of Symbolic Interactionism.
• E. Goffman was a sociologist known for his research on Total Institutions.
• M. Foucault was a philosopher and social theorist who analyzed power relationships and governmentality.
• A. Giddens was a sociologist and social theorist known for his work on Structuration theory.

Additional Information

• Symbolic Interactionism is a theoretical perspective in sociology that emphasizes the role of symbols in shaping human behavior and social relationships.
• Total Institution is a concept introduced by sociologist Erving Goffman to describe institutions such as prisons, mental hospitals, and monasteries where individuals are cut off from the rest of society and subjected to total control.
• Governmentality is a term introduced by Michel Foucault to describe the way in which power is exercised in modern societies, characterized by the administration of individuals and populations through government agencies and institutions.
• Structuration theory was developed by Anthony Giddens and views social systems as the outcome of the interaction between actors and structures, where structures both constrain and enable agency.

There are two levels of meanings which are implicit in Sanskritization. These are: Historical specific and contextual specific.

Important Points

• Yogendra Singh suggests that there are two layers of understanding within the concept of Sanskritization:
• Historical specific, which refers to the traditional and historical aspects, and
• Contextual specific, which pertains to the specific social and cultural circumstances in which Sanskritization occurs.​

Additional Information

• Sanskritization refers to the process of cultural change in which lower castes and non-Hindu communities adopt the cultural practices and norms of the upper-caste Hindu communities, particularly those associated with the Sanskrit language and Hindu religion.
• The term Sanskritization was first used by the Indian sociologist M. N. Srinivas, who observed the phenomenon in South India in the mid-20^th century.
• Sanskritization is also seen as a means of upward mobility for lower-caste groups and is therefore a complex and ongoing phenomenon in India.

The correct solution is Option 2:  Emphasised Femineity.

Important Points

• Emphasized feminity is a concept given by RW Conell while explaining his gender order theory
• Connell used the term to emphasized feminity as opposed to hegemonic masculinity as she argued that in patriarchal societies no feminity can be hegemonic because all females are inferior and dominant to men.
• Feminine traits like compliance, gracefulness, emotion, nurturance, and sensitivity are inculcated in young girls in early childhood through the process of gender socialization.
• Thus emphasized femineity is also a socially constructed pattern of  behavior where women consider themselves complementary and  inferior to men.

Additional Information

• Hegemonic masculinity is a socially constructed idea that legitimizes the dominant position of men in society.
• Gender socialization plays a very important role in the construction of hegemonic masculinity.
• Physical prowess, risk-taking behavior, and a strong and macho attitude are some examples of hegemonic masculinity.
• People with characteristics of hegemonic masculinity will always try to dominate and control women and consider themselves hierarchically superior to women.

Option 4) A, C, and E is the correct answer.

Important Points

• Fantasy city is a type of city in which great emphasis is placed on creating a spectacle, especially for consumption, leisure and tourism.
• Megacities are cities with populations greater than 10 million people.
• Metropolis is a large, powerful and culturally influential urban area consisting of a central city and surrounding suburbs.

Additional Information

• Edge city is a suburban area with a high concentration of office buildings, retail centers, and entertainment venues.
• Megalopolis is a vast urban region formed by the merging of multiple metropolitan areas.

All three of the names mentioned, Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, and Lewis Morgan, employed methods involving historical and comparative analysis in their work.

• Auguste Comte, the founder of sociology and positivism, employed a historical method in his law of three stages theory about societal development.
• Karl Marx, the philosopher, economist, historian, political theorist, and socialist revolutionary, extensively used historical and comparative methods in deriving his theory of historical materialism.
• Lewis Morgan, the American ethnologist and anthropologist, also used comparative methods in his analysis of kinship systems across various societies.

So the correct answer is 'All of the above'.

Relative poverty refers to deprivation of some people in relation to those who have more.

Important Points

• Relative poverty refers to a condition where an individual or group has less income, resources, or opportunities compared to the rest of society.
• It is measured by comparing a person's income or standard of living to the median income or standard of living in a given society or country
• Relative poverty can lead to social exclusion, limited access to education, healthcare, and job opportunities, and can have negative effects on physical and mental health.

Additional Information

• British Sociologist Peter Townsend coined the term 'relative poverty.'
• He associated poverty with relative deprivation.

Max Weber coined the concept, "social relationship" to describe patterned human interaction which is intentional, meaningful and symbolic. 

Important Points

• Max Weber was a German sociologist associated with the study of social action.
• His ideas profoundly influence social theory and research.
• Weber was a key proponent of methodological anti-positivism, arguing for the study of social action through interpretive rather than purely empiricist methods, based on a subjective understanding of the meanings that individuals attach to their own actions.

Additional Information

• C.H. Cooley was an influential sociologist who was one of the founding members of the American Sociological Association.
• V. Pareto was an Italian sociologist who wrote the renowned book 'The Mind and the Society.'
• Erving Goffman is best-known contribution to social theory is his study of symbolic interaction.

Option 1: Garo is the correct answer.

Important Points

• The Garo tribe follows the matrilineal system in India.
• The tribe is based out of Meghalaya in the northeastern part of the country.

Additional Information

• The Koya tribal community is found in parts of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Chattisgarh, and Telangana.
• Garasia is a title used by Koli chieftains of pre-colonial North India.
• The Gonds are a Dravidian ethnolinguistic group spread over many Indian states like Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Chattisgarh.

Option 4) A-II, B-IV, C-III, D-I is the correct answer.

Important Points

• W.W. Rostow is associated with the Take-Off Model.
• Paul Baran studied about the Dependency Theory.
• Amartya Sen introduced the Capabilities Approach.
• Immanuel Wallerstein is associated with the **World Systems Theory.**​

Additional Information

• W.W. Rostow considered take-off to be industrial revolution that witnesses changes in the modes of production.
• Dependency theory studies the periphery of the poor states to the core of the wealthy states.
• The capabilities approach entails two different claims - people's functionalities and freedom.
• The world systems theory studies the world's history and subsequent social changes.

The correct answer is Statement I is incorrect but Statement II is correct.

Key Points

• Post-structuralism is a term for philosophical and literary forms of theory that both build upon and reject ideas established by structuralism, the intellectual project that preceded it.
• Roland Barthes, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, Jacques Lacan, and Julia Kristeva are prominent poststructuralist thinkers.
• Foucault's work inspired sociologists in subfields including the sociology of knowledge; gender, sexuality, and queer theory; critical theory; deviance and crime; and the sociology of education. His most well-known works include Discipline and Punish, The History of Sexuality, and The Archaeology of Knowledge.
• Hence, Michel Foucault has had an immense influence on social sciences.

Additional Information

• The historical, economic, and political analyses of Marx and Weber are largely structuralist.
• That is, they attempted to understand the large structures and institutions that affect the lives of people, and how these changed over time and space
• Marxism is a structural theory, as people's actions are shaped by society and in particular the economic system.
• It is a conflicting view of society. Marxists argue that the upper-class control all of society including law and order. They, therefore, have control over judges, police, and the government

 Thus, Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Michel Foucault are the most influential figures in an intellectual movement known as post-structuralism are incorrect but Michel Foucault has had an immense influence on social sciences is correct.

The correct answer is A - I, B - IV, C - II, D - III.

Key Points

• Migration is the movement of people from one place to another with intention of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new location.
• A migrant person moves from one place to another, especially in order to find work or better living conditions**. and** enumerated outside the place of normal residence.
• Associative migration: Occurs when Spouses and children join the migrant in due course.
• Forced migration is an involuntary or coerced movement of a person or people away from their home or home region displaced by war or violence.
• Seasonal migration: Seasonal human migration is the movement of people from one place or another on a seasonal basis. It occurs most commonly due to seasonal shifts in demand for labor.

Additional Information

• Demography is the science of populations. Demographers seek to understand population dynamics by investigating three main demographic processes: birth, migration, and aging (including death).
• The demographic dividend is the accelerated economic growth that may result from a decline in a country's birth and death rates and the subsequent change in the age structure of the population. With fewer births each year, a country's young dependent population declines in relation to the working-age population.

Thus, 

The correct answer is Kathleen Gough.

Key Points

• Kathleen Gough studied the Nayars of Kerala in great depth and said that Nayars seem to have treated marriage apart from sex and economic relations between men and women.
• The basic household unit called the Taravad that is matrilineal. The term Enangar is applied to a matrilineal lineage.
• According to Kathleen Gough marriage are a relationship established between a woman and one or more other persons that provides that a child born to the woman under circumstances not prohibited by the rules of the relationship and is accorded full birth status rights common to normal members of the society or social stratum.

Additional Information

• Murdock proposed that all families have four significant functions: sexual, economic, reproductive, and educational. These functions are essential and meet the needs of all societies. He proposes that the best institution to perform these functions is the family. Sexual function refers to the regulation of sexual activity.
• Edvard Alexander Westermarck was a Finnish philosopher and sociologist. Among other subjects, he studied exogamy and the incest taboo.

Thus, Kathleen Gough has conducted a study on the Nayars of Kerala.

The correct answer is Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Key Points

• Discrimination: It involves biased behavior against the object person of prejudice. Discrimination is a mode of behavior.
• For example, a teacher who is prejudiced against a particular community may fail students belonging to that community.
• Generally, the person discriminated against is denied some privilege or right that is accorded to other members of society who do not belong to the minority group.
• Thus, To discriminate means to deny an individual or a group, a privilege or an opportunity, or a pleasure that is thereupon reserved for one's own group.

Additional Information

• Lynching: It involves behavior aimed at causing physical hurt or injury to the object person of prejudice. For example, the teacher in the above example may go to the extent of actually subjecting students of a particular community to physical punishment without any reasonable ground.
• Extermination: It is an extreme form of manifestation of prejudice. It is aimed at removing the existence of the object person of prejudice.

Thus,  Discrimination is a mode of behavior since discrimination means to deny an individual or a group, a privilege or an opportunity, or a pleasure that is thereupon reserved for one's own group.

Option (4) is the correct answer.

Important Points

• Vidal de la Blache is known as the father of Human Geography.
• Human Geography studies the modifications made by man to Environment.
• The main aim of Human Geography is to study the interactive relationship between man, the environment and economic activities.

Additional Information

• Park and Burgess is associated with Ecological School.
• H.W Odum is associated with Regional School.
• Dexter, Huntington is associated with impact of climatic conditions on human society.

The correct answer is Pierre Bourdieu.

Key Points

• Bourdieu proposes the cultural reproduction theory to explain social reproduction.
• According to Bourdieu, cultural reproduction is the social process through which culture is reproduced across generations, especially through the socializing influence of major institutions.
• Bourdieu believes that cultural capital may play a role when individuals pursue power and status in society through politics or other means.

Additional Information

• Auguste Comte is considered the father of sociology because he was among the first to apply the scientific method to the study of society. This makes him one of the founders, instead of other people who either did not apply the scientific method or only worked after Comte.
• Karl Mannheim theorized that generations provide a basis for understanding social movements—how social change is possible while cultural traditions and identity are preserved.
• Durkheim is most well known as the author of On the Division of Social Labor, The Rules of Sociological Method, Suicide, and The Elementary Forms of Religious Life.

Thus, The most systematic general theory of cultural reproduction is given by Pierre Bourdieu.

The correct answer is William J. Goode.

Key Points

• William J. Goode published World Revolution and Family Patterns, a highly influential study of international family change.
• seeks to describe and interpret the main changes in family patterns that have occurred over the past half-century in Japan, China, India,  the West, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Arab countries and to relate them to various alterations in other institutional areas."
• The 20^th Century has witnessed remarkable changes in family structures and dynamics in Western Europe and North America:
• Smaller household sizes, a further shift from extended to nuclear families, a decrease in nuptiality, an increase in separation or divorce, and the appearance of new forms of unions such as unmarried.

Additional Information

• David Cooper (December 12, 1724 – April 1, 1795) was an American farmer, Quaker, pamphleteer, and an author of abolitionist ideals in the latter 1700s. A native of New Jersey, he lived the greater part of his life in and around Gloucester and Salem, New Jersey.
• Anderson provides evidence that rather than weakening kinship ties, industrialization may have strengthened them. He used data from the 1851 census in Preston. He found that 23% of households contained kin other than the nuclear family. The bulk of co-residence occurred among the poor.
• Fletcher was a functionalist from the UK who had a more optimistic view of the family and its functions. He argued in "The family and marriage in Britain (revised in 1966)" that families had not lost their functions to the extent suggested by Parsons.

Thus, William J. Goode  has written the book, 'World Revolution and Family'.

Caste-based stratification is Ascribed. 

Important Points

• Features of caste-based stratification are 
• Segmental division of society
• Hierarchy
• Civil and religious disabilities
• Endogamy
• Untouchability

Additional Information

• Caste is a hereditary social group where a person’s rank and his rights are decided on the caste he is born into.
• For instance, the Hindu religion has castes that range from Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Sudra.
• A person’s caste enables one to inherit the status and function of their parents.
• While the Brahmins are the highest caste, they enjoy all the amenities which the lower caste person isn’t allowed to.
• People are not allowed access to certain things solely because of their caste.
• This creates a lot of division in the Indian society.

The correct answer is D only.

Key Points

• Michel Foucault's works are known for their innovative and complex methodology, which challenges traditional approaches to the study of power, knowledge, and discourse.
• While all of his major works contribute to his methodology in some way, "The Archaeology of Knowledge" is particularly significant as it outlines his method of discourse analysis.
• In this work, Foucault argues that discourse is not simply a set of ideas or language, but rather a system of statements that define the boundaries of what can be said, thought, and believed within a particular historical and cultural context.
• He suggests that discourse is a fundamental element of power, as it shapes how individuals and societies understand and experience reality.
• Foucault's method of discourse analysis involves examining the rules, institutions, and practices that produce and regulate discourse within a particular field of knowledge or social domain.
• He seeks to uncover the power relations that are embedded in discourse, and to show how these relations shape social relations and practices.

Additional Information

• While "The Archaeology of Knowledge" is an important methodological component in Foucault's works, it should be noted that all of his major works contribute to his approach to the study of power, knowledge, and discourse.
• For example:
• "Discipline and Punish" analyzes the development of disciplinary power in modern society.
• "The History of Sexuality" examines the emergence of sexuality as a key site of power relations.
• "Madness and Civilisation" investigates the relationship between madness and reason.
• "The Order of Things" explores the historical conditions that made possible the emergence of modern epistemes.

The correct answer is T. K. Oommen.

Key Points

• Indian Sociologist, T.K Ooman has mentioned six dimensions of Communalism which are given in the list below:
• Assimilationist.
• Welfarist.
• Retreatist
• Retaliatory,
• Separatist,
• Secessionist.
• Oommen's work Protest and Change: Studies in Social Movement (1990) further explores the significance of sociology and social anthropology in studying protest and change.

Additional Information

• Yogendra Singh was an Indian sociologist. He was one of the founders of the Centre for the Study of Social Systems, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India, where he was a professor emeritus of Sociology, and where he has been a professor since 1971.
• According to Desai, India's nationalism is the result of the material conditions created by British colonialism. The Britishers developed new economic relations by introducing industrialization and modernization.
• Govind Sadashiv Ghurye was a pioneering Indian academic who was a professor of sociology. In 1924, he became the second person to head the Department of Sociology at the University of Bombay. And, is widely regarded as the founder of Indian Sociology & Sociology in India.

Thus,  T. K. Oommen has suggested six dimensions of communalism: assimilationist, welfarist, Retreatist, retaliatory, separatist, and the secessionist.

The correct answer is Norms.

Key Points

• Norms are a fundamental concept in the social sciences. They are most commonly defined as rules or expectations that are socially enforced.
• Norms may be prescriptive (encouraging positive behavior; for example, “be honest”) or proscriptive (discouraging negative behavior; for example, “do not cheat”).
• Social norms can both be informal understandings that govern the behavior of members of society, as well as be codified into rules and laws.
• The four types of social norms are folkways, mores, taboos, and laws.
• Folkways are standard behaviors that people follow in their everyday life while interacting with society.

Additional Information

• A sanction, in the social sciences, is a reaction (or the threat or promise of a reaction) by members of a social group indicating approval or disapproval of a mode of conduct and serving to enforce the behavioral standards of the group.
• In sociology, values are the beliefs that we have about what is important, both to us and to society as a whole. They can be implicit or explicit (stated directly). Values help us to decide what is right or wrong, good or bad.
• Mores are social norms that are widely observed within a particular society or culture. Mores determine what is considered morally acceptable or unacceptable within any given culture.

Thus, Definite procedures or rules which people are expected to observe are known as Norms.

"Conurbation" means "A cluster of cities and towns forming a continuous network"

Important Points

• A conurbation is a region comprising a number of metropolises, cities, large towns, and other urban areas which through population growth and physical expansion, have merged to form one continuous urban or industrially developed area.
• Patrick Geddes coined the term in his book Cities In Evolution (1915).

Additional Information

• Confluence means a flowing together and it's more often related to coming together of factors or ideas, or of cultures in a diverse city.
• Identity formation is a complex process in which humans develop a clear and unique view of themselves and of their identity which includes self-concept & personality development.

The book "The Lonely Crowd" was written by David Riesman.

Important Points

• Riesman was very concerned with American higher education, and was known for his care for his students.
• His book The Lonely Crowd (1950) is considered a landmark study of American character where he described changes in American culture from tradition-directedness (behavior and value determined by tradition) to inner-directedness (creating one's own goals and following them) to other-directedness (conforming to the values and expectations of others) provides valuable insights into contemporary society.

Additional Information

• Howard Rheingold is known for his specialties on the cultural, social and political implications of modern communication media such as the Internet, mobile telephony and virtual communities.
• Bruno Latour is known for his work in the field of science and technology studies and later did his fieldwork in Ivory Coast which resulted in a brief monograph on decolonization, race, and industrial relations.
• George Simmel is the father of Urban Sociology and Sociation is one of his famous concept.

Positivism is an epistemological position that advocates the application of the methods of the natural sciences to the study of social reality.

Important Points

• Positivism is a philosophical and methodological approach that originated in the 19^th century and focuses on empirical and scientific methods to study social and natural phenomena.
• It holds the belief that knowledge and truth can only be obtained through scientific observation and experimentation, and that metaphysical and supernatural explanations are not valid sources of knowledge.
• Positivism played a significant role in shaping modern social sciences, such as sociology, psychology, and economics, and continues to influence scientific inquiry and research methods in various fields.

Additional Information

• Positivism was developed and popularized by Auguste Comte, a French philosopher, and sociologist, in the early 19^th century.
• Comte is considered the "father of sociology" and is credited with coining the term "sociology" to describe the scientific study of society. He viewed positivism as a new approach to knowledge that could replace earlier metaphysical and theological approaches.
• Interpretivism is an approach to social science that opposes the positivism of natural science. Qualitative research, a method of inquiry in social science and related disciplines.
• Social constructionism is a theory in sociology, social ontology, and communication theory which proposes that certain ideas about physical reality arise from collaborative consensus, instead of pure observation of said reality.

Megalopolis is the largest form of Urban Life today.

Important Points

• Megalopolis is a large area of an urban area or industrial area with high infrastructure, specialized services, and modern facilities.
• The megalopolis has a population of more than 5 million.
• The megalopolis cities in India are Mumbai, Delhi, etc.

Additional Information

• A metropolis is also a large city with equipped with all the modern facilities, services, and infrastructure.
• The population of a metropolis will be less than 5 million.
• The prominent metropolis cities in India are Bangalore, Lucknow, etc.
• Edge cities are generally located in the suburbs of cities.
• Edge cities are major centers of business, industries, entertainment, shopping malls, etc.
• In India, major edge cities are Noida, Gurugram, etc.

Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are correct and R is the correct explanation of A. 

Important Points

• Human beings are themselves responsible for environmental degradation.
• In the name of development, we are cutting trees and thereby disturbing our ecosystem.
• There is a strong need for raising awareness at the global level for increasing environmental awareness.
• Hence, Assertion (A) is correct.
• Global consciousness will bring about environmental awareness and this will make us realize our mistakes which are leading to the destruction of our ecology.
• Therefore enhancing global consciousness is a vital dimension of increasing environmental awareness as our actions are responsible for our actions toward ecology.
• Therefore, Reason (R) is also correct and R is the correct explanation of A.

Additional Information

• Global consciousness towards our environment is very important in our modern society as global warming, climate change, etc are all happening because of people's actions.
• Human beings will try to discover some alternate means of development which will be less harmful to our environment.
• For example the use of paper plates and bags instead of plastic ones.

The correct answer is 'Cultural hybrids'

Key Points

• Cultural hybrids:
• Cultural hybridity refers to the process by which different cultures mix and create new, hybrid forms. This phenomenon can happen through various means such as migration, colonization, globalization, or simple cultural exchange.
• Hybrids are characterized by elements from multiple cultural backgrounds blending together to form new traditions, customs, or cultural practices.
• This blending often results in a dynamic cultural landscape where local and foreign influences are seamlessly integrated.
• Examples of cultural hybridity include music genres like reggaeton, which combines Latin American rhythms with hip-hop influences, or food dishes that merge ingredients and cooking techniques from different culinary traditions.

Additional Information

• Ethnocentrism:
• Ethnocentrism is the belief in the inherent superiority of one's own cultural group or ethnicity, often leading to prejudice and discrimination against other cultures.
• It involves evaluating other cultures according to the standards and customs of one's own culture, usually deeming them inferior.
• Cultural imperialism:
• Cultural imperialism happens when one culture dominates and imposes its values, practices, and beliefs on another culture, often as a result of political or economic power.
• This imposition can lead to the erosion or even complete loss of the subordinate culture's traditions and identity.
• Cultural relativism:
• Cultural relativism is the principle of understanding and evaluating a culture based on its own values and standards rather than viewing it through the lens of another culture.
• It promotes the idea that no culture is superior to another and encourages appreciation and respect for cultural diversity.

Option 4) A, C, and E only is the correct answer.

Important Points

• Before gaining independence, there were three prevalent land tenure systems in rural India: the Jamindari System, the Mahelwari System, and the Ryotwari System.
• India gained independence from British Rule on 15^th August 1947.

Additional Information

• Jamindari system is a system of land tenure in medieval India where landed estates were granted to individuals, who had the obligation to maintain troops and provide military support to the king.
• Ryotwari system is a system of land settlement in India where lands are directly cultivated by individual cultivators and the government acts as a mediator between the cultivator and the land.
• Mahelwari system is a system of revenue collection in India where the revenue was collected directly from villages and lands were divided into revenue-paying units, which were generally held by a village community.

Option 2) A - III, B - II, C - IV, D - I is the correct answer.

Important Points

• Gotul is a tribal youth dormitory for the Gonds.
• Dhumkuria is the youth dormitory of the Oraon tribe.
• Rang Bang is a traditional institution of the Bhutias.
• Kichuki is a tribal youth dormitory of the Angami Nagas.

Additional Information

• Verrier Elwin is associated with the study of Gonds.
• Sarat Chandra Roy studied the Oraon tribe of India.
• J.H. Hutton is associated with the study of Angami Nagas.

AM Shah has written the book, "The Family in India: Critical Essays".

Important Points

• AM Shah was an Indian sociologist who retired from as a Professor of Sociology from Delhi School of Economics.
• He has made significant contributions towards the study of family and household in India.
• AM Shah distinguished between family and household. A family consists of people who are related by birth or marriage and they might to not reside in the same place.
• While a household is group of people who share a common kitchen whether they are related to each other or not.
• The Family in India: Critical Essays is a collection of essays on the family in India where he discusses range of issues related to disintegration of the joint family in India, lineage structure, caste endogamy, family policy in India etc.

Additional Information

• Patricia Uberoi is a sociologist who is currently Honorary fellow and Chairperson of the Institute of Chinese Studies, Delhi.
• Her writings primarily focus on issues of family, kinship, marriage, sexuality and gender.
• Her famous work isFamily, Kinship and Marriage in India.
• Iravati Karve was first Indian women anthropologist and sociologist from Maharashtra India.
• She was an Indologist and used Indology to study Indian society. Her famous work is Kinship Organization of India where she offers micro analysis of kinship systems in India.
• IP Desai was one of the second generation sociologists in India and played pioneering role in shaping the teaching and research in the discipline.
• He has written extensively on various topics like education, social movements, family, caste, tribe, untouchability, migration and social change.

The concept of "habitus" deals with "Behavioural dispositions of the individuals".

Important Points

• The sociologist Pierre Bourdieu said that the habitus consists of both the hexis, a person's carriage (posture) and speech (accent), and the mental habits of perception and classification, of appreciation, feeling, and action.
• Habitus  is the way that people perceive and respond to the social world they inhabit, by way of their personal habits, skills, and dispositions.

Additional Information

• The concept of habitus has been used as early as Aristotle but in contemporary usage was introduced by Marcel Mauss and later Maurice Merleau-Ponty.
• However, it was Pierre Bourdieu who turned it into a cornerstone of his sociology, and used it to address the sociological problem of agency and structure.
• The habitus is shaped by structural position and generates action, thus when people act and demonstrate agency they simultaneously reflect and reproduce social structure.

Use of pubic office for private gain is known as Corruption.

Important Points

• Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense which is undertaken by a person or an organization which is entrusted in a position of authority, in order to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's personal gain.
• Corruption may involve many activities which include bribery, influence peddling and the embezzlement and it may also involve practices which are legal in many countries.

Additional Information

• Abuse is the improper usage or treatment of a thing, often to unfairly or improperly gain benefit and involve acts like physical or verbal maltreatment, injury, assault, violation, rape, unjust practices, crimes, or other types of aggression.
• Insincerity arises when someone feels one way but acts another and an insincere situation looks to have one purpose but really hides another.

Songs, myths, dances and names, weapons, gifts, ceremonial regalia & household implements are possessed by primitive people as personal private property.

Important Points

• Primitive societies are small-scale, face-to-face, with simple subsistence technology, without writing, money, or political centralisation, and based on descent, gender and age.
• Primitive People are hostile to the idea of a scientific understanding of society, particularly to the idea of social and cultural evolution.

Additional Information 

• Main features of primitive societies are:
• Shifting Cultivation
• Exchange
• Absence of Profit Motive
• Virtual Absence of Innovation
• Communal Nature of Economy
• Absence of Division of Labour
• Concept and Nature of Property Rights.

Private ownership dominates in more developed agricultural societies.

Important Points

• Agricultural society is any community whose economy is based on producing and maintaining crops and farmland.
• In an agrarian society, cultivating the land is the primary source of wealth.

Additional Information

• Private Ownership is a legal designation for the ownership of property by non-governmental legal entities.
• Private property is foundational to capitalism, an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit.

For the pastoralists, land may be communally owned.

Important Points

• Pastoralists are people who practice pastoralism as a livelihood system that involves the tracking and use of grazing and water across a given landscape.
• It practiced in dryland areas, mobility is key to this system.

Additional Information

• Pastoralism is a form of animal husbandry where domesticated animals are released onto large vegetated outdoor lands (pastures) for grazing.
• The animal species involved include cattle, camels, goats, yaks, llamas, reindeer, horses and sheep.

Hobhouse said "Property is to be conceived in terms of the control of man over things".

Important Points

• Hobhouse was an English liberal political theorist and sociologist, who has been considered one of the leading and earliest proponents of social liberalism.
• He worked both as an academic and a journalist, and played a key role in the establishment of sociology as an academic discipline.

Additional Information

• R.H Lowie was an Austrian-born American anthropologist, an expert on Indigenous peoples of the Americas.
• He was instrumental in the development of modern anthropology and has been described as "one of the key figures in the history of anthropology".

In primitive societies, the principal economic resources are Communally owned.

Important Points

• Primitive societies are small-scale, face-to-face, with simple subsistence technology, without writing, money, or political centralisation, and based on descent, gender and age.
• Their goal has been overtly political and anti-Western, and is hostile to the idea of a scientific understanding of society, particularly to the idea of social and cultural evolution.

Additional Information

• Private property is owned by a person or group of person and is usually used by its owner for his own good.
• Public property is owned by the community and is used for public good.

Constructing universal evolutionary stage of growth may involve both Teleological and Conservative Ideologies.

Important Points

• Montesquieu proposed an evolutionary scheme consisting of three stages:
• Hunting or Savagery
• Herding or Barbarism
• Civilization

Additional Information

• Teleological Ideological refers to the explanation by reference to some purpose, end, goal, or function.
• Conservative ideologies refers to traditional values and social institutions, such as traditional family structures, gender roles, sexual relations, national patriotism, and religious traditions.

The modernisation process in India is heading fast towards climax and is limited time for reasonable choice.

Important Points

• Modernisation is a process by which modern scientific knowledge is introduced in the society with the ultimate purpose of achieving a better and more satisfactory life in the broadest sense of the term accepted by the society concerned.
• Modernisation symbolizes a rational attitude towards issues and their evaluation but not from particularistic point of view.

Additional Information

• Modernisation involves the following :
• A rational and scientific world view.
• Growth and ever increasing application of science and technology.
• Adaptation of new institutions emerged in the society to cope with the new situation dominated by science and technology.

Environment is not described by Myrdal for the development of South Asian countries.

Important Points

• Myrdal was a Swedish economist and sociologist.
• He did his pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and for their penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena.

Additional Information

• Myrdal framed in terms of the realities of an economically stagnant Asia.
• He is best known for his study of race relations, which culminated in his book "An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy".

Myrdal's theory of social change and development is based on Cumulative change and CIrcular Causation.

Important Points

• Cumulative change is a distinctive kind of change associated with systems composed of multiple, interrelated parts. Within these systems, some parts change while others remain unchanged.
• Circular Causation is a multi-causal approach where the core variables and their linkages are delineated and the idea behind it is that a change in one form of an institution will lead to successive changes in other institutions.

Additional Information

• Myrdal was a Swedish economist and sociologist who did his pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and for their penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena.
• He is best known for his study of race relations, which culminated in his book An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy.

According to Myrdal, it is easier to cause a big change rapidly.

Important Points

• Myrdal mentioned the availability of natural resources, the historical traditions of production activity, national cohesion, religions and ideologies, economic, social and political leadership.
• Myrdal stated that the immediate effect of closing down certain lines of production in a community is the reduction of employment, income and demand.
• The contraction of the markets in that area tends to have a depressing effect on new investments, which in turn causes a further reduction of income and demand.
• Fewer local taxes are collected in a time when more social services is required and a vicious downward cumulative cycle is started and a trend towards a lower level of development will be further reinforced.

Additional Information

• Myrdal was a Swedish economist and sociologist.
• He did his pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and for their penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena.

The correct answer is Both (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is NOT the correct explanation of (A).

Key Points

• Two ways poverty can be measured by sociologists are absolute poverty and relative poverty. Absolute has specific fiscal outlines. Relative poverty, on the other hand, is established in relation to the economic climate in which one resides.
• Relative poverty explains poverty as socially defined and dependent on social context. Usually, relative poverty is measured as the percentage of the population with income less than some fixed proportion of median income.
• Contrary to relative poverty, people who live in absolute poverty lack even the basic necessities, which typically include adequate food, clean water, safe housing, and access to healthcare.
• Absolute poverty is defined by the World Bank (2014a) as when someone lives on less than $1.25 a day.
• Absolute Poverty is usually uncommon in developed countries due to established welfare systems.

Additional Information

• Situational Poverty: It is a temporary type of poverty based on the occurrence of an adverse event like an environmental disaster, job loss, and severe health problems.

People can help themselves even with small assistance, as poverty comes because of unfortunate events.

• Generational Poverty: It is handed over to individuals and families from one generation to the one. This is more complicated as there is no escape because the people are trapped in its cause and unable to access the tools required to get out of it.
• Rural Poverty: It occurs in rural areas with a population below 50,000. It is the area where there are fewer job opportunities, less access to services, less support for disabilities, and quality education opportunities. People are tending to live mostly on the farming and other menial work available to the surroundings

Thus, Sociologists usually distinguish between absolute and relative poverty. In developed countries, with established welfare systems, absolute poverty is rare. Both are the correct but not correct reasonable explanations.$

The correct answer is  V. Pareto.

Key Points

• Vilfredo Federico Damaso Pareto was an Italian polymath. He made several important contributions to economics, particularly in the study of income distribution and in the analysis of individuals' choices. He was also responsible for popularising the use of the term "elite" in social analysis.
• V. Pareto classified actions into three types**: instinctive action, logical action, and nonlogical action.**
• Pareto defines logical actions are those if the end is objectively attainable and if the means employed are objectively united with the end within the framework of the best knowledge available.
• Non-Logical actions mean simply all human actions not falling within the scope of logical actions. These are not logical-which does not mean that they are illogical**. Non-logical action is action guided by sentiments and other non-logical factors.**

Additional Information

• Weber was a German sociologist, historian, jurist, and political economist, who is regarded as among the most important theorists of the development of modern Western society. His ideas profoundly influenced social theory and research.
• Talcott Parsons was an American sociologist of the classical tradition, best known for his social action theory and structural functionalism. Parsons is considered one of the most influential figures in sociology in the 20^th century.

Thus, V. Pareto has classified action into logical and nonlogical action.

The correct answer is Underclass.

Key Points

• Marginalized populations are groups and communities that experience discrimination and exclusion (social, political, and economic) because of unequal power relationships across economic, political, social, and cultural dimensions.
• People under the class structure who are economically, politically, and socially marginalized and excluded comprise the Marginalized class.
• There are various groups that are marginalized such as women, people with disabilities, the aged, scheduled castes, and scheduled tribes. Muslims and Adivasis are two groups that are highly marginalized.

Additional Information

• Underclass theories attempt to identify, locate, and analyze the poorest people in society. Social scientists and journalists have traditionally used the term “underclass” to describe concentrations of impoverished racialized populations living in urban areas.
• Economic class refers specifically to how one ranks relative to others in terms of income and wealth. Simply put, we are sorted into groups by how much money we have. These groups are commonly understood as lower (the poorest), middle, and upper class (the richest).
• Class oppression sometimes referred to as classism, can be defined as prejudice and discrimination based on social class. Class is a social ranking system that is based on income, wealth, education, status, and power.

Thus, People under the class structure who are economically, politically and socially marginalised and excluded comprise the Marginalized class.

An italian consuming paneer tikka in Rome and an Indian consuming pizza in Varanasi is an example of Globalisation of food, commodities and culture.

Important Points

• Globalisation is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide.
• This increase in global interactions has caused a growth in international trade and the exchange of ideas, beliefs, and culture.
• Globalization is primarily an economic process of interaction and integration that is associated with social and cultural aspects which includes food and commodities.

Additional Information

• Theodore Levitte coined the term Globalisation.
• He stated that the changes in technology and social behaviors that allow multinational companies like Coca-Cola and McDonald's to sell the same products worldwide.

The structural features of a caste system are segmental division, hierarchy, pollution, and purity.

Important Points

• In the caste system, an individual's social status is determined by their birth into a particular caste, which is typically associated with a specific profession. This means that people are born into and remain within a particular caste for their entire lives.
• Caste affects social and economic opportunities and has significant implications for an individual's social and economic opportunities.
• Despite laws and efforts to eradicate the caste system, caste-based discrimination and prejudice remain prevalent in many parts of India.

Additional Information

• During the Mughal Empire and British colonial period, the caste system became further entrenched and institutionalized in India.
• The caste system has been influenced by religious beliefs and practices, particularly Hinduism.

Montesquieu has classified political institutions into republic, aristocracy, monarchy, and autocracy. 

Important Points

• Montesquieu was a French political philosopher of the Enlightenment period who played a very important role in the French Revolution.
• His political theory was based on the idea of separation of powers which shaped modern democratic societies.
• Thus in modern democracies, we have the executive, legislature, and judiciary as separate entities of government.
• He has classified political institutions into republic, aristocracy, monarchy, and autocracy.

Additional Information

• Robert Michels was a German-born Italian political sociologist who was famous for the formulation of the Iron Law of Oligarchy.
• The Iron Law of Oligarchy states that all political systems however democratic will eventually develop into oligarchies.
• Harold Gould is an American anthropologist who specialized in Indian society and civilization.
• He has studied the caste system, religion, politics, etc of India.
• Rajni Kothari was a famous Indian political scientist.
• He was a great activist who was involved in continuous research on the intellectual and ethical dimensions of Indian politics.

The #MeToo movement is a part of Fourth Wave feminism.

Important Points

• The fourth wave of feminism is a phase of feminism that began around 2012 and is characterized by a focus on the empowerment of women and the use of internet tools and is centered on intersectionality.
• Fourth-wave feminism is associated with online feminism, especially using Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Youtube, and other forms of social media to discuss and activate gender inequality and social justice.
• Therefore #Me too movement is part of the fourth wave of feminism.

Additional Information

• The first wave of feminism refers to the period of feminism during the late 19^th and early 20^th century in the US, UK, and Canada.
• The first wave of feminism is also known as the suffragist movement because it was centered around the right to vote.
• The second wave of feminism started from the 1960s to 1980s and focussed on issues of equality in the private spheres of women's lives like abortion rights.
• The third wave of feminism came in the early 1990s and it focussed on the issue of intersectionality.
• The third wave sees women’s lives as intersectional, demonstrating how race, ethnicity, class, gender, and nationality are all significant factors when discussing feminism.

Introduction of money economy in India was not a direct cause of the decline of the pre-British village artisan industries.

Important Points

• The company forced the weavers to produce cloth according to their requirements and on conditions of their own. A large number of weavers therefore left their profession.
• It ruined the cotton and silk clothes handicraft industries. The impact of Industrial Revolution was felt everywhere.
• India was converted into supplier of raw materials for the British industries. India also became a market for British goods.
• The policy of free trade facilitated Britain to exploit the Indian market.
• Railways and road transportation were developed to move finished goods physically from Britain to different interior parts of colonial India. Britishers wanted to widen the size of the market for their goods. Roads were developed to mobilise the British Army within India.
• Industrialization and urbanization are the main factors for the decline of the pre British village artisan industries.
• The Britishers along with them brought modern education, machines, technology along with them to India.
• The Industrial Revolution started in Europe in the 18^th century and the Britishers introduced machinery and modern tools in India.
• Cotton mill, jute mill and coal mines were established during the British rule in India.
• Earlier there was barter system in India where goods were exchanged for goods and the introduction of money economy fixed prices for goods and products.
• Transport and communication also improved due to urbanization and most parts of the country were connected by roads.

Additional Information

• The growing craze of imported goods and the stiff competition from the machine made goods of England led to decline of village artisan industries in India.
• Slowly and gradually the Britishers also established railway tracks in most parts of India.
• This enhanced the transport and communication across India and the villagers also had a chance to travel long distances.