UGC NET Paper 2: Political Science 21st Dec 2018 (Previous Year Paper)

The correct answer is Michal Walzer.

Important Points

• The Communitarian Critique of Liberalism’ is a paper on political theory written by Michael Walzer.
• In this paper Walzer argues that “Liberalism is a self-subverting doctrine; for that reason, it really does require periodic communitarian correction”.
• Communitarian are critical about the both libral theory and liberal practice.
• M. Walzer is an Americal political intellectual.

Utilitarianism was essentially a moral philosophy based on Hedonism to acquire maximum pleasure.

Key Points

• Utilitarianism is based on the assumption that individuals try to maximize their pleasure and reduce pain.
• The main proponents of this school are Jeremy Bentham and J.S. Mill.
• John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham are reported to have held opposing viewpoints on how the value of various pleasures should be assessed.
• He believed that when weighing the worth of two joys one should consider the quality aspect of pleasure.
• Bentham is supposed to have believed that we should consider simply quantity.
• In his book, Utilitarianism argues that "The creed which accepts as the foundations of morals “utility” or the “greatest happiness principle” holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness."
• He argued that extrinsic value is worth without intrinsic value, whereas intrinsic value is the mental state of pleasure.

Thus, J.S. Mill sought to establish the non-utilitarian proposition that some pleasures are of a higher quality than others.

Additional Information

• Joseph Priestley proposed Theological utilitarianism as opposed to Jeremy Bentham's secular utilitarianism which is based on his Christian faith in God.
• Jeremy Bentham articulated that The government should promote the "greatest benefit of the greatest number".
• Some Books by Jeremy Bentham are mentioned below: 
• The Principles of Morals and Legislation (1780)
• The Panopticon Writings (1787)
• A Fragment on Government (1776)

Polyarchy is the Greek word, Poly means many whereas archy stands for the rule. 

Key Points

• Robert A. Dahl coined the term polyarchy to describe modern democracy under which authority is distributed among numerous people.
• Dahl in his book Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (1971) defined Polyarchy as a political regime that is “highly inclusive and extensively open to public contestation”.
• It does not take the form of a dictatorship or a democracy.
• According to Dahl, polyarchy differs from democracy since the primary democratic premise is "the government's continual response to the desires of its citizens, seen as political equals" with unrestricted options.
• Dahl claims that democracy is an ideal state that has never been realized.
• In his book On Democracy (1998), set out the parameter for Polyarchy are following: 
• Elected officials
• Free, fair, and frequent elections
• Freedom of expression
• Access to alternative information
• Associational autonomy
• Inclusive citizenship.

​Thus, Robert Dahl described modern democracies as 'Polyarchy'.

Additional Information

• Joseph Alois Schumpeter is best known for his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (1942).
• S. Huntington is known for his 1993 notion of a post-Cold War new world order, the "Clash of Civilizations."
• David Easton in his book The Political System, discuss the system approach.

Justice is one of the most political concepts. 

Key Points 

Thus, (a) - (iii), (b) - (iv), (c) - (i), (d) - (ii) is correct matching.

Lenin was the Founder of the Russian Communist Party and the Leader of the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Key Points

• He was born into a middle-class family and was inspired greatly by his older brother, Aleksandr, who was killed in 1887 for plotting to assassinate the tsar.
• His work can be divided into two-part:
• Selected Works which contains 3 volumes comprised of various works.
• Collected Works are divided into 54 volumes
• ​Some of these works are mentioned in the table below:

Thus, the Correct Sequence is of publication of his work is The Development of Capitalism in Russia (1899)⇒ What Is To Be Done? (1901–2)⇒ Materialism and Empirio-Criticism (1909)⇒  Socialism and War (1915).

David Easton was one of the most prominent and influential political scientists. 

Key Points

• He was a key figure in the behavioural revolution which aimed to build a coherent empirical theory of political science to replace traditional political science research.
• His work The Political System: An Inquiry into the State of Political Science (1953).
• Easton stated that political science is required to absorb scientific concepts and procedures and focus on the empirically observable behaviour of political actors in order to progress scientifically.
• Easton argues that  "Political behaviour stands for both an intellectual tendency and a concrete academic movement".
• It means that for him political Behaviouralism is an academic movement
• The behavioural paradigm though not systems theory per se had become the dominant paradigm in American political science by the late 1960s.

Thus, David Easton "Political behaviour stands for both an intellectual tendency and a concrete academic movement".

Additional Information

• Easton advocated for a post-behavioural revolution in his 1969 APSA presidential address.
• Easton contends that the scientific foundations of political science can serve as the framework for neobehavioralism is a combination of behaviourism and rational choice theory.

In 'Saptanga theory' Kautilya talks of organs of the state.

Key Points

• Amatya related to Eyes,
• Suhrid related to ears,
• Durga related to Arms
• kosha related to mouth.

Additional Information

• Kautilya was the prime minister of the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta and the author of the oldest text on public administration in the world Arthshastra.
• Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta.
• The Arthshastra is believed to have been compiled between 300 BC and first century AD.
• A full text of the Sanskrit treatise came into the hands of R. Shamasastry of Mysore in 1904, who published it in 1909 with an English translation in 1915.
• R.P. Kangle of the University of Bombay studied all the available manuscripts and brought out an edited text, an English translation.
• He propounded 
• Saptang Theory
• Mandal Theory
• Elements of good administration

Rousseau's General Will means Real will.

Key PointsThe Swiss philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau disliked any kind of authority or structure, and championed the creativity and worth of individual human beings.

• The concept of the general will was first introduced in two of Rousseau’s essays, the Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1754).
• In 'Social Contract'  Each citizen willingly traded his natural liberty and independence for the civil liberty secured by the state, allowing social rights over property to take precedence over individual rights.
• Rousseau tied the concept of general will directly to sovereignty.

Plato always believed that education is related to individual and societal characteristics.

Key Points Features of Plato's education system.

• Education implant ideas of truth and righteousness.
• Element education should be started at the age of six.
• For the first 10 years, focus should be mainly on physical education.
• A test will be held at the age of 20 to examine children for higher education, subjects like arithmetic, astronomy, geometry and dialectics were taught.
• At the age of 30, students would take another elimination test.
• Believed strong state-controlled education for both men and women.

Thus, only (i), (iii) and (iv) are correct.

The correct answer is the Principles of natural science.

Important PointsThomas Hobbes constructed his Political Philosophy on the basis of his postulates derived from Principles of Natural Science.

• His political philosophy is chiefly concerned with the way in which government must be organized in order to avoid civil war.
• According to Hobbes the two most certain postulates of human nature is 'postulate of natural appetite' and 'the postulate of natural reason'.
• He calls the natural condition of mankind, a state of violence, insecurity and constant threat.
• He recommended peaceful life under an authoritarian-sounding sovereign.

Additional Information Hobbs-

• He was English philosopher.
• Believed in absolute monarch
• Book named 'Leviathan'.

The Veil of Ignorance by John Rawls is undoubtedly one of the most significant philosophical theories of the twentieth century.

Key Points

• Rawls in his book, Justice as Fairness discusses his theory of Justice.
• The first principle guarantees everyone's civil liberties, while the second principle is similar to positive discrimination.
• Rawls attempts to demonstrate how such ideas would be generally accepted and so proceeds towards broader ethical questions.
• The Veil of Ignorance is a method for determining the fundamental institutions and structures of a just society.
• He envisions ourselves in a scenario prior to the emergence of any particular civilization which is termed the original position.
• The essential feature of this situation is that no one knows his place in society, his class position or social status, nor does anyone know his fortune in the distribution of natural assets and abilities, his intelligence, strength, and the like.

Thus, Parties know their conception of good does not imply John Rawls's concept of the veil of ignorance. 

Additional Information

• John Rawls regards justice as the most important virtue of a community or social system.
• In his notion of distributive justice, he combined liberty and equality (liberal egalitarian).

Gabriel Almond's political system evolved in three stages.

Key Points

• Almond argues that the "system is an inclusive concept which covers all of the patterned actions relevant to the making decisions."
• For him, System meant wholeness, interactions among units inside the totality, and stability in these interactions, which he called changing equilibrium.
• He established the concept of political culture which is embedded in a specific pattern of political action orientations.
• The state and its legal apparatus were replaced by the concept of a political system.
• The structure replaced institutions, and power was replaced by roles.
• According to Almond, all political systems have four characteristics:
• All political systems have structures.
• The same political functions are performed in all political systems.
• All political structures are multifunctional.
• AlI political systems are mixed in the cultural sense.

Thus, Statement I and Statement IV are correct with regard to Almond's characterisation of the political system.

In the 1930s, the German biologist Ludwig Van Bertalanffy was the first to state the formulations of general systems theory. 

Key Points

• David Easton, System theory conceptual framework evolved in three phases.
• Political System (1953), represents the first phase.
• A Framework of Political Analysis and A Analysis of Political Life, both published in 1965, constitute the second and third phases, respectively.
• Easton’s input consists of demands and support.
• The demands can be excessive in quantity, political system does not allow all the demands to enter the system.
• Regulation of behaviour- public safety, control over market etc.
• Participation in the political system – right to vote, form political associations.
• For allocation of goods and services such as wages and working conditions, education, health  etc
• Communication and information regarding policies of the government.

Thus, David Easton had identified four kinds of inputs in terms of demands which are Regulation of behaviour, Participation in the political system, Allocation of goods and services, Communication and information.

Additional Information

• In his work Political System (1953), David Easton was the first to consider examining politics from the perspective of system analysis.
• According to Easton, a political system is a social interaction in which authoritative and binding value allocations are created and implemented.
• He focused on intra-system behaviour using the political system as a unit of analysis.

Thomas Paine was a controversialist, pamphleteer, and international revolutionary.

Key Points

• His work Common Sense (1776) was a key text to mobilise the American freedom fighter against the United Kingdom.
• Rights of Man (1791–2) was the most widely read pamphlet in the movement for reform in Britain in the 1790s and for the first decades of the nineteenth century.
• He was a key figure in the emergence of claims for the state's responsibilities.
• In his pamphlet Rights of Man, articulated that "A constitution is not the act of a government, but of a people constituting a government, and a government without a constitution is power without a right.".

Thus, Thomas Paine said, "A Government without a Constitution is a power without right". 

Additional Information

• Paine's support for natural rights, his criticism of mixed governance and supported republicanism.
• Paine's Dissertations on Government, a booklet produced in 1786 deals with Sovereignty and its limits.

The Federal Council is a seven-member executive council that serves as the collective head of state and government of Switzerland. 

Key Points

• It is the executive body of the Swiss Confederation's federal government.
• Federal Councillors, once elected for a four-year term, cannot be impeached or voted out of office by a motion of no confidence.
• According to the Constitution, the vice president of the United States is the president of the Senate.
• The vice-President as speaker presides over the joint sessions of the American Congress over the counting of electoral votes.
• Under* Article 87 of the constitution,*** the President may address both Houses of Parliament on two occasions.
• When the reconstituted lower house meets for the first time following each general election and the President of India addresses both the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha at the start of the First Session.
• The Prime Minister of Britain also controls the Civil Service and government agencies' operations and appoints government officials in the House of Commons.

Thus, Vice-President presides over the joint sessions of the American Congress and the Prime Minister of Britain oversees the operation of the Civil Services and Government Agencies are the correct statements.

One of the first and most important Supreme Court cases on federal power is McCulloch v. Maryland (1819).

Key Points

• Thomas Jefferson, the new government had to deal with after the United States was founded as the nation's debt accrued during the Revolutionary War.
• Mcculloch vs. Maryland case is about the secretary of the treasury Alexander Hamilton devised a scheme to establish the Bank of the United States as a national bank to absorb state debts incurred during the war and to establish a national currency.
• The Court was attempting to answer two questions in McCulloch v. Maryland:
• Was Congress authorized by the Constitution to form the bank?
• Is Maryland law an illegal encroachment on congressional authority?
• McCulloch versus Maryland, Chief Justice John Marshall upheld the constitutional notion of Congress's implied powers.
• It was ruled that Congress possessed not only the specific powers provided by the constitution but also all appropriate authority to carry out those functions.
• It established that the United States has a strong central government and that federal law has power over state law was established and reaffirmed.

Thus, the Supremacy of the Federal Government over the States was principle established for the first time by the US Supreme Court in deciding McCulloch vs. Maryland Case.

The correct answer is The political system level, The process level, The policy level

Explanation:

Political culture, a term popular in political science, refers to the set of attitudes, beliefs, and sentiments that give order and meaning to a political process and which provide the underlying assumptions and rules that govern behavior in the political system. It encompasses both the political ideals and the operating norms of a polity. Political culture is an important concept because it helps explain why and how societies and political systems work the way they do.

According to Lawrence Powell and similar scholars, a nation's political culture can be mapped at three interconnected levels: the political system level, the process level, and the policy level. Although these levels are distinct, they influence and interact with each other in complex ways.

Key Points 

1. The Political System Level

At the political system level, analysis focuses on the general structure and functions of the government and the political system as a whole. This includes the constitution, the formal organization of the government, the division of powers (such as federalism or centralization), and the overarching principles that guide the political system (such as democracy, authoritarianism, liberalism, etc.). This level examines how a nation's political framework is designed and the broad ideologies that underpin it, affecting citizens' general attitudes toward authority, the nation-state, and the concept of citizenship.Key Points:

• Structure and functions of government
• Constitutional principles and organization
• Division of powers and overarching ideologies

2. The Process Level

The process level delves into the behaviors, rituals, and activities associated with politics, including how political decisions are made and how power is exercised and contested. This includes the functioning of political parties, elections, legislative procedures, and other mechanisms of democratic participation. It also covers less formal aspects, such as political communication, public opinion, protests, and lobbying. At this level, the focus is on how individuals, groups, and institutions engage with the political system to affect change, maintain the status quo, or negotiate their interests.

Key Points:

• Behaviors and rituals in the political sphere
• Mechanisms of democratic participation and representation
• Engagement of individuals, groups, and institutions with the political system

3. The Policy Level

At the policy level, the focus shifts to the outcomes of the political process, specifically the decisions made and the policies implemented. This level analyzes how the government addresses social issues, economic challenges, and international relations. It looks at policy priorities, the allocation of resources, and the impact of these policies on society. The policy level is crucial for understanding the tangible effects of political systems and processes on the lives of citizens and the nation's position in the world.

Key Points:

• Government decisions and policy implementation
• Addressing social, economic, and international challenges
• Impact of policies on society and the nation's position globally

 Additional Information

Understanding a nation's political culture at these three levels offers a multifaceted view of how its political system operates and evolves. It highlights the complexity of political life, showing that political outcomes are not solely determined by institutions and laws but also by the processes and behaviors of actors within the system and the broader societal values and expectations. This tripartite model helps scholars, policymakers, and citizens alike to analyze and compare political cultures across different nations and time periods, providing insights into the dynamics of change and stability in political systems.

The term Political development entered the lexicon of political science newly established Asian and African states began devising development plans for their people's socio-economic well-being in the 1950s. 

Key Points

• It entails systematic change, changes to the political system's functioning that are quite fundamental.
• The concept of development was founded on economic principles.
• ​Almond and Powell define it as, ” the increased differentiation and specialisation of political structures and the increased secularisation of political culture”.
• Lucian w. Pye, a notable contributor to the idea of political development, defined the several crises that the political growth process is supposed to overcome.
• These crises are: 
• ​Identity crises
• Legitimacy crises
• Penetration crises
• Participation crises
• Integration crises
• Distribution crises.

Thus, Lucian Pye had identified 'Crises' that new States in the Third World face in achieving political development which are Identity, Legitimacy, Penetration, Participation, Integration and Distribution. 

Additional InformationSome major of Lucian Pye are mentioned in Table: 

Legislature is a branch of a government. 

Key Points Assertion (A): Most legislatures today do not make laws, rather they formally approve laws made elsewhere.

• Legislative organs are bodies that represent the will of the people and convey it to the will of the state in the form of laws.
• Legislators make laws, but in today's world, the executive branch of government makes the majority of them.
• The government merely presents laws to parliament for approval.

Thus,  Assertion (A) is true.

Reason (R): Legislature is the law-making body of the State.

• A legislature is a legislative body that has the power to enact laws for a political entity such as a state.
• 'Parliament' and 'legislature' are frequently interchanged.
• But both are different concepts Parliament can comprise different offices whereas the legislature is a single organ of the government.

So, Reason (R) is true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).

Therefore, Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).

Political theory is the study of political ideas and principles such as justice, power, and democracy that we employ to define, comprehend, and evaluate political actions and institutions.

Key Points

• It also considers what a better political world would look like and how to achieve it.
• Political theory frequently asks and tries to answer problems like what justice needs from citizens and the state what are fundamental rights and liberties, and so on.
• Political theory is essential to the process of organizing the state and society, which is necessary to maximize harmony and prosperity as well as to provide the circumstances for individual self-realization.
• In the second half of the twentieth century, several scholars predicated its demise.
• David Easton his paper The Decline of Modern Political Theory, argues 

"the ever-increasing significance of historicism is a primary cause of the demise of political theory."

• In addition to historicism, Easton claims that hyper-factualism and moral theory's dominance contributed to the demise of political theory.

​Thus, Historicism, Positivism, Moral relativism and Hyperfactualism are  factors are responsible* for the decline of political theory.*** 

Additional Information

• Alfred Cobban in his work The Decline of Political Theory and Dante Germino in paper The Revival of Political Theory expanded on this criticism claims that the demise of political theory was due to an excessive reliance on facts, a failure to correlate facts with theory, and ideological reductionism.
• Such criticism accelerated methodological refinement and the development of constructive theories.

The correct answer is '(i),(ii), (iii) and (iv)'.

Key Points

For Aristotle, the qualifications for Athenian citizenship focused on specific social, legal, and political criteria rather than merely residency, procedural rights, or heritage without active civic engagement. Let’s analyze each option to identify which does not necessarily qualify for citizenship:

(i) Residence in a particular place: While being physically present in Athens could be relevant, mere residency without engagement in civic life or meeting other criteria does not automatically confer citizenship.

(ii) The right of suing and being sued: This legal privilege might be extended to non-citizens in some cases for procedural purposes, so it alone does not confer Athenian citizenship.

(iii) Those who are disenfranchised or exiled: Being exiled or stripped of voting rights excludes individuals from active participation in the civic body, which is central to Aristotle’s concept of citizenship.

(iv) Descent from a citizen: This was not an absolute condition though a key criterion, as Athenian citizenship was often granted through lineage, requiring descent from two citizen parents for eligibility. It was subject to certain conditions like senior citizens, women, and children who were not capable of participating in state affairs because of their physical conditions and mental abilities.

​M.N. Roy was born in 1887 in Bengal. He is the only person who has worked with Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin. 

Key Points

• He was a patriot and revolutionary in the first phase, which lasted until 1919.
• Roy became a communist in the second phase, and a radical humanist in the third and final phase.
• Roy in his essay New Humanism, Reason Romanticism, and Revolution, discussed New Humanism, Reason Romanticism, and Revolution.
• The Renaissance gave birth to scientific or radical humanism.
• It is revolutionary because it rejects Marxism.
• It differs from liberalism and Vedantic philosophy, radical humanism is also known as New Humanism.
• Scientific integral humanism is sometimes known as radical humanism.
• Roy has a scientific temperament and wants to use scientific techniques to transform society.

Thus, M.N. Roy's Integral Scientific Humanism is also known as New Humanism. 

Additional Information

• Basic Element of Radical Humanism: 
• ​Liberty
• Morality
• Scientific Temperament
• Decentralize Government
• Plural Society
• Party less democracy

Marx and Engels established a scientific methodology for interpreting history is Dialectical materialism. 

Key Points

• Marx has substantially borrowed this concept from the German philosopher Hegel.
• The application of dialectical materialism principles to the development of society is known as historical materialism.
• Historical materialism is an economic view of history, according to which economic conditions determine all historical mass events.
• According to this viewpoint, historical changes are the result of changes in the method of production, implying that economic changes have a significant impact on the trajectory of future history.
• It treats Society as a natural institution where production activities occur and Production is the most important of all human activities.
• Max's argument is based on the fundamental truth that man's survival is dependent on his ability to produce material goods.
• Marx argued Religion is the opium of the people.

Therefore, features of Marx's dialectical materialism are all the mass phenomena of history are determined by economic conditions, production is the most important of all human activities, men in association produce more than men in isolation and religion is the opium of the people.

Additional Information

• Karl Marx was born to a wealthy lawyer Heinrich Marx and his wife Henriette Pressburg in Trier, modern-day Germany which was then part of the Kingdom of Prussia.
• He was schooled by his father until 1830 when he enrolled in the local school.
• Marx was sent to the University of Berlin after getting embroiled in several controversies there.

Gandhiji was very critical of the modern state and describe it as a symbol of concentrated violence.

Key Points Assertion (A): For Gandhiji, enlightened anarchy refers to a form of society which functions without the coercive power of the State.

• The state uses coercion or violent tactics indiscriminately to ensure citizens' allegiance.
• Gandhi equated the state with violence or coercion.
• Gandhi wishes for a society without the state.
• In enlightened anarchy, everyone is their own sovereign, ruling without interfering with others. As there would be no state, there would be no political power.
• Everyone is his own ruler in such a state and the state doesn't use coercive power.

​So,  Assertion (A) s true.

Reason (R): Individuals have full control of themselves.

• The autonomy of the Individuals completes Gandhi's 'Swaraj' sketch.
• Individuals should be self-governing and carriers of moral standards for self-evaluation was a novel concept.
• According to Gandhi, no representation is required if national life gets so flawless that it self-regulates.
• Such self-sufficient individuals were also crucial to his Swaraj concept.

Thus, Reason  (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Therefore, Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, also known as Babasaheb Ambedkar, was a key figure in the development of the Indian Constitution.

Key Points

• He was an Indian politician, philosopher, writer, economist, an academic, and social reformer who dedicated his life to ending untouchability and other forms of social inequity.
• He was born on April 14, 1891, in the Hindu Mahar Caste of Madhya Pradesh.
• There are a total of 20 major works and some of his major works are mentioned in the table:

Thus, Ambedkar's writings in the correct order is  Annihilation of Caste (1936)⇒  Who Were the Shudras? (1948)⇒  The Untouchables (1948)⇒ The Buddha and his Dhamma (1957).

Hegel's theory of the state is his most important contribution to political philosophy.

Key Points

• State theory is based on the axiom that "what is rational is real, and what is real is rational."
• Hegel's theory of the state is built on the essential premise of Reason, Spirit, or the Absolute Idea gradually emerging through a dialectical process.
• A state is a super-organism in which no individual has preferences that are distinct from those of the larger unit.
• Hegel's conception of the state is a goal in itself, not a means to an end.
• He argued that "all the worth which tile human being I possesses-all spiritual reality-he possesses only through the State".
• For him, The State is the Divine Idea as it exists on earth.
• The state is divine, people have no rights outside of or against the state because the state is the fountain of rights.

Thus, features of Hegel's Theory of State are state is a super-organism that is following the march of God on Earth,  it is an end in itself and unchecked by any moral law as it itself is the creator of morality.

Additional Information

• Hegel was a product of German Idealism, which drew influence from Rousseau and Kant and combined it with a popular desire for German unification, resulting in the birth of European nation-states.
• Major writing of Hegel
• The Phenomenology of Spirit (1807).
• Science of Logic (1811-12).
• Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1817)
• Philosophy of Right (1820)
• Philosophy of History(1837)

Political concepts are a set of concepts essential to any serious reflection on political life. 

Key Points 

Therefore, (a) - (iii), (b) - (iv), (c) - (ii), (d) - (i) is correct matching.

Key Points 

Therefore, (a) - (ii), (b) - (i), (c) - (iv), (d) - (iii) is correct matching.

Utilitarianism is a moral theory in which the primary human ideal is welfare.

Key Points

Assertion (A): Carlyle called Bentham's utilitarian doctrine as 'Pig philosophy'.

• Utilitarianism is a theory regarding the rightness of actions and it is the belief that given a set of options the best action is the one that improves the wellbeing of humans or sentient creatures.
• The most notable creators and proponents of utilitarianism are  Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, and Henry Sidgwick.
• Thomas Carlyle criticised Bentham's utilitarianism as pig philosophy.

​Thus, Assertion (A) is true. 

Reason (R): To him, happiness is much more than pleasure.

• ​Thomas Carlyle had called Bentham’s utilitarianism a philosophy fit for swine.
• He argued, that it encouraged people to live like pigs, pursuing pleasure by any means possible.
• For him, this type of hedonism is unsatisfactory and argued that happiness is far more than pleasure.

Thus, Reason (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Therefore, Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Civil society is referred as economic interactions, family and kinship systems, religious institutions, cultural organizations, and other facets of human existence that are outside the scope of political power or the state and government. 

Key Points

• It is an analytical concept, civil society does not exist without political power and vice versa.
• Liberals have used the divide between state and civil society to weaken the absolutist state since the seventeenth century.
• The concept of civil society is basically a liberal creation but the biggest disputes over its appropriate definition and importance have occurred within Marxism.
• According to Gramsci, Civil society belongs to the superstructural sphere rather than the structural sphere.
• Two major superstructural levels: Civil society, which is the ensemble of organisms often referred to as private and Political society or the State.
• Gramsci derived the phrases civil society and political society from Hegel, whom he had studied whereas Marx and Engels did not give such importance to superstructure.

Thus,  the State cannot be understood without a thorough understanding of the Civil Society, it is in the Civil Society that the struggle for hegemony takes place and he derived the terms Civil Society and Political Society from Hegel are correct statements regarding Gramsci on Civil Society. 

Additional Information

• Antonio Gramsci was an Italian philosopher and politician who founded the Italian Communist Party and whose ideas substantially influenced Italian communism.
• He founded the Italian Communist Party.
• In the mid-twentieth century, extracts from Gramsci's jail writings were published for the first time which is known as Quaderni del carcere (Prison Notebooks) appeared in 1975.

According to Dicey, Federalism means the distribution of the force of the state among a number of coordinate bodies each originating in and controlled by the constitution. 

Key Points Assertion (A): The essence of federalism lies not in the institutional or constitutional structure but in the society itself.

• The word federation comes from the Latin word foedus, which means treaty or agreement
• According to Livingstone, The essence of federalism lies not in the institutional or constitutional structure but in the society itself.
• Indian federalism is not the consequence of any treaty or agreement.

So, Assertion (A) is true.

Reason (R): Coalition governments are the most suitable form of government in a heterogeneous society.

• Two or more political parties work together to form a coalition government.
• Coalition politics is a collaborative, cooperative effort in which a coalition of political parties exercises political power, i.e., forms a government to make binding choices for the entire society.
• A society in transition creates ideal conditions for forming a coalition.
• Politics reflects the competing social, cultural, economic, and historical factors.

Thus, Reason (R) is true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).

Therefore, Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).

The first ten amendments of the United States Constitution are known as the Bill of Rights.

Key Points

• The first ten amendments to the United States Constitution were enacted as a unified unit on December 15, 1791.
• It represents a collection of mutually reinforcing guarantees of individual rights and limitations on federal and state governments.

Thus, The Bill of Rights (first ten amendments) in America includes the Right to assembly, the Right to bear arms, the Right to a speedy trial, Right to security against unreasonable searches.

Additional Information

• Right to social security allowance was added to American Consitution through the Social Security Act of 1935.

The 'three-dimensional' theory of power proposed by Steven Lukes provides an empirical, process-oriented, and discourse-focused paradigm. 

Key Points

• Steven Lukes in his book Power: A Radical View, conceptualize power as three faces of political power.
• Lukes explains three different forms of power in our political reality
• ​Decision-making: The process by which an actor such as an individual or a political organization evaluates their circumstances and decides on a course of action.
• Agenda setting: Controlling the terms of dialogue is the second face of power, for example, so that the conversation participants are unable to address issues that are within their benefit.
• Thought control: Preventing conflict from emerging in the first place is the most effective and insidious form of power.

Thus, Lukes' description of three forms of power does not include Capability enhancement.

Political socialization is how people acquire their political attitudes, beliefs, ideas, and behaviours.

Key Points

• Political socialization is a study of the developmental processes through which people of all ages including adolescents acquire political cognition, attitudes, and behaviours.
• It includes how people acquire values and beliefs that determine their political stance and ideology.
• Individuals learn and frequently internalize a political lens framing their perceptions of how power is arranged and how the world around them is organized.
• Their perceptions shape and define individuals' definitions of who they are and how they should behave in the political and economic institutions in which they live.
• ​Agents of political socialization are organisations that play an important role in the context of political socialization.
• These are they:
• Family
• Peer Group
• Educational Institution
• Political Parties
• Mass Media
• Professional Organization
• Religious Organization

​Thus, The primary agents of political socialisation are Family and School

Additional Information

Arendt Lijphart is a political scientist who specializes in comparative politics, elections and voting methods, democratic institutions, and ethnicity and politics.

Key Points

• Lijphart is the foremost expert on consociationalism.
• His major works are The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands (1968), Comparative Politics and the Comparative Method (1971), Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (1977), Democracy in Plural Societies (1977), Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian & Consensus Government in Twenty-one Countries (1984),  Patterns of Democracy (1999).
• According to Lijphart, parties can be Consensual party system, Conflictual party system and Accommodative party system
• Consensual party system: under this system decisions or policy-making are based on the consensus among the different parties.
• Conflictual party system: parties are antagonists to each other.
• Accommodative party system: under this different parties tries to accommodate each other for policy making or decision making.

Thus, the Consensual party system, Conflictual party system and Accommodative party system are the kinds of party systems described by Arendt Lijphart.

There are three phases of the Indian National Movement: moderate, extremist, and Gandhian.

Key Points

• The moderate phase is dominated by Zamindars, government servants etc.
• The masses were not involved in the moderate ways of petition and prayer.
• During the extremist phase, public became even more involved and the Swadeshi movement, Ganesh Utsav and Home Rule Movements are major movements.
• The Gandhian era is sometimes referred to as India's mass nationalism period.
• According to Brown, before the arrival of Gandhi, the nationalism movement in India was mainly characterised as "politics of studied restrictions".
• Ravinder Kumar in his Essays on Gandhian Politics, observe that a movement represents the classes rather than the masses.

​Thus, Ravinder Kumar described the nationalist movement before the arrival of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi as "a movement representing the classes" as opposed to the masses.

Additional Information

• Prior to the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi, the nationalism movement was described by Judith Brown as politics of calculated constraints.
• According to Judith M. Brown, Gandhi's change from the periphery to dedicated participation in politics was the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

The Montagu-Chelmsford (or Mont-Ford) Reforms, proposed by Secretary of State Edwin Montagu and Viceroy Lord Chelmsford in 1918, led to the passage of the Government of India Act of 1919.

Key Points

• The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms were enacted in 1921.

​​Features of the Government of India Act of 1919

• This Act's goal was to gradually introduce responsible government in India.
• At the provincial level diarchy was instituted through this act.
• The Government of India Act of 1919 established a system for categorizing central and provincial subjects.
• The Act preserved income tax as a revenue stream for the federal government.
• The Viceroy's consent was required for a bill to be considered passed by the legislature.
• This Act made the central legislature bicameral.
• A Public Service Commission was to be established under the Act.
• Sikhs, Europeans, and Anglo-Indians were included in the communal representation.
• The financial powers of the central legislature were also very much limited.
• Legislative Assembly to have an elected majority where 104 were elected and 41 were nominated for three terms.

***​Thus, Legislative Council enabled to move resolutions on Budget was *not a feature of the Government of India Act of 1919.

The correct answer is option 3.

Key Points

• **Statement

(i) is Correct ✅**

• The Fundamental Duties are listed in Article 51A (Part IVA) of the Indian Constitution.
• **Statement

(ii) is Correct ✅**

• The 42^nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 added Fundamental Duties to the Constitution based on the Soviet model. Initially, 10 Fundamental Duties were listed.
• **Statement

(iii) is Incorrect ❌**

• Fundamental Duties apply only to Indian citizens, not to every person living in India (i.e., they do not apply to foreigners).
• **Statement

(iv) is Incorrect ❌**

• The 86^th Constitutional Amendment Act was enacted in 2002, not 2006.
• It added the 11^th Fundamental Duty, which mandates that parents or guardians provide opportunities for education to children aged 6–14 years.

The US Senate is the upper chamber of the US Congress, while the US House of Representatives is the lower chamber.

Key Points

• All revenue bills must originate in the House of Representatives but Senate may offer or concur with and amend the revenue bills.
• According to the American constitution under article I Section 7, All bills for producing revenue must originate in the House of Representatives.
• Power of the Senate on revenue bills concerns they can only propose or concur with changes.
• In the UK constitution, the legislative and the executive have a close relationship.
• Walter Bagehot describes the relationship as the "almost full fusion" of the roles.
• ​The United States Constitution does not allow for the dissolution of Congress by the  American President.

​Thus, American Senate has the power to amend revenue bills and the House of Representatives has the special power to originate revenue bills that are correct statements.

Additional Information

• Bills, resolutions, amendments, motions, nominations, and treaties are all voted on in the Senate.
• Senators can vote by roll call vote, voice vote, or unanimous consent.

Samuel P. Huntington defines Political Development as,” the process by which organisations and procedures acquire values and stability”.

Key Points

Therefore, (a) - (ii), (b) - (i), (c) - (iv), (d) - (iii) is correct machting.

Articles 153 to 162 of the Indian Constitution describe the Governor's appointment, powers, and everything else pertaining to the position of Governor.

Key Points

• Part VI of the Indian constitution provides for government appointment and authority.
• According to Article 153, envision there should be the post of governor at the state.
• Article 155, deals with the appointment of Governor.
• The Governor has similar responsibilities as the President but for the State.
• The governor serves in two capacities: as the state's constitutional leader and as a representation.
• He is a part of the Indian polity's federal system and serves as a link between the federal and state administrations.
• After the Seventh Amendment Act of 1956, Governors of two or more states can be appointed by the same individual or Lt. Governor of the Union Territory.

​Thus, the Seventh Amendment Act of1956 amendment of the Indian constitution can the same person be appointed as Governor of one or more States or Lt. Governor of the Union Territory.

Additional InformationArticle related to Governor in the Indian Constitution. 

Fundamental Rights are human rights granted to Indian citizens. The DPSP are ideals that the government should keep in mind while creating policies and regulations.

Note: Any law made to implement the Directives mentioned in Part IV of the Constitution would be immune from unconstitutionality on the ground of violation of Fundamental Rights conferred by Articles 14 and 19 is true. But answer is given according to the official answer key

Key Points

• The Fundamental Rights guaranteed to the Indian people are included in Part 3 of the Indian Constitution.
• Fundamental Rights are addressed in Articles 12-35 of the Indian Constitution.
• Part 4 of the Indian Constitution contains Directive Principles.
• Articles 36 to 51 of the Indian Constitution deal with DPSP.
• The Fundamental Rights improve the welfare of each and every citizen.
• Directive Principles are used to promote the well-being of the entire community.
• Directive Principles are not justiciable because courts cannot enforce them if they are broken.
• Fundamental Rights are justiciable because they can be lawfully enforced by courts if they are violated.
• The Directive Principles require to be implemented by legislation.
• Fundamental Rights are frequently viewed as limits placed on the government.
• The DPSP is not legally enforceable or justiciable.
• The DPSP enumerates all of the ideals that the government should adhere to and consider while creating policies and implementing legislation for the country.

Thus, The Fundamental Rights constitute limitations upon State action, the Directive Principles instruct the State to do certain things and the Directive Principle is not enforceable in the courts and the Directive Principles require to be implemented by legislation are correct statements.

Political culture is the transmission of culture into political action.

Key Points

• It is vital to understand the political culture of a country in order to comprehend its political system.
• The Political System's means and ends are Political Socialisation and Political Culture.
• People's attitudes, beliefs, values, and behavior toward the political system make up political culture.
• According to Almond and Powell, “Political Culture consists of attitudes, values and skills which are current in entire population and those propensity and pattern which may be found in separate parts of the society.”
• Almond defines Political Culture as a set of attitudes, beliefs, notions, faith, and understanding of the political system, political issues, political ideology and political characters.
• The variables of political culture suggested by S.E. Finer are the following: 
• ​Mature political culture
• Developed political culture
• Low political culture

​Thus, Mature political culture, Developed political culture and Low political culture are the variables of political culture suggested by S.E. Finer.**

Additional Information

• Almond presents a tripartite division of political culture: 
• ​Parochial political culture
• Subject political culture
• Participant political culture

Article 246 of the constitution's seventh schedule deals with the division of powers between the Union and the States.

Key Points

• The List is divided into Union List, State List and Concurrent List.
• The Union list started off with 97 subjects and has since expanded to 100.
• There used to be 66 subjects on the State list, but today there are just 61.
• There used to be 47 subjects in the Concurrent list but now there are 52.
• The 42^nd Amendment Act of 1976 moved the following five subjects from the State List to the Concurrent List:
• ​Educations
• Forests
• Wild animal and bird protection
• Weights and measures
• Administration of justice, constitution and organisation of all courts except the Supreme Court and the High Courts.

Thus, the 42^nd Constitutional Amendment was 'Forest and Protection of Wild Animals' shifted from State to Concurrent list.

Additional Information

• Article 249 empowers Parliament to legislate in the national interest on any issue listed in the State List.
• The State legislatures are the only ones who can make legislation on the subjects included in the Indian Constitution's State List.

In social and political science, a revolution is a massive, abrupt, and usually violent change in government and related associations and structures.

Key Points

Therefore, (a) - (iv) , (b) - (i), (c) - (ii), (d) - (iii) is correct matching.

Elite theory is a state theory that aims to define and explain power dynamics in current society in political science.

Key Points

• In political science, power is how it is distributed in communities is an important field of study.
• A comprehensive examination of political systems, both democracies and dictatorships, reveals significant differences.
• The major theories are the Elite and Pluralist theories and the elitists believe that there is little difference.
• The elitist theory has proponents: Italy's Vilfredo Pareto and Gaetano Mosca, Germany's Robert Michels and American sociologist C. Wright Mills.
• Pareto in his book The Mind and Society (1935), proposed the concept of 'Circulation of elites'.
• C. Wright Mills's work The Power Elite (1956), highlights the intertwined interests of society's military, corporate, and political leaders.
• G. Mosca, The Ruling Class (1939), emphasised the personal characteristics of the elite.
• While elitism refers to minority rule, pluralism refers to majority rule.
• It is a diversity doctrine and its basic point is that most modern forms of government are open, with various interests and parties competing for power.

Thus, G. Mosca emphasised the personal characteristics of the elite" is a correct statement with regard to theories of Elite.

Additional Information

According to Article 75 of the Indian Constitution, the President appoints the Prime Minister. 

Key Points

Thus, (a) - (iv), (b) - (i), (c) - (ii), (d) - (iii) is correct matching.

Under the Government of India Act of 1919 (Montague – Chelmsford Reforms), the positions of Speaker and Deputy Speaker were established in India in 1921. 

Key Points

• Article 93, laid down the post of Speaker in the Indian parliament.
• Article 94 deals with Vacation, Resignation and Removal provisions for the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker.
• Some of the name Speakers of the Lok Sabha are mentioned in the table:

Thus, Speakers of the Lok Sabha in chronological order: Neelam Sanjiva Reddy⇒ Shivraj Patil⇒ Manohar Joshi⇒ Shri Somnath Chatterjee.

Additional Information

• The presiding officer and highest authority of the Lok Sabha.
• The speaker is elected from among the Lok Sabha's sitting members for a five-year tenure.

The Indian government established the Sarkaria Commission in 1983 to the relationship between the centre and the states. 

Key Points

Recommendations of the Sarkaria Commission about the appointment of the Governor: 

• ​The Sarkaria Commission has proposed the following additional criterion for Governorship appointments.
• He must be nominated after discussing with the Chief Minister of the State in question.
• He ought to be well-known in some field.
• He should be a remote figure who isn't too active in local politics and should come from outside the country.
• He should be someone who has never been active in politics before, especially recently.
• He should not be removed unless there are exceptional circumstances or disciplinary action is being taken against him.
• He must be given a reasonable chance to defend himself against the grounds for his removal.
• He is not an agent of the Centre just because he completed under Article 356.
• He does so because he vows devotion to the state's constitution, laws, and people.
• He must be convinced that a serious constitutional collapse has occurred, which he must report in the public interest.
• He should be prevented from holding any constitutional position other than Governor, Vice President, or President when he leaves office.
• He should be granted reasonable post-retirement benefits.

Thus, The recommendations of the Sarkaria Commission regarding the appointment of the Governor are he should be eminent in some walks of life, he should be a detached figure and not too intimately connected with local politics of the State and he should be a person who has not taken too great a part in politics, in general, and in the recent past, in particular.

The correct answer is Only (i), (ii) and (iv) are correct

Important Points

These statements appear to be related to the duration of Panchayats in India, which are local self-government bodies in rural areas.

• **Statement

(i) is correct**.

• The term of a Panchayat in India is generally five years from the date of its being elected.
• **Statement

(ii) is also correct**.

• If a Panchayat is dissolved earlier than the end of its term, then elections must take place within six months of its dissolution.
• **Statement

(iii) is not entirely correct**.

• When a Panchayat is reconstituted after premature dissolution, it does not necessarily have a fresh term of five years.
• Instead, its term will be for the remainder of the original five-year term of the Panchayat that was dissolved prematurely.
• **Statement

(iv) is correct**.

• If a Panchayat is dissolved within six months of the end of its term, then it may not be necessary to hold elections if the remainder of the period is less than six months.
• However, if the Panchayat is dissolved earlier than six months before the end of its term, then elections must be held within six months of its dissolution, regardless of the remaining period of the term.
• Overall, the duration of Panchayats in India is generally five years, but there are some exceptions and conditions to this rule, as described in the statements above.

The Indian constitution is the supreme law of India. 

Key Points

Assertion (A): Article 1 described India as a "Union of States".

• The first part of the Indian Constitution mentioned about Union and its Territory.
• It has articles ranging from 1 to 4.
• Article 1 of the Indian Constitution, India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.

​Thus, Assertion (A) is true.

Reason (R): The term "Union of States" was used to curb sub-nationalism and strengthening the unity and integrity of the country.

• Article 1 refers to India as a Union of States rather than a Federation of States.
• India's federation is known as the Union because it is indestructible.
• Union with single citizenship to strengthen the unity and integrity of the country.
• India's federation was not constituted at the time and second Indian states do not have the ability to secede.

​Thus, Reason (R) is true

Therefore, Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Pratap Bhanu Mehta is an Indian professor who was born in 1967.

Key Points

• Part V (The Union) and Chapter 6 of the Indian constitution allow for a Supreme Court provision.
• Part V of the Constitution covered the Supreme Court's organization, independence, jurisdiction, powers, and procedures.
• In his work Public Institutions in India: Performance and Design, he criticized the Supreme Court as a deeply paradoxical institution.
• He claims that the paradox of expanding judicial power and increased corrosion is a global phenomenon.
• He further articulated that India is a case where judicial power more or less produces itself.

​Thus, Pratap B. Mehta has criticized the Supreme Court as a 'deeply paradoxical institution' because it wields immense power with limited accountability. 

Additional Information

• He observed that:
• The judiciary has gained independence from the executive and legislature as a result of these decisions but at the expense of public scrutiny.
• There much of the crisis in the Indian civil justice system can be traced to an accumulation of procedural anomalies that create huge perverse incentives for judges and lawyers.

The Government of India Act of 1935 established the Federal Court of India.

Key Points

• This court reviewed appeals from high court decisions and resolved conflicts between provinces and federal states.
• The Supreme Court of India which was established in January 1950, succeeded the Federal Court and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council after India gained independence.
• The number of Supreme Court judges was expanded by Parliament, and there are now 34 judges on the bench, including the Chief Justice of India (CJI).
• Under article 144: Civil and judicial authorities must assist the Supreme Court: In the territory of India, all civil and judicial authorities must assist the Supreme Court.

​Thus, Article 144 of the Constitution enjoins/bounds all authorities to act in the aid of the Supreme Court of India. 

Additional Information

• The Supreme Court has offered diverse interpretations of the phrase "consultation."

India is the world's largest democracy with 1.4 billion people.

Key Points Assertion (A): In India, democracy had already been granted by the elite, but the elite had monopolized power for decades.

• The colonial exploitation was criticized by nationalist leaders such as Dadabhai Naoroji, M.G. Ranade, R.C. Dutt, Jawahar Lal Nehru, etc.
• Congress was preoccupied with elite issues such as Indian representation in key government positions and legislative bodies.
• These leaders come from the upper caste and urban centre and plays important role in independence.
• Christopher Jafferlot observed that "democracy had already been granted by the elite, but the elite had monopolized power for decades."

​So,  Assertion (A) is true. 

Reason (R): The revolution is now passing through the polling booth.

• Jafferlot argued that "the revolution is now passing through the polling booth."
• It means a big number of individuals from the lower caste of society have gained power through elections.

Thus, Reason (R) is true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).

Therefore, Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).

The correct matching of the scholars with their works is (a) - (ii), (b) - (iii), (c) - (iv), (d) - (i).

Key Points 

Thus, (a) - (ii), (b) - (iii), (c) - (iv), (d) - (i) is correct machting.

Key Points 

Therefore, (a) - (iii), (b) - (i), (c) - (iv), (d) - (ii) is correct matching.

In the 1952 election for the Madras Legislative Assembly, no single party received a simple majority to form an independent government.

Key Points

• In the first assembly of legislators in March 1952, the Madras state was elected using universal adult suffrage.
• To form an independent government, no single party received a simple majority.
• After a series of re-alignments among various political parties and Independents, C. Rajagopalachari of the Indian National Congress was elected Chief Minister.
• Madras was the first state in independent India to form a government through defections and engineering splits.
• In 1953, the Telugu-speaking parts of Madras State were divided to form Andhra Pradesh.

​Thus, Madras was the first State in independent India where the government was formed after engineering splits and defections.

Additional Information

• After the division of the state, the unification of the non-Brahmin Congress faction led by K. Kamaraj.
• Kamaraj beat Rajaji's designated successor C. Subramaniam in the ensuing leadership struggle and was elected as Chief Minister.

During the 2014 Indian general election, members of the 16^th Lok Sabha were elected. 

Key Points

• 16^th Lok Sabha was held in nine phases from 7 April to 12 May 2014.
• With 282 seats out of 543, the Bharatiya Janata Party (NDA) won an absolute majority, 166 seats more than in the previous Lok Sabha.
• Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh are the states where BJP win all the Lok Sabha seats in the 16^th Lok Sabha elections.
• Its Prime Ministerial candidate, Narendra Modi, became India's 14^th Prime Minister on May 26, 2014.
• In the 16^th Lok Sabha, there was no leader of the opposition because Indian Parliament regulations require a party in the Lok Sabha to have at least 10% (55) of the total seats (545) to be deemed the opposition party.

Thus, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh are groups of States, did the BJP win all the Lok Sabha seats in the 16^th Lok Sabha elections.

Additional Information

• The Indian National Congress (of the United Progressive Alliance) received 44 seats, while the Tamil Nadu-based All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam received 37.
• Mallikarjun Kharge was elected as the Indian National Congress's Lok Sabha leader.

The first three general elections were free and fair, but after the fourth general election in 1967 conditions began to deteriorate.

Key Points 

Thus,  (a) - (iv), (b) - (iii), (c) - (i), (d) - (ii) is correct machting.

Newspapers promote democracy and election integrity, public discourse, media freedom, and media plurality, as well as disinformation and inclusiveness.

Key Points

Thus, (a) - (iii), (b) - (ii), (c) - (iv), (d) - (i) is correct machting.

Gullick was a supporter of the classical approach to administration. 

Key Points

• He was regarded as a public administration expert.
• According to Luther Gullick, public administration is that element of the science of administration that has to do with the government and it concerns itself principally with the executive branch where the government's job is done.
• Gulick is arguably best recognized for the functions of the chief executive which are represented by the acronym POSDCORB.
• POSDCORB stand for Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Co-ordinating, Reporting, and Budgeting.
• Gullick said that "Like physics or chemistry, administration is governed by principles".
• Gulick said that it was impossible to separate politics and administration at a time.

Thus, Gullick  said, "Like physics or chemistry, administration is governed by principles"

Additional Information

• Gullick identified fours basis of departmental organization: Purpose, Process, Person and Place (4p).
• Gulick supported Keynesian strategies to generate full employment after WWII.

Henri Fayol was a mining engineer given a broad theory of corporate administration known as Fayolism. 

 Key Points

• Fayol's work was one of the first comprehensive statements of a general theory of management.
• In his work General and Industrial Management (1949), he describes managerial functions.
• Henri Fayol identifies five managerial functions: 
• ​Planning: Managers must plan for the future, set strategic objectives, and ensure that future goals are met.
• Organizing: Managers must efficiently organize their employees as well as the structure and align the organization's activities.
• Command: Managers must oversee employees' everyday work and motivate them to attain company objectives.
• Coordination: Managers must synchronize the company's procedures and operations.
• Control: Managers must ensure that company actions are consistent with the organization's overall policies and goals.
• ​Henri Fayol proposed that these functions were universal and that every manager carried out these tasks on a daily basis.
• Henri Fayol in his article, What are Henri Fayol's 14 Management Principles? also defined 14 broad management and organizational concepts.

Thus, Henry Fayol's functions of administration in correct order is Planning ►Organising►  Command► Coordination► Control. 

Additional Information

• Henry Fayol's works are: 
• Industrial and General Administration(1930).
• General and Industrial Management (1949).

Development administration as projects, programs, policies, and concepts aimed at the growth of a nation, from the standpoint of socioeconomic and sociopolitical development of society. 

Key Points

• It should reject the status quo in favour of change and, more importantly, outcomes.
• It is fundamentally goal-oriented, and every development function should have a clear goal.
• The framework of resources and time to be provided for a development function must be determined through planning.
• It has a flexible approach, encouraging new and better approaches to attain goals.
• It should concentrate on planning both for and with the people.
• It is concerned with new tasks.
• It must strengthen society as a whole, rather than being focused on products or profits.

Thus, correct statements about development administration are change-oriented, dynamic and flexible and concerned with new tasks.

Additional Information

• The terms Administration of Development and Administrative Development should be used to understand the concept of Development Administration.
• The goal of development administration is to effect change through coordinated, well-organized, and well-targeted government activities.

Key Points 

Therefore, (a) - (iii), (b) - (i), (c) - (iv), (d) - (ii) is correct matching.

Key Points

Thus, (a) - (iii), (b) - (ii), (c) - (iv), (d) - (i) is correct matching.

The correct answer is Follet.

Key Points

• The principle of hierarchy (scalar principle) connects the organization's various units and levels through a continuous chain of authority.
• The delegation of authority is at the heart of this notion.
• Delegation is the transfer of authority from a superior to a subordinate for the completion of a certain task.
• It is important to note that a delegation plan is subject to the delegator's oversight and control.
• The delegator does not relinquish his ultimate authority or duty.
• M.P. Follet belive that delegation is a myth of organizational (administrative) theory.
• She pointed out that "Authority belongs to the job and stays with the job".

​Thus, Follett considered the concept of delegation as a mere myth of organisational (administrative) theory.

Additional Information

• According to Mohit Bhattacharya, a delegation scheme has four characteristics: 
• ​The superior (delegate) assigns obligations to the subordinate (delegate).
• The delegate is given authority by the delegator to make the work easier for him.
• The creation of an obligation, in which the delegate is obligated to fulfil the task.
• There will be no further delegation of the delegate's responsibility to his subordinates.

Key Points 

• Making sensible decisions within the restrictions of the knowledge we have access to and depending on our cognitive ability is referred to as bounded rationality.
• Boundedly rational people aren't 'economic supermen,' who spend their life maximizing the amount of satisfaction they can generate from every decision.
• They're satisficers or those who chose the solution that best fulfilled their requirements and goals rather than going to great efforts to ensure they'd explored all options.

Important Points 

• Neoclassical economics is reduced by bounded rationality, according to the idea of bounded rationality.
• Satisficers are a more diverse population, with fluctuating personal preferences throughout time.
• Satisficers have a hard time making consistent decisions or anticipating the consequences. They frequently make decisions based on social norms, morality, justice, affection, peer pressure, and other considerations.

Herbert Simon's decision-making model's core premise is that decision-making is at the center of an organization and you must develop it from social decision reasoning and psychology. The organization's three roles include: Impacting people's behaviors.

Scientific management is a management theory that examines and combines workflows.

Key Points

• Louis Brandeis popularized the term scientific management.
• Taylorism is the name given to scientific management after the name of Frederick Winslow Taylor.
• It was one of the first attempts to use science in process engineering and management.
• Its major goal is to increase economic efficiency, particularly worker productivity.
• Taylor coined the terms "shop management" and "process management" to describe his method.

Thus, Higher industrial efficiency is the goal of Scientific Management. 

Additional Information

• Frederick Winslow Taylor is the father of scientific management.
• Work of F. W. Taylor:  A Piece-rate System (1895), Shop management (1903), On the Art of Cutting Metals (1906), The Principles of Scientific Management (1911) and Concrete costs (1912).

The correct answer is Only (i) and (ii).

Key Points

• The Indian Constitution established a parliamentary style of government in which the Executive is held accountable for its actions to the Parliament.
• It also oversees the Executive's operations through committees such as the committee on government assurance, the committee on subordinate legislation, and the committee on petitions.
• The three financial committees established under the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in the Lok Sabha :
• Estimates Committee
• Public Accounts Committee
• Committee on Public Undertakings
• These committees look at three CAG reports the audit report on appropriation accounts, the audit report on financial accounts, and the audit report on public sector undertakings.
• It also Said CAG is a friend philosopher and guide of the Public Accounts Committee.

Thus, the Estimates Committee and Public Accounts Committee are helped by the CAG to exercise legislative control over the executive.

Additional Information

• Article 148 deals with the CAG's appointment, oath, and service conditions.
• Article 149 deals with the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India's duties and powers.
• Article 150 states that the Unions and State accounts must be kept in the form prescribed by the President on the advice of the CAG.
• According to Article 151, the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India's reports on the Union's accounts must be presented to the president, who must lay them before each House of Parliament.

De'Gournay created the term bureaucracy.

Key Points

• Bureaucracy has universalistic criteria such as Division of labour, hierarchy, unity of command, task specialisation, merit-based staffing and promotion, rules and regulations, formal communication systems etc.
• The colonial bureaucracy mostly served maintenance responsibilities, such as maintaining law and order, collecting taxes and revenue, and so on.
• Colonial bureaucracy is also known as Ruling bureaucracy.
• The colonial administration suppressed the independence movement on several occasions.
• The concept of developmental administration was not well understood at the time.
• The bureaucracy was fundamentally a policing/tax-collecting mechanism, far from being a citizen-friendly administration.
• Colonial bureaucracy has performed the Ruling of the masses.

Thus, the Ruling bureaucracy type of bureaucracy is found in colonial rule.

Additional Information

• Morstein Marx divides bureaucracy into four types:
• Guardian Bureaucracy
• Caste bureaucracy
• Patronage bureaucracy
• Merit bureaucracy

De'Gournay coined the term bureaucracy.

Key Points

• In a parliamentary democracy, bureaucracy provides stability in an often unstable polity.
• Members of Parliament have limited time to deal with administrative matters.
• Bureaucrats must also be very disciplined and follow the regulations in order to protect ethical ideals.
• Bureaucracy's contribution to governmental administration is not minor.
• It has made administration more efficient, rational, impartial, and consistent.
• Herbert Morrison said, "Bureaucracy is the price of parliamentary democracy."
• Morrison said this to highlight the merit of bureaucracy.

​Thus, Herbert Morrison said, "Bureaucracy is the price of parliamentary democracy".

Additional Information

• Max Weber described bureaucracy as an institutional approach to applying general rules to specific instances in order to make government operations fair and predictable.
• Ramsay Muir was a British historian, Liberal Party politician, and thinker who made a significant contribution to the development of liberal political philosophy in the 1920s and 1930s through his work on domestic industrial policy and his promotion of the international policy of interdependency.

​Woodrow Wilson is regarded as the father of public administration in the United States.

Key Points

• In an article titled "The Study of Administration," published in 1887, he formally recognized public administration for the first time.
• The evolution of American public administration has evolved through four eras Clerks, Civil service, Administrative management and Under siege.
• ​The majority of civil service positions are competitive which means that personnel are chosen on merit via Exam.
• Non-competitive senior leadership roles filled by career employees or political appointees are classified as the Senior executive service.
• Unclassified service, under which most appointment, compensation, and classification requirements do not apply to agencies with excepted service authorities, so they can set their own recruiting policies
• In the USA  a person enters the public service at almost any level and at almost any age under the Senior executive service.

Thus, In the USA  a person enters the public service at almost any level and at almost any age. 

Additional Information

• During the 1800s, the era of clerks, a gradual thickening of the government personnel occurred.
• Franklin D. Roosevelt's as president in 1932 ushered in a new era of administrative management.
• After the 1960s, there was a gradual pushback against his style of government administration.
• The fifth era's contours and themes will most likely be shocking and unexpected.

The Panchayati Raj System received a boost after the country gained independence.

Key Points

• Under the Article 40 of the Indian Constitution, States that the state shall take steps to create village panchayats and invest them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to allow them to function as self-governing units.
• The Government of India established several committees to evaluate the implementation of rural self-government.
• This includes the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee, Ashok Mehta Committee, G V K Rao Committee, L M Singhvi Committee, Thungon Committee, and others.
• Rajiv Gandhi as PM appoint the L M Singhvi Committee was created by the Indian government in 1986.
• Its goal of recommends methods for Revitalisation of Panchayati Raj Institutions for Democracy and Development.

Thus, L.M. Singhvi Committee was appointed on 'Revitalisation of Panchayati Raj Institutions for Democracy and Development.

Additional Information

• Balwant Rai Mehta Committee: It was established in 1957 to investigate and recommend improvements to the Community Development Program and the National Extension Service.
• Ashok Mehta Committee:   The Ashok Mehta Committee was created by the Indian government in 1977 to recommend steps to resuscitate and enhance India's ailing Panchayati Raj system.
• G.V.K. Rao Committee: The Planning Commission has established it in 1985 to review the existing Administrative Arrangements for Rural Development and Poverty Alleviation Programs.

Dual citizenship refers to being a citizen of two nations at the same time and sharing the rights and obligations of both.

Key Points

• In other words, when a person lives in one nation but is also a citizen of another, he is said to have dual citizenship.
• Dual citizens have various advantages, such as the freedom to live and work in two countries, own property in both nations, and travel freely between them.
• The potential for double taxation, the lengthy and expensive process of getting dual citizenship, and the fact that you are governed by the laws of two countries are all disadvantages of multiple citizenships.
• Dual citizenship is a difficult and often expensive process.
• Some examples of countries that provide dual citizenship such as Sweden Switzerland, Thailand, Israel, New Zealand,  Somalia, Venezuela etc.

Thus, Switzerland and U.S.A countries have dual citizenship - National citizenship and State citizenship. 

Additional Information

• In the USA, National citizenship denotes citizenship in the entire country whereas state citizenship denotes a relationship between a person and a certain state and is often limited to domestic affairs.
• Swiss Citizenship Law provides citizenship on three levels at Swiss Confederation, canton, and municipality.

Article 148 of the Indian Constitution establishes the independent office of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India.

Key Points Assertion (A): The salary and conditions of service of the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India cannot be varied to his/her disadvantages after his/her appointment.

• He is the head of the Indian Audit and Accounts Department, as well as the keeper of the national purse.
• After his appointment, his salary and other service conditions cannot be changed to his detriment.
• The office of the CAG's administrative expenses, including all salaries, allowances, and pensions are charged to the Consolidated Fund of India which is not subject to vote.

​So, (A) is true.

Reason (R): The office of the CAG is a constitutional office.

• Article 148 of the Indian Constitution establishes the independent office of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India.
• Article 149 deals with the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India's duties and powers.
• The President appoints the CAG by warrant under his hand and seal.
• The Constitution contains many measures that protect CAG's independence.

Thus, Reason (R) is true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Therefore, Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Under Article 148 deals with provisions related to the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.

Key Points

• It provides that the President shall appoint a Comptroller and Auditor-General of India, who shall be appointed by warrant under his hand and seal by the President.
• Article 149 of the Constitution gives power to Parliament to define the CAG's responsibilities and powers with respect to the Union's and States' accounts as well as any other authority or entity.
• CAG reports ensuring that the executive is accountable to Parliament in the area of financial administration.
• The government of India invites Dean Paul H. Appleby as a consultant.
• He published two reports on In his two reports on Public Administration in India (1953) and Reexamination of India's Administrative System (1956).
• Paul H. Appleby criticizes CAG's position and questioned its significance and also suggested the abolition of the office.

Thus, Paul Appleby suggested the abolition of the office of the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.

Additional Information

• Paul H. Appleby is the father of Indian Public Administration.
• Appleby Report (1953) recommends the established O and M method in Indian administration.

Ethics is defined as the process by which we identify right and wrong and act on what we believe to be rights or a set or system of universally applied moral principles. 

Key Points

• ​Administrative ethics refers to the civil service's professional code of ethics.
• It is in the form of the moral fibre of civil servants, control the conduct and behaviour of various kinds of civil servants, and establishes game rules Civil officials are required to set high moral standards.
• The factors hinder the observance of administrative ethics by the civil servants: 
• ​​Corruption
• Bribery
• Nepotism
• Lawlessness
• Political influence
• Favouritism
• Indifferentism
• Officiousness
• Departmentalism
• External pressures

​Thus, Indifferentism and Officiousness are factors that hinder the observance of administrative ethics by the civil servants. 

Additional Information

• Administrative ethics elements or Components  of the ethics:
• Integrity Honesty
• Efficiency Neutrality
• Anonymity
• Impartiality
• Secrecy Fairness
• Sincerity Humbleness Loyalty to the nation Non-partisan attitude
• Devotion to the duty Non-corruptive Sense of public good

United Grading Structure is a system in which all civil service jobs are classified into categories, with all jobs requiring similar qualifications and having similar challenges and duties falling into the same category.

Key Points

• All civil service positions are given to one of many pay scales and each representing a grade.
• These grades can be separated into junior, middle, and senior levels.
• The advancement of an established service officer through the grades and levels is based on demonstrated performance.
• The Fulton Committee on the Home Civil Service from 1966 to 1968.
• In 1968, the Lord Fulton Committee suggested that the British government service use the "United Grading Structure."
• According to Fulton, Current administrators were not professional enough and lacked managerial abilities in particular.
• He advocated for a consistent grading system for all levels of government employees, as well as a Civil Service College and a central policy planning unit.

​Thus, Fulton Committee recommended the "United Grading Structure" for the British Civil Service.

Additional Information

• Some of the benefits of a unified grading structure: 
• ​an automatic upward movement in a time scale will be checked
• each officer will have to demonstrate positive merit to merit promotion from one grade to the next
• a more conscious assessment of each officer's work will become a practical necessity with concomitant benefits
• it will provide sufficient scope for genuine merit to earn accelerated promotion

The Election Commission of India is an independent constitutional body charged with overseeing India's federal and state election systems.

Key Points Assertion (A): An Election Commissioner cannot be removed from office except on the recommendation of the Chief Election Commissioner of India.

• Under Article 324, all power related to elections for the Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, State Legislative Assemblies, and the President and Vice President of India is vested in ECI.
• The Election Commission will be made up of the chief election commissioner and as many other election commissioners as the President deems necessary.
• They have the option to resign at any moment or be removed before the end of their term.
• The Chief Election Commissioner can be removed from his position in the same way and for the same reasons as a Supreme Court judge.
• Any other election commissioner or regional commissioner can only be removed from office if the chief election commissioner recommends it.

​Thus,  Assertion (A) is true. 

Reason (R): He/She is appointed on the recommendation of the Chief Election Commissioner.

• Article 324 deals with the conditions of service and tenure of office for Election Commissioners and Regional Commissioners by rule.
• The Election Commissioner or Regional Commissioner may not be removed from office unless the Chief Election Commissioner recommends it.
• It is mentioned in the Constitution under which Chief Election Commissioner derived the power related to other election commissioners.

​So, Reason (R) is False. 

Therefore, (A) is true, but (R) is false.

Key Points

Therefore, (a) - (iii), (b) - (iv), (c) - (i), (d) - (ii) is correct matching.