UGC NET Paper-2: History July 2018 (Previous Year Paper)

• The book ''Pandyan Kingdom'' is written by K. A.  Nilakanta Sastri.
• The Pandyan dynasty was an ancient Tamil dynasty of South India, one of the three Tamil dynasties, the other two being the Chola and the Chera
• The kings of the three dynasties were referred to as the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam.
• Nilakanta Sastri was born in a poor Brahmin family in Kallidaikurichi near Tirunelveli, on August 12, 1892.
• He completed his college education at Madras Christian College.
• Sastri obtained his MA by coming first in the Madras Presidency.

Additional Information

• He joined the Hindu College as a lecturer in 1913 where he taught till 1918.
• He served as Professor of History, Banaras Hindu University from 1918 to 1920.
• After that, he became the Principal of the (then) newly started Arts College of Annamalai University.

Akbar-

• Akbar the eldest son of Humayun, ascended the throne under the title of Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar Badshah Ghazi at the young age of 14 at Kalanaur, Punjab and his tutor Bairam Khan was appointed as regent.
• The Second Battle of Panipat (5 November 1556) was fought between Hemu (the Hindu general of Adil shah) and Bairam Khan (the regent of Akbar). Hemu was defeated captured and slain by Bairam Khan.
• At the age of 18 years, he assumed the reigns of the kingdom.
• The Rajputana kingdom of Mewar put up a fierce defence under Rana Uday Singh and his son Rana Pratap.
• Akbar tried to win over the Rajputs wherever possible and inducted Rajputana kings into Mughal Service and treated them at par with Mughal nobility. By marrying Harakha Bai daughter of Bharmal in 1562. Akbar displayed his secular policy with the Hindus.
• The Battle of Haldighati (1576) was fought between Rana Pratap of Mewar and Mughal army led by Man Singh of Amer. Rana Pratap was defeated but he did not submit and continued the struggle.
• As a revolt against the orthodoxy and bigotry of religious priests, Akbar proclaimed a new religion Din-i-Ilahi in 1581. The new religion was based on the synthesis of values taken from several religions like Hinduism, Islam, Jainism and Christianity. It did not recognize the prophet, Birbal was the only Hindu who followed this new religion. Din-i-Ilahi however did not become popular.
• Akbar built Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Lahore Fort and Allahabad Fort and Humayun's Tomb in Delhi.
• Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas) also lived during Akbar's period. 
• Akbar is considered the real founder of the Mughal empire in India.
• He was the first Mughal ruler who divorced religion from politics. 
• Akbar gave Mughal India one official language Persian.

The incident of "the testing of the silent of speech (khamUshAn-i-goyA)." In an argument about language origins, Akbar held that speech arose from hearing, so babies raised without hearing speech would be unable to speak. For proof, he "had a serai built in a place which civilized sounds did not reach. The newly born were put into that place of experience, and honest and active guards were put over them. For a time tongue-tied (zabAn basta) wetnurses were admitted there. As they had closed the door of speech, the place was commonly called the Gang MaHal (the dumb-house)." Some time later (August 1582), Akbar was in the vicinity and "he went with a few special attendants to the house of experiment. No cry came from that house of silence, nor was any speech heard there. In spite of their four years they had no part of the talisman of speech, and nothing came out except the noise of the dumb."

Microliths are stone tools which are of length from 1cm to 5 cm, these are shaped like blades and are made of stones such as – chert, chalcedony, agate, etc. These tools are really small and sharp and have been found in different kinds of shapes such as triangles, crescents, trapezes, rhombus etc.

Archaeologists conclude that such small tools were embedded onto wooden or bone handles and were fashioned into spears, knives, daggers, sickles etc.

Key Points

• Bagor has three cultural phases.
• On the basis; of radiocarbon dating phase I or the earliest phase of culture has been placed between 5000-2000 B.C.
• Here Mesolithic five human skeletons were buried in a planned manner.
• A tiny blade tool especially of the Mesolithic usually in a geometric shape (such as that of a triangle) and often set in a bone or wooden haft.

Bagor is a pre-historic site known for the mass production of microliths.

Additional Information The other options are incorrect.

• Adamgarh is a prehistoric site in Madhya Pradesh, India, that is known for its rock shelters and cave paintings.
• Nalagonda is a prehistoric site in Andhra Pradesh, India, that is known for its copper hoards.
• Sanganakallu is a prehistoric site in Karnataka, India, that is known for its megaliths.

Here is a table of the different prehistoric sites and their known artifacts:

• The Vedic Period (c. 1500 – c. 500 B.C.E.) is the period in the history of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being composed. Based on literary evidence, scholars place the Vedic period in the second and first millennia B.C.E. continuing up to the sixth century B.C.E.
• In the Vedic period, the hereditary kings were the popular form of Government. The provision of a democratically elected king by the assembly of people Jana was also known.
• In the day-to-day administration, the king was assisted by a few functionaries.
• The most important functionary seems to have been the purohita after King.
• The Purohit was the Chief Adviser and temporal guru (spiritual teacher) of the king. The two priests who played a major part in the time of Rig Veda were Vasishtha and Visvamitra.
• The Raja administered justice with the assistance of Purohita and other officials.
• The office of the Purohit was one of great respect and prestige. Usually, this office was hereditary.
• So, the Purohita held the next important position after the king.

• The Vedic Period is the period in the history of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being composed. Based on literary evidence, scholars place the Vedic period in the second and first millennia B.C.E. continuing up to the sixth century B.C.E.
• King was the supreme head of the Vedic administration.
• The important royal officials were −

a) Purohita (chief priest and minister)

b) Senani (army chief)

c) Gramini (head of a village)

d)  Dutas (envoys)

e) Spies (spy)

​

• Govikartana, they were the keeper of games and forests.
• Queen did not have any influential position in the kings day to day administration. There is no mention of the important position of the queen in the administration.
• Senani held an important position in Vedic administration.
• The king did not possess a standing army but tribal units were there in times of war.

Aurangzeb is known for being the emperor of India from 1658 to 1707. He was the last of the great Mughal emperors

• Although taken aback by the beauty of Kashmir and its gardens, Aurangzeb decreed in his 6th regnal year that no king should visit there unless on military or administrative business, as he believed that the pursuit of pleasure was the inadequate reason for going to Kashmir.

The correct answer is option 1)

Confusion Points

• In the Ugc Net Previous year paper the first option was stating that AjatShatru was the king of Magadh. Though it's correct but in the answer key Ugc mentioned that it's wrong. But Ajatshatru indeed the king of Magadha. So we make a necessary change, so students wouldn't confuse anymore.

Key Points

• Ajatshatru (c. 493/492 BCE - c. 462/460 BCE) was the second important king of the Haryanka Dynasty, who came to the throne of Magadha by deposing and executing his own father Bimbisara.
• The Haryanka Dynasty (c. 545/544 BCE - c. 413 BCE) came into prominence during the rule of Bimbisara (r. 545/544 BCE - 493/492 BCE), who extended the kingdom through conquests and marriage alliances.
• The Magadha Kingdom started its expansion from the time of Bimbisara, but Ajatashatru annexed several important and powerful kingdoms in its vicinity – Kosala and Kashi, and then Vrijji and his empire roughly covered the present-day Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh (some minor parts), West Bengal (some major parts), Odisha (some parts) and also some parts of the neighbour countries of Bangladesh and Nepal.
• Ajatashatru, also known as Kunika, grew up in Rajagriha under the able guidance of his father.

First, we will talk about the statement of Assertion.

• Chanakya (also known as Kautilya and Vishnugupta) was prime minister under the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Mauryan Empire (322-185 BCE). He is best known as the author of the political treatise Arthashastra which he wrote as a kind of instruction manual for the young Chandragupta on how to rule effectively.
• The Arthasashtra is an ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy. Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya, is traditionally credited as the author of the text. The latter was a scholar at Takshashila, the teacher and guardian of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. Some scholars believe them to be the same person, while most have questioned this identification. The text is likely to be the work of several authors over centuries.
• Different traditions mention different stories about Chanakya.
• According to one tradition, he served as an advisor to the last king of the Nanda Dynasty Dhanananda who ruled the Kingdom of Magadha. According to another, he was a Vedic scholar from the University of Taxila who visited the court of Dhanananda where he was insulted at an alms-giving ceremony and, after this event, devoted himself to depose the king.

Important traditions that mention about Chanakya are:- 

• Buddhist Tradition – the text of the Mahavamsa
• Jain Tradition – the text of the Parishistaparvan
• Kashmiri Tradition – the text of the Kathasaritsagara
• Vishakhadatta’s version – his play Mudrarakshasa
• **Hence, there many such records where we find information regarding Chanakya but, Patanjali does not mention about Chanakya. **So, the given statement of Assertion is true.

​Talking about the Reason, 

• Patanjali was a sage in India, thought to be the author of a number of Sanskrit works. The greatest of these are the Yoga Sutras, a classical yoga text. There is doubt as to whether the sage Patanjali is the author of all the works attributed to him as there are a number of known historical authors of the same name.
• The author of the Mahabhaṣya, an ancient treatise on Sanskrit grammar and linguistics, based on the Aṣṭadhyayi of Paṇini. This Patanjali's life is dated to mid 2nd century BCE by both Western and Indian scholars. This text was titled as a bhasya or "commentary" on Katyayana-Paṇini's work by Patanjali, but is so revered in the Indian traditions that it is widely known simply as Maha-bhasya or "Great commentary".
• So vigorous, well reasoned and vast is his text, that this Patanjali has been the authority as the last grammarian of classical Sanskrit for 2,000 years, with Paṇini and Katyayana preceding him. Their ideas on structure, grammar and philosophy of language have also influenced scholars of other Indian religions such as Buddhism and Jainism.
• Patanjali is known more for his renowned Yoga Sutras, than his work on grammar.
• Dating it as 2nd century BCE, during the Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE). He has mentioned about the Chandragupta in his works.
• The Yogasutras is one of the most important texts in the Indian tradition and the foundation of classical Yoga. It is the Indian Yoga text that was most translated in its medieval era into forty Indian languages.
• The compiler of the Yoga sutras, a text on Yoga theory and practice, and a notable scholar of Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy. He is variously estimated to have lived between 2nd century BCE to 4th century CE, with more scholars accepting dates between 2nd and 4th century CE.
• Patanjali, author of a medical text called Patanjalatantra. He is cited and this text is quoted in many medieval health sciences-related texts, and Patanjali is called a medical authority in a number of Sanskrit texts such as Yogaratnakara, Yogaratnasamuccaya and Padarthavijnana.
• Therefore, Patanjali works have no mention of Kautilya.
• Here, the Reason is also true and is the correct explanation of Assertion.

Conclusion-We find that the given Reason is also true and is the correct explanation of the given Assertion.

First, we will talk about the statement of Assertion.

• When Guru Angad died, the title of Guru was passed to Amar Das (1479–1574), who was distinguished by his total loyalty to the second Guru.
• Amar Das, who was 73 years old when he became Guru.
• The status of women in Hindu society at that time was very low. When the husband died, the wife either voluntarily burnt herself on the pyre of her husband or was thrown into the fire without her consent. In popular term the woman who did perform this act was called Sati (truthful).
• Guru Amar Das carried out a vigorous campaign against the practice of Sati.
• He established manjis (dioceses) to help spread the faith and better organize its adherents.
• He appointed his son-in-law as the fourth Guru (Guru Ram Das). After this Guru Ram Das appointed his son Arjan as his successor, and all subsequent Gurus were his direct descendants.
• Hence, the statement given in the Assertion is False, Guru Amardas didn't follow the previous practice in appointing his successor. It has now become hereditary.
  

In the next step, we will consider the Reason.

​Talking about the Reason,

• According to tradition, Amar Das was a Vaishnava who had spent his life looking for a Guru.
• While on a trip to the Ganges River, he decided to become a Sikh when he overheard the daughter of Angad singing a hymn by Nanak.
• Bibi Amro was the daughter of Guru Angad, the second and then-current Guru of the Sikhs.
• Amar Das persuaded Bibi Amro to introduce him to her father and in 1539, Amar Das, at the age of sixty, met Guru Angad and became a Sikh, devoting himself to the Guru.
• This is how Guru Amar Das got the succession of Guruship following the tradition. But he didn't follow the same practice, thereby making Guruship hereditary.

Conclusion-(A) is false, but (R) is true.

First, we will consider the statement of Assertion,

• A proper land revenue system was founded by Akbar.
• Standardisation of land measurement was adopted and extortion/corruption was reduced by officials.
• Firstly, Akbar adopted Sher Shah’s system in which cultivated area was measured, and a central schedule was created fixing the dues of peasants crop-wise on the basis of the productivity of the land.
• The state’s share was fixed one-third of the products under the schedule (Dastur-i-amal) to be paid in cash.
• On the other hand, on the testimony of Abul-Fazl in Ain-i-Akbari, it can be said that the land revenue system of Akbar was highly efficient and the peasants were quite happy.
• The state demand being fixed, there was very little scope for extracting more from the peasants than was due.

Hence, the statement given in Assertion is false.

In the next step, we will consider the Reason.

• .An aggregate of the rate of revenues from 1570 to 1579 was made and a decennial average was fixed as the demand for the revenue.
• Akbar ordered that the settlement should be concluded for the past 10 years.
• This brought certainty to collections and alleviated the problem of peasants to great extent.
• This was the so-called Dahsala system or Zabti System, that was implemented by Raja Todarmal.
• This remained a standard system of revenue assessment during the greater part of the Mughal empire.

Conclusion-(A) is false, but (R) is true.

First, we will consider the statement of Assertion,

• Fa-Hsien, a Chinese pilgrim, visited India during the reign of Chandra Gupta II. His primary aim was to visit the Buddhist religious places and to take with him the copies of the Buddhist religious texts. He, therefore, travelled through the Gupta empire and also wrote down his impressions about India.
• Fa-Hsien started his voyage to India in 399 A.D. He travelled through the desert of Gobi and reached Khotan where he found many Buddhist monasteries. H
• He reached India about 400 A.D. and remained here up to 411 A.D. He visited Peshawar, Taxila, Mathura, Kannauj. Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Sarnath and many other places. He embarked for Ceylon at the sea-port of Tamralipti (West Bengal). He remained in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) for two years and then reached back China via Jawa in 414 A.D.
• In his travel account, he mentions the following about India: -

          (a)The people were prosperous and content with their lives. Public morality was high.

          (b) Mostly the people were vegetarians and avoided meat and onions in their meals. They did not use alcohol and other intoxicants.

          (c)Only Chandalas (Untouchables), who lived outside cities, engaged in hunting and fishing and were meat-eaters.

• Hence, the statement given in Assertion is true.

In the next step, we will consider the Reason.

• Ashoka (Asoka) (c 304–233 B.C) was the third king of the Mauryan Empire.
• He is best known for his renunciation of war, development of the concept of Dhamma (pious social conduct), and promotion of Buddhism as well as his effective reign of a nearly pan-Indian political entity.
• According to the accepted account,  Ashoka embraced Buddhism, he embarked on a path of peace and ruled with justice and mercy. Whereas he had earlier engaged in the hunt, he now went on pilgrimage and while formerly the royal kitchen slaughtered hundreds of animals for feasts, he now instituted vegetarianism. He made himself available to his subjects at all times, addressed what they considered wrongs, and upheld the laws which benefited all, not only the upper class and wealthy.
• Ashoka’s first years as king were marked by his brutal slaughter of thousands of people during the conquest of Kalinga. After being exposed to the moral teachings (dharma) of Buddhism—teachings based on the necessity for nonviolence and compassion—Ashoka was moved to deep remorse for his actions.
• Orders were also issued for curbing public laxities and preventing cruelty to animals.
• He built a number of stupas (commemorative burial mounds) and monasteries and erected pillars on which he ordered inscribed his understanding of religious doctrines.
• He proposed the first animal rights laws in India. His edicts are a beautiful summation of animal welfare laws and the rights of animals as living beings. With a concern for animals, which forms the essence of Buddhism, King Ashoka expressed concern about animals being killed for a meal or sport.
• Here statement of the Reason is also true.

Conclusion- We can say that both statements of Assertion and Reason are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).

The correct answer is option 1)

• Pataka, Kulyavapa, Dronavapa are land measuring units in Bengal.
• According to epigraphic evidence, we have references of measurement units such as – “Kulyavapa”, “dronavapa” and “Pataka” from Bengal.
• The methods of the assessment of revenue were assessed on individual holdings of land.
• The granted fields and villages were marked accurately on all four sides.

Key Points

Pataka is 180-240 bighas of land.

Then is Kulyavapa land must have been equal to around 128 -160 bighas of land. 

And then Dronavapa which must be 16-20 bighas.

• Aryabhatta wrote Aryabhatiya and Surya Siddhanta.
• In Aryabhatiya, he wrote about Arithmetic, Geometry, Algebra and Trigonometry.
• In the first chapter of the Aryabhatiya, he insisted that the earth rotates about its axis and that the apparent movement of the stars is a relative motion caused by the rotation of the earth.
• He gives the number of rotations of the earth in a yuga.
• In Surya Siddhanta, he explained scientifically the causes of the solar and lunar eclipses.
• Aryabhatta also founded the place value system and zero.

Key Points

• ​Varahamihira was an Indian astrologer and polymath.
• He discovered a version of Pascal's triangle and worked on magic squares.
• He also improved the accuracy of the sine tables of Aryabhata..
• Bhaskara is also known as Bhaskara I.
• He was a known mathematician and astronomer and was born in India in the 7th century.
• He contributed majorly in Mathematics and was the first to write numbers in the Hindu decimal system with a circle for the zero.
• He also gave a unique and remarkable rational approximation of the sine function in his commentary on Aryabhata's work.
• Bhaskara was honoured by the Indian Space Research Organisation by launching Bhakara I on 7 June 1979.

Appar

• Thirunavukkarasar (Appar) was a seventh-century Saiva Tamil poet-saint and one of the most prominent of the 63 Nayanars.
• He was an older contemporary of Thirugnanasambanthar.
• Appar was born in the middle of 7th century to Thiru Pukalanar and Mathiniyar as their second child in a village called Thiruvamur in Thirumunaipadi Nadu.

Sundaramurti

• He was known by the name Sundaramurti Nayanar also.
• Sundaramurti Nayanar was a great devotee of Lord Siva.
• He is one of the four Saiva Acharyas.

Manikkavasagar

• In the Pandya kingdom which was ruled by the great God Himself as raja saundhara Pandiyan, near the capital Madurai is the town Thiruvaadhavur were this great one was born.
• By the time he was sixteen years old, he had well learnt, mastering the philosophies and the scriptures.
• He outstood in the love for Lord Shiva and service to his devotees.

Additional Information

Mallikarjuna Pandita

• Mallikarjuna Panditharadhyula Raja verrayya Ayyavaru (the father in law of Subba rayudu garu) have also propagated Saiva Siddhanta extensively by writing books, discourses, performing lingadarana, saivism rituals and clearing doubts of the disciples by conducting discussions and meetings.
• He was a great and revered saivate scholar named Sri Mallikarjuna pandita radhyula Ambanayya varu(Duvva) of west Godavari district. Andhra Pradesh.

• The mention of titles such as Latasandhivigrahika is found in the records of Kalyani Chalukyas.
• Under Chalukya ruler of Kalyana Vikramaditya VI, we had the important official and chief uniting many offices was Mahapradhana, Anlah-puradhyaksa, Heii-latasandhivigrahika.
• Taila II** founded the dynasty of Chalukyas of Kalyani which lasted for 2 centuries.**
• For 200 years they remained in conflict with the Cholas and also the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.
• They were finally destroyed by the Hoysala Empire in the 12th century.
• The empire of Chalukyas of Kalyani is also known as Western Chalukya Empire. This empire has a great contribution to modern Kannada literature as well as Sanskrit literature.

Pratihara Bhoja

• The Gwalior inscription mentioned the early history of the family. The inscription was founded by King Bhoja in the 7th century. He was the most famous king of the Gurjara Pratiharas dynasty.
• The real founder and the greatest ruler of the Pratihara dynasty were Bhoja. He became successful in consolidating the empire.
• He also tried to extend his kingdom to is east and south, but he was resisted by the Palas in the east and Rashtrakutas in the south.

Kalachuri Karna

• Karna (reigned 1041–73) was the son and successor of Gangeyadeva. He had the city Allahabad in his territory which was conquered by his father. He carried his victorious arms alone in the eastern coast as far as the country round Kanchi.
• Kalachuri is this the name used by two kingdoms who had a succession of dynasties from the 10th-12th centuries, one ruling over areas in Central India (west Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan) and were called Chedi or Haihaya (Heyheya) (northern branch) and the other southern Kalachuri who ruled over parts of Karnataka.

Gahadavala Govindachandra

• Govindacandra, ruled in  1114–1155 CE, was an Indian king from the Gahadavala dynasty. He ruled the Antarvedi country in present-day Uttar Pradesh, including the major cities of Kanyakubja and Varanasi.
• The first inscription from Govindachandra's reign is dated 1114 CE.
• Thus, Govindachandra must have ascended the throne sometime during 1109–1114 CE.

Chandella Paramardi

• Paramardi (reigned c. 1165-1203 CE) was a king of the Chandela dynasty of central India.
• He was the last powerful Chandela king and ruled the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh).
• The inscriptions from the first few years of Paramardi's reign have been found at Semra (1165-1166 CE), Mahoba (1166-1167 CE), Ichhawar (1171 CE), Mahoba (1173 CE), Pachar (1176 CE) and Charkhari (1178 CE).

The correct answer is option 1) 

The correct options are matched below.

• The Harappan civilization was an urban civilization; archaeological excavations of different sites belonging to this civilization have yielded evidence of planned structures that were designed for various kinds of uses.
• The sites of Dholavira and Mohenjadaro are remarkable for the structures related to water management.
• Mohenjodaro is known for its large number of wells and the remains of the Great Bath, which historians suggest must have been used for some kind of ritualistic bathing.
• Dholavira on the other hand, located near the Rann of Kutch was a port city, as excavations have revealed water reservoirs made of sandstone and mud- bricks. The city has thus revealed an interesting water harvesting and management system with the presence of dams that directed water to the reservoir.
• Hence option 1 is correct.

The correct answer is option 1) Lauriya Nandangarh.

• Lauriya Nandangarh is a small town situated 28 km northwest of Bettiah famous for its beautifully erected Ashokan Pillar.
• Lauriya gets its name from a pillar (Laur) of Mauryan emperor Ashoka, which is cited here.
• Nandangarh is the name of a bank, located about 2 km southwest of the Ashoka Pillar. Lauriya Nandangarh is also a site for about 20 archaeological banks organized in three rows.
• The pillar has been inscribed with six Ashokan edicts, issued by the Emperor in the year 244 BC and the top of the pillar is adorned with a lion, in a crouching position.
• Forty pillars were built here by Emperor Ashoka originally but today only one pillar exists incomplete form.
• One of the main tourist attractions of Lauriya Nandangarh is a large stupa, which is believed to be one of the biggest stupas in India.
• The massive stupa is 24m in height and has a circumference of almost 457 m.

• Anth is generally known as the rate of discount on cash-payments made against Hundi.
• Hundi was most commonly known as the bill of exchange.

Additional Information

• Hundi is known as a letter of credit payable after a period of time at a discount
• The term is derived from the Sanskrit word hundi which means ‘to collect’.
• These are generally in the form of bills of exchange but may sometimes look like promissory notes in shape and contents.
• Some of the types of hundis are Darshani hundi, Shahjog hundi, Dhanijog hundi, Jawabee hundi etc.

Fota-** it is known as the collection in a pool with its accountant, the patwari. 

Do- dami- The system by which the treasury issued coins against the metal and deduced 5%.

Aurangzeb:

• Assumed the title Alamgir (or World Conqueror).
• To contain Marathas, he attacked Golconda and Bijapur.
• Though Aurangzeb defeated them it removed the only boundary between Marathas and Mughals.
• According to JN Sarkar, Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangzeb.
• Created separate departments to enforce moral codes called 'Muhtasib'.
• Prohibited drinking, cultivation and use of Bhang and drugs.
• Forbid music in Mughal court, dismissed royal astrologers and astronomers.
• The discontinued practice of Jharoka darshan.
• Discontinued celebration of Dussehra.
• Destroyed Hindu temples and banned the construction of them.
• Reimposed Jiziya and pilgrimage tax in 1679.
• He defeated Dara at Dharmat (1658), Samugarh (1658), and Deorai in which Samugarh was the decisive one and Deorai was the last one.
  

He took the title of Alamgir in 1659.

• Was against Sikhs and executed 9th Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur, which resulted in the transformation of Sikhs into the warring community.
• He captured Guru Teg Bahadur, the 9th Guru of Sikhs in 1675 and execute him when he refused to embrace Isalm.
• The 10th and last Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh son of Guru Teg Bahadur organized his followers into a community of warriors called Khalsa.
• He was called Zinda Pir or the living Saint.
• He built Bibi Ka Maqbara similar to Taj Mahal in Aurangabad.
• He died in 1707 and was buried at Khuldabad (Daulatabad).
• Fatwa-i-Alamgiri, a digest of Muslim laws, was written during the period of Aurangzeb.
• It is a compilation focused on sharia statecraft, general ethics, military strategy, economic policy, justice and punishment which served as the rule and main governing body of the Mughal Empire during the reign of the Mughal emperor Muhammad Muhiuddin Aurangzeb Alamgir.
  

The compilation has been widely regarded as one of Islamic jurisprudence's most well-organized works.

• “Of all the sovereigns of the house of Taimur, nay of all the sovereigns of Delhi no one since Sikandar Lodi has ever been apparently so distinguished for devotion, austerity and justice as him.”

In the above passage, Khafi Khan is applauding the justice of Aurangzeb.

Talking about option 3, this statement is wrong.

• The Kailash Temple at Ellora was built by the Rashtrakuta King Krishna I.
• He was a great patron of art and architecture.

Key Points

• Indra III was a powerful king of Rashtrakuta.
• He defeated and deposed Mahipala I.
• Krishna II last powerful and efficient king of the Rashtrakutas.
• He succeeded in defeating the Tamil kings of the Chola kingdom.
• He also succeeded in conquering Tanjore and Kanchi.
• Kavirajamarga was composed by Nripatunga Amogavarsha.
• It was the first poetic work in the Kannada language.

• The entire responsibility of the village administration was in the hands of the village assembly called Grama Sabha.
• The land revenue was the main source of income of the Chola Government.
• A proper land survey was made. Lands were classified as taxable land and non-taxable land.
• There were many grades in the taxable lands.
• Generally, 1/6 of the land yield was collected as tax either in cash or in-kind or both according to the convenience of the farmers.

Additional Information

• The Central Government under the headship of the King.
• Council of ministers and officials took an active part in running the administration of the Central Government.
• The higher officials were called Peruntaram and the lower officials were called ***Siruntaram.***​​​​
• The Chola kings took up titles that marked their achievements. They lived in very big royal palaces. Kings were assisted by ministers and officials. in their administration.
• Chola kings had tiger as their royal emblem.
• The Chola empire was divided into 9 provinces called mandalam, each under a governor called Mandala mudalis who were paid salary in the form of lands.

Durlabhvardhan

• Durlabhavardhana founded the Karkota Empire, Kashmir (c. 625 - 885 CE) during the lifetime of Harshavardhan.
• Karkota was a major power in the Indian subcontinent during the 7th and 8th century.
• His kingdom was located in the present-day Indian state of Kashmir.
• The dynasty marked the rise of Kashmir as a power in Northern India.

Chandrapida

• Chandrapida is also known as Vajraditya I, was the 3rd king of the Karkota dynasty, Kashmir.
• He was the eldest son of king Durlabhaka (son of Durlabhvardhan) and succeeded him onto the throne.
• He was a famous king known for his wise, just, courageous nature, with a simple disposition.
• According to Kalhana's Rajatarangini, Chandrapida ruled from c. 684 CE-643 CE.
• His reign was peaceful, as he was a just and benevolent king, who cared for his subjects.

Lalitaditya

• Lalitaditya Muktapida became the fifth ruler of the Karkota dynasty from c. 724 CE–760 CE.
• He was a younger brother of Chandrapida.
• Lalitaditya not only stopped the Arabs from entering India but also conquered parts of Iran and extended his Kingdom up to Tibet and China.
• His successful efforts to protect Kashmir and India is something that the Indian nation can and should never forget.

Avantivarman

• The accession of Avantivarman (855-83 A.D.) on the throne of Kashmir ushered in a period of peace and prosperity.
• His was an  Age of Consolidation and Enlightenment.
• He did not have the ambition of going on expeditions and conquering many lands.
• Thus, there was peace and Kashmir reached the apex in philosophy and literature.

• The copper hoard sites of the Ganga Valley stretching from Bengal to Orissa have yielded numerous copper objects. Archaeologists have identified over 90 such copper hoard sites which have been found in numerous states such as Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and the southern states of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamilnadu.
• However, the largest hoards of copper objects have been found in the Gangetic Plains of Uttar Pradesh.
• The copper hoards are comprised of numerous objects such as flat celts, bar celts, harpoons, antennae swords, anthropomorphic figures etc. Different sites of the Gangetic valley have revealed objects vary according to geographical conditions.
• The copper hoards in the Gangetic valley, point to the existence of a copper manufacturing system in this region, which often, it is surmised based on archaeological excavations was interacting with other regions too.

The correct answer is - 'a - ii, b - iv, c - i, d - iii'.

Key Points

• Bhadrak - Digamber temple managers
• Bhadrak refers to administrators or managers responsible for the upkeep and management of Digambar Jain temples.
• These individuals play a crucial role in maintaining the temple premises, organizing rituals, and managing the financial aspects.
• The term is specific to the Digambar sect of Jainism.
• Kshullak - Initial stage of initiation of a Digambar Jain ascetic
• Kshullak denotes the initial stage of a Digambar Jain's transition into ascetic life.
• At this stage, individuals start adopting ascetic practices while still maintaining some minimal possessions.
• This is a preparatory stage before becoming a fully initiated monk, known as an Acharya or Muniraj.
• Shravak - Lay Jain follower
• Shravak refers to lay followers of Jainism who are not monks but strive to follow the principles of Jainism in their daily lives.
• They observe vows such as non-violence, truthfulness, and non-stealing, although to a lesser extent compared to monks.
• Shravaks support the monastic community through donations and adherence to Jain teachings.
• Yati - Shvetambar monk who follows the vows minutely
• Yati refers to Shvetambar monks who meticulously follow the Jain vows and ethical codes.
• They live a life of strict discipline, renouncing worldly pleasures and practicing severe austerities.
• The term highlights their commitment to spiritual purity and rigorous adherence to Jain principles.

Additional Information

• Jainism is divided primarily into two sects: Digambar and Shvetambar.
• Digambar monks renounce all possessions including clothing, while Shvetambar monks wear white clothes.
• The Jain community comprises both ascetics (monks and nuns) and lay followers, each with distinct roles and practices within the religion.

On 3^rd September 1708, Guru Gobind Singh administered the vows of Sikhism to a Hindu ascetic named Madho Das and renamed him as Banda Singh. Guru Gobind Singh directed Banda Singh to avenge the tyranny of the Mughal Empire of the time. Baba Banda Singh’s forces defeated the army of Nawab Wazir Khan in the Battle of Sirhind in the year 1710. After the conquest of Sirhind, a new calendar was declared by the Sikhs starting with Samvat Year I (14^th May 1710 – 13^th May 1711).To commemorate the victory at Sirhind, a one rupee silver coin was issued by Baba Banda Singh in 1711 (Samvat Year II) and a second one rupee silver coin was issued in the year 1712 (Samvat Year III). These coins bore the name of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh.

The correct answer is Option 2.

The correct answer is option 3)

The options are matched below.

In the Ain –i- Akbari, Abul Fazal in a section titled Ain-i- imarat gives us a detailed sketch of the people who were concerned with different kinds of construction work. His work tells us about the lime burners, stone cutters (sangarshtan), najjar(carpenters), Ain – gilkar ( clay worker) etc. Hence in reference to the Mughal artisans and craftsmen employed in construction work following is the correct order.

 Hence the correct order is a –iv, b- i, c-ii, d-iii.

Additional information: The parchinkar or the engraver was the people who were involved in marble work, their task was to carve out delicate floral designs and geometric patterns in marble, which was a characteristic feature of the Mughal monuments, this art of carving and embedding stone in marble reached its height during the period of Shah Jahan and came to be defined as pietra dura or parchinkari and involved embedding precious stones in marble.

The correct answer is option 4) Gahadavalas

• The evidence of water tax is provided by the inscriptions of Gahadavalas.
• They ruled for over a century (1080-1097 AD), In North India, which extended from the western bank of Yamuna in the west to Patna Monnghyr and Bodhgaya in Bihar in the east.
• It extended from the foothills of the Himalayas in the north to Beghelkhanda in Madhya Pradesh in the south.

Additional Information

• According to the Gahadavala inscriptions, Govindachandra appreciated and patronised different branches of learning.
• The Gahadavala kings worshipped Vishnu.
• The Gahadvala inscriptions describe the kings as Parama-Maheshvara ("devotees of Shiva").

Vikramarjunavijaya 

• Vikramarjunavijaya (victory of the mighty Arjuna), is also known as Pampa Bharatha is a classic work of the 10th century Jain poet Pampa (902–975 AD).
• It is a Kannada version of the great epic, the Mahabharata of Vyasa.
• Pampa chooses the Arjuna, the central figure of the Pandava Clan, as the hero of his epic.
• This work differs from Mahabharata in several aspects, one of them being Arjuna crowned the king, Subhadra the queen, after the Kurukshetra war, instead of Yudhishthira, and Draupadi respectively.

Mitakshara

• Mitakshara is written by Vigyaneshwar, a scholar in the Western Chaiukya court in the 12th century.
• It was considered one of the main authorities on Hindu Law from the time the British began administering laws in India.
• The Mitakshara is a legal treatise on inheritance and it became one of the most influential texts in Hindu law, and its principles regarding property distribution, property rights, and succession are still in practice across most of India except for West Bengal and Assam where the Dayabhaga system is practised.

Manasollasa

• It is a 12th-century text, by  King Someswara III, who succeeded his father Vikramaditya VI and inherited the Western Chalukya kingdom (parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Goa and Andhra Pradesh).
• This book translates to ‘​happiness of the mind’ and is an all-inclusive guide covering subjects that range from how many palaces a king should have (four – one for each season), how a king should dine, recreational activities fit for him and the qualities he must possess.
• King Someswara III was a ruler by blood but a poet at heart.
• He was crowned king when the empire was at its glorious peak and was content to spend his time in the pursuit of knowledge, poetry and literature – instead of expanding his realm.

Chaturvargachintamani

• ‘Chaturvargachintamani’ was composed between 1260 – 1271.
• Hemadri wrote the encyclopedic book about dharma, Chaturvarga Chintama��i.
• It contains, among other subjects, thousands of Vratas along with the modus operandi for performing them.
• He encouraged and supported many artists and writers like Bopadev and studied their books and presented his own criticism.

• Akbar’s reign as Mughal Emperor saw a flourishing of the arts. Mughal painting similarly blossomed.
• Produced towards the end of Akbar’s reign, the Akbarnama showcases a highly refined form of Mughal painting.
• The Mughal rulers brought Persian painters with them.
• At the same time, they patronized Indian painters and the collaboration between these two schools of painters resulted in the synthesis.
• Miskina and Mukund were two of the royal artists on Abu’l Fazl’s list.
• So, there happened to be the collaboration of painters and two or three painters usually collaborated for a single painting.

Additional Information

• Akbar’s court included artists from all regions of India, creating a melting pot of techniques and styles.
• As a result, Mughal painting under Akbar the Great is known for its unique blend of indigenous Indian, Persian, and Western traditions.
• At the time of his death in 1605, the number of painters in the imperial workshop had expanded greatly.

Abul Hasan 

• Abu'l Hasan was the son of the Iranian painter Aqa Reza, in the service of the future Mughal emperor, Jahangir.
• Abu'l Hasan grew up in the prince's household and became so valued as a court artist that he was called "Nadiru'l Zaman" - Wonder of the Age.
• The superbly finished frontispiece to the Jahangir Nama to which there is the reference by the Emperor Jahangir; the moving portrait of a fragile old pilgrim standing, perilously close to the end of his life; the scene of the emperor Jahangir giving audience —jharokha darshan — from a window of the palace
• Some of his works​ are copied from  European works was not the only, groove in which Abu’l Hasan’s talent moved: he had obvious gifts in the area, but there was more, much more, that he painted that was in consonance with his training and his won't.
• He made some of the most beautiful and precious paintings under Mughal Emperors.

Ustad Mansur

• Mansur was a leading nature painter in the court of Jahangir, lived early 17th century.
• Mansur was extraordinarily talented for scientific documentation. His detailed careful depictions of plants and animals avoided all personal expression and are extremely valuable for their scientific accuracy as well as their artistic perfection.
• Mansur became known as Ustad Mansur, the emperor bestowed the title Nadir-ul-'Asr ("Miracle of the Age") on him.
• Mansur accompanied Jahangir on some of his travels and was then in charge of the documentation of plants and animals.
• Jahangir's memoirs state that during a trip into the Kashmir Valley Mansur painted over 100 flowers.

Additional Information

 Abdus Samad

• He was an Iranian court poet of the Mughal period.
• He was trained at the court atelier of Shah Tahmasp in Tabriz, served the Mughal emperors Humayun and Akbar,
• In 1577, Akbar appointed him director of the royal mint at Fatehpur Sikri, and other senior government posts and governorship of the city of Multan.
• No other Mughal court artist made the transition to the centres of political power achieved by ‘Abd al-Samad.
• The masterly control evident and other identifiable works earned ‘Abd al-Samad the title Shirinqalam (Sweet Pen) from Akbar.

Mir Sayyid Ali

• Sayyid Ali became enormously influential Persian miniature painter during Akbar's reign.
• He was a contemporary of Abdus Samad in Mughal court.
• He is credited for developing different styles in painting during Mughals.
• ‘Mir Sayyid ‘Ali was succeeded by Abdus Samad as the director of the most ambitious painting project ever undertaken in Mughal India, the production of 1,400 large paintings on cloth narrating the Iranian epic, the Hamzanama.

Yadu, Puru, Chedi and Matsya all are mentioned in the Rigveda.

Yadu

• Yadu is mentioned as the five early Indo-Aryan tribes mentioned in the Rigveda.
• The Yadus were located a long distance from the Rig Vedic tribes.

Puru

• The Purus were the inhabitants of the core Rigvedic area and inhabited Haryana and adjacent areas.
• They had, in particular, had their sub-tribe as the Bharatas, who were the “Vedic Aryans”

Chedi

• Chedi was one of an ancient Indian Mahajanapada, a kingdom which fell roughly in the Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh regions to the south of river Yamuna along the river Ken.
• Its capital city was called Suktimati or Sotthivati.

Matsya

• The Matsya Kingdom was one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (great kingdoms) during Vedic times.
• It is described in the Hindu epic Mahabharata and 6th BCE Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya.
• Its capital was Viratnagar.

The correct answer is option 1)  Discipline and hard life

• Digambara(“sky-clad”),  one of the two principal sects of the Indian religion Jainism, whose male ascetics shun all property and wear no clothes.
• The ascetics of the other sect, the Shvetambara (“White-robed”), wear white robes. Ascetics of neither sect bathe because personal cleanliness is a feature of the world they have abandoned.
• The main points that distinguish the Digambaras from the Shvetambaras, apart from monastic nudity, are the former’s belief that the perfect saint (kevalin) needs no food to stay alive, that Mahavira never married, and that no woman can reach moksha without being reborn as a man.
• Moreover, Digambara images of every Tirthankara are always naked, without ornaments, and with downcast eyes.
• The Digambaras also reject the Shvetambara canon of religious texts and believe that the early literature was gradually forgotten and lost completely by the 2nd century CE.
• So, the hard life and discipline were the main points of dispute between them.

The correct answer is (a), (b) and (c).

Key Points

• Garbhadhana is a pre-natal samskara that is performed before conception. It is a ceremony that is performed to ensure the health and well-being of the mother and the child.
• Pumsavana is a pre-natal samskara that is performed during the third month of pregnancy. It is a ceremony that is performed to pray for the birth of a male child.
• Simantonnayana is a pre-natal samskara that is performed during the seventh month of pregnancy. It is a ceremony that is performed to part the hair of the pregnant woman. This is done to ensure a safe delivery.

Additional Information

• Sahadharma - Charini - Samyoga is a post-natal samskara that is performed when a child is born.
• It is a ceremony that is performed to welcome the child into the world and of showing that the parents are committed to raising the child in a loving and supportive environment.

Baudhayana Dharmasutra -

• The Dharma Sutra of Baudhayana lists sea voyages as first of the offences that cause the loss of varna.
• The offence of crossing the sea is also known as "Samudrolanghana" or "Sagarollanghana".
• The Dharma Sutra suggests a person can wipe away this offence in three years by eating little at every fourth meal time; bathing at dawn, noon and dusk; standing during the day, and seated during the night.
• In the earlier time, caste system prevailed much greater aspect than it is now and so had vocational demarcation between the castes.
• The sea voyagers, the Samudra langhana were among the chief cause as declared to loss of Brahmin’s upper-caste which was very cautious about the maintenance of their social status according to the Baudhyana Dharmasutra.
• The reasons behind the proscription include the inability to carry out the daily rituals of traditional Hindu life and the sin of contact with the characterless, uncivilized mleccha creatures of the foreign lands. An associated notion was that crossing the ocean entailed the end of the reincarnation cycle, as the traveller was cut off from the regenerating waters of the Ganges. Such voyages also meant breaking family and social ties. In another respect, the inhabitants of the land beyond the "black water" were bad-spirited and monstrous swine who could sometimes mask their true ugliness by presenting an illusion of physical beauty or superiority.
• Therefore, it was thought that true Hindus should not come under their influence or embrace their beliefs, as they will be just as deserving of contempt as a mleccha.
• In the eighteenth century, the banias of North India even considered the crossing of the Indus River at Attock to be prohibited and underwent purification rituals upon their return.

Apastamba Dharmasutra- 

• It is a Sanskrit text and one of the oldest Dharma-related texts of Hinduism that have survived into the modern age from the 1st-millennium BCE. It is one of three extant Dharmasutras texts from the Taittiriya school of Krishna Yajurveda, the other two being Baudhayana Dharmasutra and Hiranyakesin Dharmasutra.
• The Dharmasutra is attributed to Apastamba, the founder of a Shakha (Vedic school) of Yajurveda.
• According to the Hindu tradition, Apastamba was the student of Baudhayana, and himself had a student named Hiranyakesin.
• The Apastamba Dharmasutra is notable for placing the importance of the Veda scriptures second and that of samayacarika or mutually agreed and accepted customs of practice first. Apastamba proposes that scriptures alone cannot be a source of Law (dharma), and dharma has an empirical nature.

Gautama Dharmasutra- 

• It is part of Apastamba Kalpasutra collection, along with Apastamba Shrautasutra and Apastamba Grihyasutra. It is one of the best preserved ancient texts on Dharma.
• Gautama Dharmasutra is a Sanskrit text and likely one of the oldest Hindu Dharmasutras (600-200 BCE), whose manuscripts have survived into the modern age.
• The Gautama Dharmasutra was composed and survives as an independent treatise, unattached to a complete Kalpa-sutras, but like all Dharmasutras it may have been part of one whose Shrauta- and Grihya-sutras have been lost to history. The text belongs to Samaveda schools, and its 26th chapter on penance theory is borrowed almost completely from Samavidhana Brahmana layer of text in the Samaveda.
• The text is notable for its broad-minded and liberal views on women and all social classes. It is also notable for mentioning and citing views of ten ancient experts on Dharma, which has led scholars to conclude that there existed a rich genre of Dharmasutras text in ancient India before this text was composed.

Vashistha Dharmasutra- 

• It is one of the few surviving ancient Sanskrit Dharmasutras of Hinduism. It is reverentially named after a Rigvedic sage Vashistha who lived in the 2nd millennium BCE, but the text was probably composed by unknown authors between 300 BCE – 100 CE.
• It forms an independent text and other parts of the Kalpasūtra, that is Shrauta- and Grihya-sutras are missing.
• Like the dozens of other texts in this genre, the Vashistha Dharmasutra is a treatise on Dharma that discusses duties, responsibilities and ethics to oneself, to family and as a member of society. This Dharmasūtra is likely of a later date than the Gautama and Baudhayana Dharmasutras that have also survived.

Gautama Buddha has a central place in Buddhism and therefore too in Buddhist art. Still, it took a few centuries after the Buddha's Parinirvana before the Buddha was pictured in Buddhist art in the form that we've become accustomed to: meditating for instance. It was only around the start of the Common Era that the image of the Buddha became normal in Buddhist art. 

Motifs such as wheels, thrones, and footprints are used to symbolize the Buddha, who is not represented in human form until later.

• The Chhatra is one of the oldest symbols of the Buddha and is seen as representing his royal birth. In this case, three umbrella's are shown,                          instead of one. This picture is from the Amaravati stupa in South India and was probably made slightly after the start of the Common Era.                                Other symbols used include the footprints and the empty throne.
• The Foot-steps of the Buddha is a strange Buddhist symbol, as the Buddha was thought to float above the ground. That's how divine people thought he was. Despite that, he left a footprint here and there, which is seen as a sign of his presence, a kind of blessing.
• The Dharmachakra or the wheel symbolizes both the Buddhist teachings (Dharma).
• The Bodhi tree that is shown in pictures a couple of times is the tree at Bodh Gaya where Buddha reached enlightenment: the Bodhi Tree. At this pilgrimage site a throne was later created.

Hence, all the four options Chhatra, Foot-steps, Dharmachakra and Bodhi tree are correct.

• The Sunga Empire was an ancient Indian dynasty from Magadha around 185 to 75 BCE.  Its capital was Pataliputra. The dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Shunga.
• The Sunga art style was different from other art forms and thus is often described as the more indigenous as compared to others.
• Under Shunga patronage, the core of the Great Stupa thought to date from the era of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka was enlarged to its present diameter of 120 feet, covered with a stone casing, topped with a balcony and umbrella, and encircled with a stone railing. Four famous gateways, each about thirty-five feet high, were carved during the first half of the first century A.D. Decorated with images of auspicious fertility spirits, known as yakshas and yakshis, the gateways also feature narratives depicting moments from the past lives and final existence of Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism. Motifs such as wheels, thrones, and footprints are used to symbolize the Buddha, who is not represented in human form until later.

• The Satavahana rule is believed to exist between early 1st Century BCE and 3rd Century CE. They are referred to as Andhras in the Puranas.
• The Satavahana kingdom chiefly comprised of modern-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra. At times, their rule also included parts of Karnataka, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
• Their capital cities varied at different times. Pratishthana (Paithan) and Amaravati were the capital of Satavahana Dynasty.
• Simuka was the founder of the Satavahana Dynasty. The coin legends were in Prakrit language. Some reverse coin legends are in Telugu, Tamil and Kannada. They patronised Prakrit more than Sanskrit. They supported both Buddhism and Brahminism although they were Hindus and claimed Brahminical status.
• The Satavahanas were also the first rulers to make land grants to Brahmanas, although we find more instances of such grants being made to Buddhist monks.
• The Nashik inscription dated to the 18th year of Gautamiputra's reign states that he reaffirmed a grant of land to Buddhist monks living at the Triraśmi peak. This land was earlier in the possession of Nahapana's son-in-law Rishabhadatta (also known as Ushavadata), who had donated it to the monks.

Talking about the correct option 4 Satavahana Inscriptions has no mention of the forced labour.

Additional InformationNo entry of the army-

• The best known of these is the Nashik prashasti (eulogy) inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri, which credits him with extensive military conquests. Historical evidence suggests that Gautamiputra revived the Satavahana power after a decline caused by Shaka invasions.
• Historical evidence suggests that the Western Kshatrapas (known to the Satavahanas as Shakas) expanded their empire at the expense of Satavahanas in the years preceding the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni. Based on the Nashik inscription of his mother, it appears that Gautamiputra revived the Satavahana power. The inscription states that he defeated the Shakas (Western Kshatrapas), the Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians), and the Yavanas (Indo-Greeks). It also states that he emerged victorious in several fights against a confederacy of enemies.

No administrative control of the king-

• The Satavahanas followed the administration guidelines of the Shastras. Their government was less top-heavy than that of the Mauryans and featured several levels of feudatories. Rajan, the hereditary rulers.
• Rajas, petty princes who struck coins in their own names. The royal princes (kumaras) were appointed as viceroys of the provinces.
• The inscriptions of Gautamiputra Satakarni suggest the existence of a bureaucratic structure, although it is not certain how stable and effective this structure was. For example, two inscriptions from Nashik Cave 11 record donations of agricultural land to ascetic communities. They state that the ascetics would enjoy tax exemption and non-interference from the royal officials. The first inscription states that the grant was approved by Gautamiputra's minister Sivagupta on the king's verbal orders, and preserved by the "great lords".

No digging for salt by royal officers - 

• Two inscriptions from Nashik Cave 11 record donations of agricultural land to ascetic communities. They state that the ascetics would enjoy tax exemption and non-interference from the royal officials. The first inscription states that the grant was approved by Gautamiputra's minister Sivagupta on the king's verbal orders, and preserved by the "great lords". The second inscription records a grant by Gautamiputra and his mother and mentions Syamaka as the minister of the Govardhana ahara.
• The Satavahana-era inscriptions mention three types of settlements: nagara (city), nigama (market town) and gama (village).
• According to Sastri, "the Satavahanas were described as 'lords of the three oceans' and promoted overseas colonization and trade.

• The founder of the Kushana Empire, Kujala Kadphises, ruled parts of Parthia, Kabul, Kandahar and parts of Afghanistan, his rule extended until the borders of northwestern India. His son Vima/ Vim Kadphises extended his rule in India as well and was instrumental in establishing the Kushana Empire, right up to Mathura.
• A study of his coins, depict him as Maharaja, Rajadhiraja, Sarvalokeswara, Mahisavara, Devaputra, by the time of Vima Kadphises, or Kadphises II as he was also known as, greatly Indianized the empire and even adopted Hinduism. He became a devotee of Lord Shiva and his coins depict images of Shiva, with a trident, holding a tiger skin and facing a bull.
• The son of Vima Kadphises, Kanishka was one of the greatest rulers of the Kushana Empire.
• King Harshavardhana or Harsha as he is better known as, was one of the last rulers of the Vardhana or the Pushyabhuti Dynasty, under the skilful military administration of King Harsha, the Gupta dynasty rose to its greatest heights. King Harsha was initially a worshipper of Lord Shiva but later adopted Mahayana Buddhism; his later coins also depict images of Lord Shiva, Surya and Buddha.
• King Sasanka of the Gauda Kingdom of West Bengal is the only known ruler of the kingdom. It is said that the ruler was an ardent Hindu and promoted Hinduism too. His coins depict the Hindu God Shiva with a bull on one side and Goddess Lakshmi on another. We come to know of King Sasanka from his coins and also the Harishcharita of Banabhatta, the latter has documented the political conflict between the Harsha and Sasanka.
• King Vasudeva was a ruler of the Kushana Empire; he was the first Kushana ruler, whose name was directly inspired by the God of the Hindu pantheon. As we already know that the founders of this dynasty also revered Lord Shiva, this pattern is also evident in the coins issued by Vasudeva, the ruler is shown holding a trident, near a fire altar, depicting a sacrifice as a  mark of respect to Lord Shiva.
• Hence option 4 is correct

The correct code is (a) and (d).

Key Points

• Burton Stein and Frank Perlin have strongly challenged the centralised state theory of medieval India.
• Stein adapted this model to the South Indian states from the Pallava to the Vijayanagara period.
• The segmentary state was composed of many similar segments surrounding a core and was ruled by the king.
• The historiographical tradition of centralised character was seriously challenged by Burton Stein.
• Stein has pointed out the contradiction in the view of K.A. Nilakanta Sastri with the Chola monarchy as an extremely powerful monarchy at the apex level and the overwhelming presence of local self-bodies in the villages.
• This view has been challenged by economic historians such as Frank Perlin, who believe that much of the revenue was redistributed back to local interests, and that there were thriving regional and, for some goods, national markets.
• Perlin also put believed that central control was weak in many areas, especially in southern India.

Additional Information

• The history of South Indian polity in the early medieval period provides mainly the four models of analysis: Centralised Empire, Segmentary State, Early State and Feudal State.
• Stein did not accept the centralised theory of the state.
• K.A. NilakantaSastri presented a picture of a highly centralised empire under the Cholas.
• Hermann Kulke has questioned Stein’s concept of ritual sovereignty.

The correct code is (b) and (c) only.

Key Points

• Chhatrapati Shivaji, the creator of the Maratha Empire, was born on February 19, 1630, at Shivneri Fort in Pune.
• Shivaji had two sons: Sambhaji and Rajaram.
• Sambhaji, the elder son, was very popular among the courtiers.
• Sambhaji, a competent politician and a great warrior,  was also a poet.
• In 1681, Sambhaji had himself crowned and resumed his father's expansionist policies.
• During the eight years that followed, Sambhaji led the Marathas, never losing a battle or a fort to Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb had almost lost the war.
• However, in 1689, Sambhaji was killed by Aurangzeb with the help of Sambhaji's own relatives, who betrayed him.
• Aurangzeb had succeeded in winning them over to his side.
• Rajaram, Sambhaji's brother, now assumed the throne. Satara, which Rajaram had made his capital, came under siege in 1700 and was eventually surrendered to the Mughals.
• Shivaji was an able administrator and a great military commander.

1. He collected land revenue after surveying land.
2. He appointed his own revenue officials.
3. Chauth and sardeshmukhi were taxes collected in the neighbouring territories of Mughals or sultans.
4. Chauth was one-fourth of the land revenue to be paid to avoid raids by Marathas.
5. Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% on lands Marathas claimed as hereditary rights.

So both options (b) and (c) are correct.

Additional Information

• Shivaji was the pivot point in the administration and was assisted by ministers directly responsible to him.
• Most of the administrative reforms of Shivaji were influenced by the Delhi sultanates.
• Rajaram**, who had taken refuge in Jinji nine years earlier, died at about the same time in 1700.**
• His widow, Tarabai, assumed control in the name of her son Shivaji.
• Although she offered a truce, this was rejected by the emperor.
• Here, Tarabai ruled indirectly and his infant son Shivaji was the real Emperor.

Tomb of Sher Shah Suri - Sasaram

• The tomb of Sher Shah Suri is situated in Sasaram in Rohtas district of Bihar state in India.
• The tomb was built in memory of Emperor Sher Shah Suri, a Pathan from Bihar who defeated the Mughal Empire and founded the Suri Empire in northern India.
• Sher Shah Suri lived from 1486 to 1545 and is also known as Sher Khan or the Lion King.
• He founded the Sur Dynasty and ruled much of Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India.
• His tomb is in the manner of Mughal garden tombs but is set in the midst of a lake.
• He died in an accidental gunpowder explosion in the fort of Kalinjar on the 10th day of Rabi' al-awwal,13 May 1545 AD.

Humayun’s Tomb - Delhi

• The Tomb was commissioned by Humayun's first wife Haji Bano Begum in 1570 at Delhi.
• The architecture of the Tomb is strongly influenced by Persian Architecture. The architecture was Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, who himself was from Persia.
• Constructed out of Red Sandstone, the Tomb was the first-ever garden-style Tomb to be constructed in India.
• Tomb stands in the centre of Charbagh style of garden's with pool linked through channels which also the show's the Persian way of Architecture.
• It was inscribed as a UNESCO World heritage monument in 1993.

Char Minar - Hyderabad

• The Charminar ("Four Minarets"), constructed in 1591, is a monument and mosque located in Hyderabad.
• Char Minar is located on the banks of River Musi in Hyderabad.
• The landmark has become a global icon of Hyderabad, listed among the most recognized structures of India.
• It was built by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shahi to celebrate the end of a deadly plague.

Gol Gumbaz - Bijapur

• Gol Gumbaz is located in Bijapur, the state of Karnataka. In the literal sense, the name means a circular dome.
• It’s the Mausoleum of king Adil Shah, who was the Sultan of Bijapur and got completed in 1656.

• The Golaki Matha is a monastery dedicated to Lord Shiva, located in Tewar, near Jabalpur of Madhya Pradesh. Tewar is also known as Tripuri, which was the seat of the Kalachuri dynasty that ruled Central India in the early medieval period.
• The core region of the rule of the Kalachuri dynasty was also known as the Chedi region or the Dahala – Mandala. The Kalachuris ruled Central India from the 7^th – 13^th century.
• An inscription found in the Guntur district of Madhya Pradesh at Malkapuram which is dated to the 13^th century tells us that the head of this congregation was Vishveshwara Shambu and its founder was Sadbhav Sambhu who was granted 300,000 villages by the Kalachuri King Yuvraj Deva to run the organization.
• Hence based on the above information options a, b, c and d is correct.

• The Persian wheel is described as Araghatta in the Sanskrit texts, ara means spoke and ghatta means pot.
• The ghati yantra is also described as “cakka – vattaka” in the Panchtantra and Rajataringini.
• Hence the Ghatiyantra was used in the early medieval period for irrigation

The Central Structure of the Mughal Empire is authored by historian Ibn Hasan was published in the year 1936; the author was a Reader at the Osmania University, Hyderabad and passed away in the year 1935. This work of his was published posthumously. This work studies and documents the administrative structure of the Mughal Empire under its different emperors and provides to its reader an institutional history of the Empire.

W.H. Moreland wrote India at the Death of Akbar, An Economic Study. It was published in the year 1974. This work by Moreland becomes an important source in the study of the Indian economic system in the 17^th century and the author states that the reason for studying the state of the Indian economy is important as this was the time exactly before the Europeans come into India and begin the slow and eventual changes which later take shape of colonialism and results in economic ramification of a different kind.

M. Athar Ali’s work “The Mughal Nobility Under Aurangzeb” was published in 1966, studies the imperial structure of administration under Emperor Aurangzeb and examines the composition of nobility and their role in the centralized Mughal Empire.

The Provinical Government of the Mughals was published in 1974 and is authored by Paratma Saran is a study of the institutions of the Mughal Empire. It studies not only the components of the political organization but also the socio-cultural institutions of the empire.

Hence the correct order is - a-iv, b-i, c-ii, d-iii.

• The first Carnatic War occurred in India in the backdrop of a France - England hostility over Austria, this hostility played out in the colonies as well and can be seen on the Coromandel coast over Madras, while the French had captured Madras from the English general Peyton, The Nawab of Arcot intervened and asked the French and the English to not engage in hostilities and carry out trading activities only, meanwhile the French general La Bourdonnais had secretly negotiated a handsome bribe with the English East India Company in lieu of Madras which the Dupleix his co – French general was against. La Bourdonnais after a furious argument with Dupleix had left for Achin.
• Hence it’s quite plausible to argue that La Bourdonnais asserted his independence and sought personal benefits from the English East India Company in lieu of Madras.
• Hence option D is the correct answer.

• The cult of Devarãja or Royal god, called in Khmer Karatan Jagat ta Raja, has engaged the attention of a number of scholars. It is suggested by Bosch that Central Java was the place from where this cult spread in Champa and Kambuja.
• Java got its Agastya cult from Kunjara-Kunja in southern India. It is difficult, in the words of Dr. R. C. Majumdar, to form a clear and precise idea of this cult which seems to be the designation of the linga (Siva) representing the essence of the royal authority.
• This religious belief instituted by him provided religious sanctity to the power of the king.
• Being conceived as divine and regarded as the tutelary deity, it was placed in a temple on the top of a mountain, or on the summit of a pyramid construction representing Kailāsa, the abode of the gods.
• On the other hand, there are also indications that it was not merely a particular linga, but it symbolised a ritual or ceremony which was Tāntric in character. The institution of this cult for a particular purpose and its continuation even in the time of the Buddhist emperors Suryavarman I and Jayavarman VII, suggest its politico-religious importance.
• Kingship thus has divine affiliations, and this divine affiliation was demonstrated through symbols such as temples, which attached great importance to this belief system.
• The ceremony, declaring the king as devraja, was officiated by a high priest was also had connotations that sought to declare the sovereignty of Cambodia from Java as highlighted by historian Hermann Kulke.
• Hence based on the above information Option A is the correct answer.

• Istakhari was an Arab geographer and traveller, who lived in the 10^th century in the Iranian city.
• He wrote his accounts in Arabic and his work informs us about the regions he visited during the Abbasid Caliphate.
• He is the author of Masalik al Mamalik and Suwar al Aqalim.
• He is known to have travelled to India too. His work Masalik al Mamalik has also being utilized by Elliot and Dowson for writing the History of India Vol. 1.
• We don't have any consensus stating that he lived in Khark in Khorasan because some resources state him as Arab while others state him as Persian.
• It is true that he wrote the books Kitab al-Aqalim and Masalik wal Mamalik and these are now in the oxford's museum.
• He also drew the map of the world and also of the Persian Gulf. These maps were drawn as an explanation in his books. The fact that he visited India is also true because he and his friend Ibn Hakul were famous Travellers and geographers of his times in the 10th century.
• Hence based on the above information Option 1 is incorrect.

• The Government of India Act of 1935 first used the term “Scheduled Castes”, in stating its commitment to providing a separate and communal electorate for certain sections of society. The Scheduled Classes in this Act are referred to as Depressed Classes as well.
• The GOI Act of 1935 is an important milestone in the constitutional history of India because it allowed for more decentralization of power, which was now being transferred to provincial legislative assemblies. This act was a result of a long drawn struggle by Indian nationalist leaders for getting constitutional rights from the colonial government.
• The correct Option is Option 3.
• The Indian Councils Act of 1909 is also known as the Morely - Minto Reforms. These reforms allowed for the Central Legislature seats to be expanded from 16 to 60 and increased the number of members in the Legislative councils of the 3 Presidencies. It was through these reforms that Indian were first given space in the imperial legislative councils. This act also introduced separate electorates for Muslims.
• The Government of India Act 1919 introduced the system of dyarchy in British India i.e. heralding the coming of a provincial government for the first time, this Act was implemented when Lord Chelmsford was the Viceroy of India. The executive now had two parts to it one which was appointed by the crown and the other comprised of ministers who were chosen by the governor from the provincial legislature, these were mainly Indians.

This statement is made by the British official Holt Mackenzie, and is quoted in the book by Eric Stokes. Stoke’s work titled “Peasants and the Raj” examines the changes that came in the agrarian society in the 19^th century, especially in the immediate aftermath of the 1857 revolt. 

Holt remarks the policies of the colonial government which had overturned the existing land relations in northern India, had greatly impacted the landed elites, who could now no longer get back to their earlier position, the newer kinds of revenue settlements brought in by the new government disposed of the hereditary rights of these landowners, which Holt refers to the “melancholy and extensive revolution.

• The rule of Iltutmish is marked by a remarkable consolidation of the Sultanate power in Delhi, he freed the newly established Sultanate from the influence of Ghur or Ghazni, the seat of Turkish power located in Afghanistan. His power in Delhi was now steadier and the city was his political capital.
• Historian Satish Chandra writes that Itutmish also made the city a symbol of the Turkish cultural traditions and hence Delhi became one of the most frequented cities by poets, scholars, dervishes as well as bureaucrats. Iltutmish also commissioned newer structures such as minars, madarsas, etc.
• Chandra writes that the Sultan accorded great respect to the Sufi Saint of his time Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki whose dargah was right next to his capital city.
• The untimely death of this first son made Iltutmish hand over the reins of his Sultanate to his daughter Raziya, who became the first and only woman Sultana of the Delhi Sultanate.
• The reason why Iltutmish did not select his other sons to be his heir as they were all incompetent and Raziya had shown great administrative capabilities right from a very young age and understood the state of affairs well, this clearly points to the liberal thought process of the ruler, who was a good statesman and efficient administrator.
• Thus based on the informative above statements a, c, and d are correct and hence Option 3 is correct.

Key Points

• Iltutmish was a son-in-law of Aibak. He ruled the Ghurid regions of northern India.
• Iltutmish was the greatest of the slave rulers of Delhi, who shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi.
• He completed the construction of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and the Qutb Minar.
• He introduced the two coins of the Sultanate, the silver tanka, and the copper jital.
• He also introduced the Iqtadari system in which the kingdom was divided into Iqtas which were assigned to nobles in exchange for a salary.

Ghunyat al Munyah

• The Ghunyat al-Munyah is a treatise on Indian music composed in Gujarat in 776/1374-75.
• The name of the author is not known.
• It was written at the request of the governor of Gujarat Malik Sams al-Din Ibrahim Ḥasan Abu Raja.
• It is divided into two parts (qism).
• The first is on the song (surud) and musical instruments (mazamir), and the second is on dance (raqs) and on the rules to be followed during the musical assembly (sara’iṭ-i adab-i majlis).

Additional Information

Ijaz-i Khusravi​

• Ijaz-e-Khusravi (The Miracles of Khusrau) composed by Amr Khusrau is a collection of prose.
• This volume was composed in the era of Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah by title “Ijaz-e Khusravi” comprising of five books.
• The word ‘khayal’ literally means ‘thought’ or ‘imagination’.
• Ejaz-e-Khusravi contains several references to this term.

Nuh-Sipihr

• Amir Khusrau composed a masnavi on Mubarak Shah as “Nuh Sipihr” (Nine Skies), telling the occasions of Mubarak Shah’s rule.
• He categorized his poesy in nine sections, for each part is deliberated as a sky.
• In the third section, he composed an intense explanation of India and its surroundings, seasons, vegetation and wildlife, philosophies, ethos, traditions, researchers, etc.

Qiran-us Sadain

• Composed by Amir Khusrau.
• Qiran-us-Sa’dain (Meeting of the Two Auspicious Stars) is regarding the remarkable gathering of Bughra Khan and his son Kikabad after extensive hatred (1289).

• It was in the reign of Sultan Zainul Abidin, who ruled in the opening decades of the 15^th century, and was also known as Bud Shah (Great King).
• The Sultan who was himself well educated was a great patron of literature and learning, he is known to have built schools and contributed generously to the development of a rich library in his empire, which had texts of languages such as Persian, Sanskrit, as well as Arabic.
• It was during his reign that Mullah Ahmed translated the Mahabharata into Persian.

• The greater bulk of Kalpasutra paintings emerges from 14th to mid-16th centuries.
• These Kalpasutras are mostly from Western India, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the western region of Malwa.
• One of the identifying features of fifteenth-century Jain painting is the increasingly lavish use of applied gold. A unique illustrated Kalpasutra manuscript from Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh, dated ca. 1465.
• The Mandu (Malwa, now in Madhya Pradesh) Kalpasutras of 1439 and some of their contemporary renderings from Gujarat and western Rajasthan, Mewar and Marwar, are all masterpieces of Indian miniature art.
• Therefore, the earliest of the Jain Kalpasutra paintings belongs to Jaunpur and Gujarat.

Additional Information

• Kalpasutra is a Jain ancient text containing the biographies of the last two Jain Tirthankaras, Parshvanath and Mahavira.
• It contains detailed life histories with illustrations. Adinath (or RishabhDev) andNeminath are two other Tirthankaras briefly mentioned in the text, with Adinath depicted in some of the illustrations.
• The book is considered to be written by Bhadrabahu I, and it is considered written about 150 years after Nirvana of Mahavira. Kalpasutra art has its origin acclaimed in the 5th century.
• It is claimed that the Kalpasutras, though on a different medium, were part of the same sectarian art tradition as the ancient murals of Ajanta, Bagh and other monasteries.
• However, the earliest known Kalpasutras do not go beyond the 10th century and the number from the period from the 10th to 13th centuries is very small.

The correct answer is Illtutmish.

Key Points

• Iltutmish was the second Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.
• He was a former slave of Qutbuddin Aibak, the first Sultan.
• Iltutmish was a shrewd and capable ruler.
• He consolidated the power of the Delhi Sultanate and expanded its territory.
• He also introduced many Persian administrative and cultural practices to India.
• The books Adab us Salatin and Maasir us Salatin were written by Persian scholars.
• They deal with the principles of the Persian monarchy.
• Iltutmish obtained these books from Baghdad and had them translated into Arabic.
• He then used them to educate his sons on the principles of Persian monarchy.

Therefore, the Sultan who invoked Persian monarchical traditions and adjusted them to the Indian milieu is Iltutmish.

Additional Information

The other options are incorrect:

• Qutbuddin Aibek was the first Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate. He did not invoke Persian monarchical traditions.
• Balban was the third Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate. He was a conservative ruler who did not adopt many Persian practices.
• Jalaluddin Khalji was the fourth Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate. He was a military leader who did not focus on administration or culture.

The first statement talks about the peasant and tribal resistance which was a characteristic feature pre – 1857 was mainly because the British policies had entirely eroded the traditional rights of the people inhabiting an area. The emphasis on profit maximization angered the peasants and tribals alike as the new laws completely disregarded their livelihood practices.

The Sanyasi and the Chuar Uprising in the Bengal and Bihar regions which started in the 1760s marked the beginning of such resistances which continued year after year, while resistances were a regular feature, they cannot be linked to each other, but the common feature to all of these was a struggle for their traditional rights and practices.

The peasant and the tribal community lived in close proximity to each other in a village or town, and the impact of the colonial policies was felt by both groups but in a slightly different way. Thus therefore we see numerous peasant as well as tribal revolts during this time and sometimes the identities of the peasant and tribal may have overlapped but we also know of long drawn tribal resistance which specifically focused on the issue of the tribal land and forest rights such as the Santhal Rebellion, Bhil Uprising, Kol, Uprising as well as the Mappila Resistance.

The second statement is in respect to the changes brought about by the land revenue systems of the British colonial government, which although gave land rights to the zamindars. It also made them very susceptible to losing all their lands if they failed to pay revenue to the state. Thus the zamindar’s position was also precarious as they focused on extracting maximum revenue from the peasant. This system greatly impoverished the agricultural system which could not be diversified and the condition of the peasant deteriorated due to heavy taxation and no security to livelihood. The rural society saw turmoil and great hardships as the faulty policies of the colonial state did not take into account its impact on the socio-economic structure of an agrarian economy.

Thus while both the statements are correct, they do not explain each other. Hence Option 2 is the correct answer.

• The above statements are in reference to administrative policies of Muhammad bin Tughlaq who is regarded as one of the most experimental rulers of the Sultanate. He pioneered numerously administrative policies which were not only visionary but also had far-reaching consequences.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq was also deeply interested in diverse religious sects and groups; he engaged in religious discussions with members of different groups and believed in rational thinking. His nobility was also a composite one and so was his bureaucracy. His army was also quite open to different groups.
• When Ghiyas-us-Din Tughlaq attacked Delhi his army was composed of soldiers having a different racial, tribal and national background.
• They were, Ghuzz, Turkish, Mongol, Greek, Russian, Persian, Tajik and Hindu soldiers in his army. Such foreign elements must have also constituted the army of Sultan Ala-ud-Din-Khalji, as we don't find any reference to the recruitment of such diverse elements by Ghiyas-ud-din-Tughlaq to attack Delhi.
• The Hindus too were in his army and they constituted a larger part of the Delhi array under Nasir-ud-Din-Khusrau Tughlaq Namah describes the composition of the Delhi army under Khusrau this," It was half Muslim and half Hindu, mixed together like black and clouds.
• The Musalmans in the service of the Hindus were as friendly to them like their own shadow, they were as closely bound to the Hindus as the charity of the Musalmans is bound up with their sins. The army was so full of Hindus and Musalmans that both Hindus and Musalmans were surprised.
• The Maasalik-ul-Absar states that soldier's in the army of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq were composed of Purks, Khitais, Persians and Indians. Muhammad bin Tughlaq believed in having a broad base administrative system by recruiting for service person irrespective of their religion, caste, nationality etc,. Zia-ud-Din-Barani writes-
• ‘Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq talked as if he hated low-born people more than he hated idols, Nevertheless, I have seen him promoting Najba, the low-born son of a musician, to such an extent that he rose higher in status than many maliks, for Gujarat, Multan and Badaon were put in his charge . . . It was strange how he gave high offices and governments of extensive territories and great provinces to men of low and mean birth’.
• Ibn Batuta testifies Barani's statement as we find in the Rehla that the Hindus held a high position, e.g, Ratan was appointed as the governor of Sind with the title of Azim us-Sind, He was even permitted to keep a drum and flag, which was an honour conferred upon great amirs only.
• Hence in the light of the above information, the correct option is Option 1

• The Sultan who forbade Muslim women to come out of houses and visit tombs outside Delhi was Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq and Sikander Lodi.
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq was a very efficient administrator; his policies not only helped the consolidation of his empire but also founded newer cities in different parts of his empire. He also made provisions for the construction of canals, dams, reservoirs, mosques and schools. He also restored and repaired several pre-existing monuments such as the Qutub Minar.
• Firuz Tughlaq was also a very devout Muslim and aligned his administrative and political policies according to the Shariat. He actively took the advice of the ulemas and imposed administration regulations as per Islamic law. It was in this spirit, that the law was passed that restricted Muslim women to come out of their houses or visit tombs outside Delhi.
• Lokesh Chandra Nand’s pioneering work on the life and conditions of Women in the Delhi Sultanate talks about the restrictions placed by the 2 Sultans on Muslim women, this work also talks about the status and condition of widows during the Sultanate period. The work also documents the life of ordinary women during this period and the rules they were supposed to follow.
• Hence the correct answer is Option 2

A History of the Sepoy War in India – 1857 – 58 is a book authored by Sir John William Kaye. Kaye was a civil servant and military historian. This work of his was published in 3 volumes and was later expanded on by historian GB Malleson. These three volumes were published from 1864- 1876.

The Indian Mutiny of 1857 was authored by G.B. Malleson and was published in the year 1891. This account of the mutiny explores the reasons for the revolt, looking beyond the immediate issue of the greased cartridges.

The Other side of the Medal is authored by Edward J. Thompson and was published in 1925. The book deals with the analysis of the events and actions that lead to the Revolt of 1857.

Sir George Mac Munn wrote, The Indian Mutiny in Perspective in the year 1931. His other publications include Vignettes from Indian Wars and The Martial Races of India.

Hence the correct order is a-iii, b-iv, c-ii, d-i

• The rule of Balban was marked by attempts to consolidate power and increase the prestige of “Sultan” by introducing in the court ceremonies, certain Persian traditions. He also instituted measures to check the Turkish nobility in the court.
• He introduced in his court a new order of nobility and gave new positions to this new class of nobility which was placed directly under his control.
• This newer nobility was put in charge of all-powerful positions. He successfully ended the influence of the group of 40 Turkish nobles which was called Turkhan –i- Chihalgani. He also abolished the position of the naik to gain better control over the administration of his empire.
• The muqti was the holder of the iqta, he was supposed to raise a standing army to aid the Sultan in times of need. Balban also instructed the muqtis send the fawazil (balance of his income, after deducting his army’s expenditure). The centralizing of the revenue administration under Balban led to the appointment of the Khwaja, who was appointed to keep a record of the income of the iqtas.
• Thus the correct option is 1.

Charles Trevelyan

• Trevelyan was not a politician, he was a career civil servant.
• As Assistant Secretary to the Treasury, he was the most senior official responsible for overseeing the British exchequer, taking up this post in 1840.
• At the age of eighteen, he was sent to India to study at Fort William College, Calcutta, where he excelled in Indian languages, and was appointed to a post in Delhi in 1827.
• He was later appointed to the Political Department of the government of India, working closely with the reformist Lord William Bentinck, the Governor-General of India (1828-1835).

Additional Information

​H.T. Colebrooke

• Henry Thomas Colebrooke (1765-1837) was a Sanskrit scholar and orientalist.
• He was born in London,
• He was educated at home and at fifteen was adept in classics and mathematics.
• In 1782 Colebrooke was appointed to a writership in India.
• He held administrative, legal and academic posts whilst in India during which time he learnt Sanskrit.
• He was thus able to translate “Digest of Hindu Laws”, unfinished by Sir William Jones.
• He translated the two treatises, the Mitacshara of Vijnaneshwara and the Dayabhaga of Jimutavahana under the title Law of Inheritance.

​

H.H. Wilson

• Horace Hayman (26 September 1786 – 8 May 1860) was an English orientalist who was elected the first Boden Professor of Sanskrit at  Wilson Oxford University.
• He acted for many years as secretary to the committee of public instruction and superintended the studies of the Sanskrit College in Calcutta.
• He was one of the staunchest opponents of the proposal that English should be made the sole medium of instruction in native schools.
• He was interested in Ayurveda and traditional Indian medical and surgical practices.
• He compiled the local practices observed for cholera and leprosy in his publications in the Medical and Physical Society of Calcutta.

Edwin Arnold

• Sir Edwin Arnold, born June 10, 1832, was a poet and journalist.
• He was best known as the author of The Light of Asia (1879), an epic poem in an elaborately Tennysonian blank verse that describes, through the mouth of an “imaginary Buddhist votary,” the life and teachings of the Buddha.
• Pearls of the Faith (1883), on Islam, and The Light of the World (1891), on Christianity, were less successful.

Jamal-al-Din Afghani

Sayyid Jamal al-din al-Afghani, who visited India for the second time after his expulsion from Egypt by the Khedive Tewfiq Pasha in 1878 (4). Al-Afhgani spent over a year in Hyderabad (Deccan) and in Calcutta, and wrote a number articles in which he violently attacked Sayyid Ahmad Khan's religio-political approach to the problems facing Muslim India. He persuaded the Ulamas in India to work for Independence in cooperation with the Indian National Congress.

The disagreement between Jamal al-din al-Afghani and Sayyid Ahmad Khan consists of three cardinal points:

1. al-Afghani did not agree with the extremist rationalism of a least some of Sayyid Ahmad Khan's views, and regarded his new 'Ilm al-Kalam as a heresy in so far as it seemed to falsify the words of Qur'an.
2. He regarded Sayyid Ahmad Khan's religious views and his educational programme as ancillary to his political servi- tude to British interests in India, whereas al-Afghani himself was bitterly anti-British.
3. As a logical consequence of the second point, he saw Sayyid Ahmad Khan as his main adversary in India, opposed to Pan-Islamism, isolating the Indian Muslims from the rest of Ddr-al Islam, especially from the Turks, and hostile to the conception of a universal Muslim Khilaf

Additional InformationMuhammed Iqbal

• Iqbal was a poet and philosopher known for his influential efforts to direct his fellow Muslims in British-administered India toward the establishment of a separate Muslim state, an aspiration that was eventually realized in the country of Pakistan.
• He was knighted in 1922.
• His thesis, The Development of Metaphysics in Persia, revealed some aspects of Islamic mysticism formerly unknown in Europe.

Ghulam Mahmud

• Ghulam Mahmud was an Indian religious leader and the founder of the Ahmadiyya movement in Islam.
• He claimed to have been divinely appointed as the promised Messiah and Mahdi—which is the metaphorical second coming of Jesus, in fulfilment of Islam's latter day prophecies, as well as the Mujaddid (centennial reviver) of the 14th Islamic century.

• Mughal Emperor Akbar was known for his visionary administrative policies which allowed him to stabilize all frontiers of the Mughal Empire and establish a network of allied support for the empire. The initial period of Akbar’s rule was under the regency of Bairam Khan, as the emperor was still a minor and the powerful nobility comprised of the Khurasanis and Turanis.
• After the end of the regency period, Akbar adopted policies that led to the creation of composite nobility; the most remarkable among these was establishing matrimonial alliances with the Rajputs and inducting them into the mansab system.
• He also gave more emphasis on talent and merit in appointments to administrative positions and actively recruited Indian Muslims (Shaikhzadas) and Hindus in his court. Apart from these groups, Akbar also recruited Kambohs, a tribal group predominant in the Punjab region, the Kambohs were either Hindu or Sikhs, as pointed out by historian Satish Chandra.
• Akbar also initiated numerous measures to strengthen the mansab and the jagirdari system, a system of military and administrative governance, which was governed by the rank system.  He later instituted the Dahsala system, in combination with the Dagh system, i.e. branding of the horses to streamline military administration.
• In light of the above statements, we can conclude that Option 3 is the correct answer.

Jyotiba Phule

• One of the most vocal amongst the “low-caste” leaders was Jyotirao Phule. Born in 1827, he studied in schools set up by Christian missionaries.
• He was one of the earliest leaders of the non-Brahmin movement born in Maharashtra.
• He set out to attack the Brahmans’ claim that they were superior to others since they were Aryans.
• According to Phule, the “upper” castes had no right to their land and power: in reality, the land belonged to indigenous people, the so-called low castes.
• Phule claimed that before Aryan rule there existed a golden age when warrior-peasants tilled the land and ruled the Maratha countryside in just and fair ways.
• He proposed that Shudras (labouring castes) and Ati Shudras (untouchables) should unite to challenge caste discrimination.
• The Satyashodhak Samaj, an association Phule founded, propagated caste equality.
• His words and actions represent a form of universal humanism. Phule worked for a new social structure built on equality and rationality.
• To comprehend the extent to which Phule's thinking was revolutionary from a cultural point of view, one can note one simple fact: in almost all of his writings, he never uses the term "Hindu".
• Contrary to practically every other Indian of his day and the vast majority of his followers, he does not take his standpoint from within a valued tradition and seek to locate the essence of it from which other aspects can be criticised.
• Rather, he takes a stand from without and judges the whole culture in terms of two ruthlessly applied values, rationality and equality.
• This is not to say that he was speaking like an alien to Indian society; his actions, language and writings show a clear placement among and identification with the masses and their traditions.
• He does not take a stance outside the society but rather one outside the cultural system which had for so long dominated that society. From the point of view of equality, the entire caste system and the authoritarian family structure was to be condemned.
• From the point of view of rationality, the whole system of superstition and religious traditionalism was to be overthrown, the whole corpus of religious writings stripped of authority.
• With this as his beginning point, Phule is saved from a good deal of unnecessary arguments, qualifications, compromises and logical inconsistencies.
• He does not, for instance, waste much breath arguing over the relative merits of different parts of the Hindu sacred scriptures.
• He simply treats them as legends that may offer some insights into past Indian history and as products of a group (Brahmans, Aryans) seeking to establish control over the minds of the people.
• Hence, one can simply say that the last statement is incorrect as Phule did not reject all Hindu scriptures rather didn't take any stance on that.

Lord Canning

• Lord Canning was the Governor-General of India ( 1856 - 1860 ) during the revolt of 1857.
• He became the first Viceroy of India in 1858.
• He is also known as "Viscount Canning".
• He established three modern universities in India, Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay.
• During his administration, the Doctrine of Lapse was withdrawn.
• He is also called as Clemency Canning.
• He also introduced the Portfolio system.
• During his tenure, the Government of India Act, 1858 was passed which created the office of Viceroy to be held by the same person who was Governor-General of India.
• The important events during his tenure include:
• The Mutiny of 1857, which he was able to suppress successfully,
• Passing of Indian Councils Act, 1861 which introduced a portfolio system in India.
• Withdrawal of “Doctrine of Lapse” which was one of the main reasons for the mutiny of 1858.
• Introduction of the Code of Criminal Procedure.
• Enactment of Indian High Courts Act.
• Indian Penal Code (1858)
• Bengal Rent Act (1859)
• Introduction of Income-tax on experimental basis etc.

The correct option is (a), (b), (c), (d).

Key Points

• The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth (the path or sect of Kabir) in Varanasi and elsewhere in Uttar Pradesh.
• Bijak is the best known of the compilations of the Kabir, and as such is the holy scripture for followers of the Kabirpanthi religion.
• The Bijak, an anthology of Kabir’s verses compiled in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and/or Bihar, is one of Kabir’s most influential works.
• In the case of the Guru Granth Sahib, Kabir’s poems were collected to be sung and organized in ragas.
• Verses ascribed to Kabir have been compiled in three distinct but overlapping traditions.
• The Kabir Granthavali is associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan, and many of his compositions are found in the Adi Granth Sahib.
• Charlotte Vaudeville argues that the corpus of Kabir in the Adi Granth is ‘free from the Kabir Panthi sectarian element’.
• Kabir's legacy survives and continues through the Kabir panth "Path of Kabir", a religious community that recognises him as its founder and is one of the Sant Mat sects.
• Its members are known as Kabir panthis.
• David Lorenzen believes that all three major collections of Kabir contain interpolations of material from other sources.
• Some commentators suggest Kabir's philosophy to be a syncretic synthesis of Hinduism and Islam, but scholars widely state that this is false and a misunderstanding of Kabir.
• The different versions of these texts exist and it is unclear which one is more original; for example, Kabir Bijak exists in two major recessions.

Hence we conclude that the correct option is (a), (b), (c), (d).

The correct answer is – a-iii, b-i, c-iv, d-ii

• First mention of spinning wheel in India
• Recorded by Isami, an early Indo-Persian historian.
• Indicates the introduction of spinning technology in medieval India.
• Soap manufacture
• Described by Thevenot, a French traveller.
• Highlights indigenous knowledge of chemical processes.
• Cylinder and piston syringe
• Mentioned in Sirat-i-Firuzshahi.
• Reflects advancements in medical and mechanical instruments.
• Grooved screw as metal attachment
• Noted by Monserrate, a Jesuit missionary.
• Shows awareness of mechanical techniques in India.

Additional Information

• Sirat-i-Firuzshahi
• A historical work associated with the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
• Contains references to technological and administrative practices.
• European Travellers’ Accounts
• Writings of Thevenot and Monserrate are key sources for understanding medieval Indian technology.
• Isami
• Known for documenting early socio-economic and technological developments in India.

• Sher Shah Suri minted and issued huge number of silver coins which later came to be known as Dam.
• He fixed the rate of copper and silver coins and abolished all old and  mixed metal old currency coins.
• The silver coins are issued on the weight standard of Rupiya (about 11-11.5 gms,) ,was also introduced by Sher Shah Suri.
• The Suri Empire left Humayun a reformed and largely standardized coinage, consisting of the gold mohur (about 11 grams), the silver rupee(about 11.5 grams), and the copper dam or paisa (of variable weight).
• One mohur typically traded for 15 rupees, and one rupee exchanged for 48 dam, but the market value of gold, silver and copper fluctuated freely.
• The termed Dam was used for the copper coins of Mughal period. It weighed about 20 gms.
• Hence, the statement given in Assertion is true.

In the next step, we will consider the Reason.

• The Aravalli and Vindhyan Ranges have  significant mineral deposits of base metals (copper, lead and zinc), noble metals (gold and silver) and building material such as marble, granite and more.
• It is no wonder therefore that the Aravalli have been supporting the mining industry from way back in history.
• The claim is backed by the existence of copper mines dating back to the fifth century BC  the presence of zinc smelters in the Zawar area of Rajasthan, dating to the thirteenth century and several historical monuments built using local construction material from this range.
• The prices also varied in different regions depending upon the proximity to the area as the process of metal extraction was a long and difficult.
• Here statement of the Reason is also true.

Conclusion- We can say that both statements of Assertion and Reason are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).

• The administrative system of the Mughals rested on the twin systems of mansabdari and jagirdari put in place by Emperor Akbar to streamline the military and administrative capabilities of the empire.
• The mansab granted to the nobility ranged from 10 to 5000 and were divided into 56 categories.
• The Rajputs were an important part of the Mughal nobility and were often granted high mansabs and the right to retain their hereditary principalities as watan jagirs, the Rajput policy initiated by Akbar was continued duly by his successors as pointed out by historian Nurul Hasan. The latter discusses the role of the Mughal landed elites in his seminal work “Zamindars under the Mughals”, in which he analyses the numerous farmans issued  by Mughal rulers to their zamindars concerning various issues.
• Historian Rana Safvi, talking about the historical context of the construction of the Taj Mahal, tell us the back story of how the land was purchased by Shah Jahan from Raja Jai Singh, a close relative of Raja Man Singh, the latter a close associate of Akbar. She also tells us about the imperial Farman which stipulated the procurement of the Makrana Marble for the construction of the Taj Mahal.
• Hence Option 3 is correct.

• Leopold von Ranke was a German historian, he is regarded as a pioneering influence in the study of history, and his works redefined modern historiography. His tall corpus of work is exhaustive and is especially known for the treatment of its historical sources.
• Ranke stressed the importance of primary sources and argued that such sources need to be very carefully examined in order to understand at a conclusive understanding of a historical event or process. In his view, the process of critically examining the sources was the most important way of reaching the historical truth.
• Ranke is considered the “Father of modern historiography”, it is due to his efforts that archival research and analysis of sources, received an important place in the historical method.
• Based on the above information we can hence conclude that the following statement - Ranke believed that historical imagination could be used if documents were not available for history writing is not true.

Additional Information

• Age of Enlightenment -  In the 18^th century, the changes in political thought and philosophy was informed by the changing socio-political events of the time, this period is also called the Age of Reason – (1685- 1815). The thinkers of this period routinely criticized traditional thought and authority and advocated newer ideals of humanism and rational thought.

Key Points

• Common Sense is a 47-page pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1775–1776 advocating independence from Great Britain to people in the Thirteen Colonies. Writing in clear and persuasive prose, Paine marshaled moral and political arguments to encourage common people in the Colonies to fight for egalitarian government. It was published anonymously on January 10, 1776 at the beginning of the American Revolution and became an immediate sensation.
• Rights of Man (1791), a book by Thomas Paine, including 31 articles, posits that popular political revolution is permissible when a government does not safeguard the natural rights of its people. Using these points as a base it defends the French Revolution against Edmund Burke's attack in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790).
• The Age of Reason is a work by English and American political activist Thomas Paine, arguing for the philosophical position of deism. It follows in the tradition of 18th-century British deism, and challenges institutionalized religion and the legitimacy of the Bible. It was published in three parts in 1794, 1795, and 1807.
• It was a best-seller in the United States, where it caused a short-lived deistic revival. British audiences, fearing increased political radicalism as a result of the French Revolution, received it with more hostility.

Additional Information

• Reflections on the Revolution in France is a political pamphlet written by the Irish statesman Edmund Burke and published in November 1790. Reflections is a defining tract of modern conservatism as well as an important contribution to international theory. Above all else, it has been one of the defining efforts of Edmund Burke's transformation of "traditionalism into a self-conscious and fully conceived political philosophy of conservatism".

Abhinindranath Tagore

• A prominent artist born in 1871 from Bengal.
• A supporter of swadeshi values in art.
• Founder of Indian Society of Oriental Art.
• The painting 'My Mother' was painted by Abanindranath Tagore in 1912-13.
• It is a miniature painting decorated with an ornamental border.
• It was painted by Abanindranath Tagore after the death of his mother.
• He was also the first major exponent of Swadeshi values in Indian art and thus established the influential art school in Bengal which led to the development of modern Indian painting.
• He also wrote books like Rajkahini, Budo Angla, Nalak, and Khirer Putul are landmarks in Bengali language children's literature.
  

In 1942, he became Chancellor of Visva Bharati.

• Mahatma Gandhi reminded Jawaharlal Nehru, ‘freedom comes to India, not to the congress’, urging the formulation of a cabinet that included the ablest men regardless of party affiliation.
• Gandhi marked 15 August 1947 with a twenty-four-hour fast. The freedom he had struggled so long for had come at an unacceptable price.
• In Delhi, there was ‘prolonged applause’ when the president of the Constituent Assembly began the meeting by invoking the Father of the Nation – Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Outside, the crowds shouted ‘Mahatma Gandhi ki jai’.
• Therefore, Gandhiji was a great leader and figure in the freedom struggle of India.

Additional Information

• ​C Rajagopalachari - An important freedom fighter. In 1947, he was appointed the first Governor of West Bengal.
• Dr. Rajendra Prasad-  Indian politician, lawyer, and journalist who was the first president of the Republic of India.He also was a comrade of Mahatma Gandhi early in the non-cooperation movement for independence and was president of the Indian National Congress.
• Vallabhbhai Patel Vallabhbhai- Patel was an Indian barrister, statesman and a prominent leader of the Indian Independence movement. Popularly known as Sardar Patel and The Ironman of India, he was the first Deputy Prime Minister and the first Home Minister of independent India.

The correct answer is option 4)

The correct options are matched below.

• Postmodernism is characterized by a general critique of reason, it states that the intellectual currents and thought processes in a society reflect or in part inspired by the dominant elite of the society and are meant to serve their interests.
• Postmodernism is thus a general reaction to the Western Philosophical trends which were prevalent from the 17^th – 19^th century. Postmodernists argue that reality is not constructed but individuals have to create their own reality, using a micro approach. Postmodernists also believe that social realities are subject to change.
• Postmodernists critique every field of thought whether its arts, science, literature, culture or architecture etc.
• Hence based on the above information, we can say that Statement B is incorrect.

Key Points

• One of the key figures in post-Rebellion canal irrigation by private companies was Sir Arthur Cotton.
• He devised an ambitious scheme to build a canal network across the Indian peninsula from Madras in the east to Mangalore in the West using the waters of the River Krishna.
• The first section of the scheme to be sanctioned was a canal from the Tungabhadra River – the Karnul canal. So eager was the government in the pursuit of capital’s interests that little thought was given to the usefulness or viability of the projects concerned.
• Lord Stanley, the Secretary of State, permitted Cotton’s scheme to proceed without challenging any of his estimates or examining its feasibility.
• In 1858 the Madras Irrigation Company was formed with a government guarantee of 5 percent on a £1m capital outlay.

• In the late 1970s, in the backdrop of the emergency, the subaltern scholars sought to study the history of the freedom movement and the emergence of Indian democracy. This group of historians sought to study these events and process, not from the pre-established lens of the nationalist historians. The approach here was the “bottoms up” approach, which attempted to look at the history of the common people and events to understand the larger historical picture.
• In the year 1988, the Oxford University Press published a series of essays which was edited by RanajitGuha and Gayatri Spivak. This set of essays were instrumental in establishing the subaltern school of historiography in India.
• Shahid Amin is a pioneering subaltern historian, In his article “Gandhi as Mahatma”, studies the reports of the local newspapers from 1921 – 22 in the city of Gorakhpur. The reports present a unique understanding of historical events and personalities during this period. As his article shows us how Gandhi was seen with someone who had divine magical powers.
• DipeshChakrabartyis also a celebrated Subaltern scholar. He writes on a variety of topics such as post-colonial history and critical historiography.
• Hence the author who is not associated with the Subaltern Studies Project in India is Ramachandra Guha. Guha writes on a range of topics related to contemporary history, politics, the environment and even cricket!

• The above statements refer to the practice of history and historical research and writing.
• History as the first statement states is the science of studying human thought, events and processes in the light of historical sources to arrive at a conclusion.
• The statement also regards history, as science and compares it with the natural sciences.
• On the other hand, the second statement seems quite at variance, because it focuses on a key difference between the sciences and the study of history since it’s not based on any laws and principles, which allow for forecasting of events or principles as in the field of scientific study.
• Since the study of history is also not based on dependable data which can be observed or studied through experimentation it is clearly different from the sciences.

Hence while both A and R are correct R does not follow from A.

• Romesh Chunder (1848-1909) civil servant, politician, political and economic thinker and writer. Better known as RC Dutt, he was born on 13 August 1848 in the well-known Dutt family of Ramnagar, Calcutta.
• His parents were Isan Chunder Dutt and Thakamani. In December 1864 Dutt passed the Entrance Examination Two years later he passed the First Arts Examination from the Presidency College.
• In 1868 he sailed for London along with Surendra Nath Banerjee and Behari Lal Gupta. The next year he passed the ICS examination.
• Dutt started his administrative career in 1871 when he was appointed Assistant Magistrate, Alipore. Later he served as Relief Officer in Meherpur (Nadia) and then in Dakhin Shahbazpur (Bakerganj), as District Magistrate in Bankura, Balasore, Bakerganj, Pabna, Mymensingh, Burdwan, Dinajpur and Midnapore, and as Divisional Commissioner of Orissa. Divisional Commissionership was the highest position ever reached by an Indian till that time.
• He retired in 1897 at the age of 49. In the normal course he had nine more years to serve.
• His ‘open letters’ on the Indian economy to Lord Curzon forced the British Indian government to publish an official rebuttal and also initiate reformatory economic measures.

The great grandfather and great-grandson pair, being talked about here is Babur and Jahangir. Babur in his memoir Baburnama, the author gives great detail of his life in Farghana and his political career and his time in India, he also discusses in detail the natural environment and climate of India, and he also talks about the fruits available in India and makes a point about the variety and abundance of fruits in his native land. He talks of the rains in India and appreciates its rapid occurrence.

In keeping with the Islamic traditions that portrait paintings of any kind, Babur it seems plausible was following the traditions. However, it is important to note that Babur in his autobiography does mention some important painters of his time such as Bihzad and Shah Muzaffar.

Additional Information

Timeline of Some Important Mughal Emperors: Babur (1526- 30), Humayun (1530 – 1556), Akbar (1556- 1605), Jahangir (1605- 1627), Shah Jahan (1628- 1658) and Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

It is interesting to note that Babur’s son Humayun is known to have commissioned an important painting which was called “Princes of the House of Timur”. It is dated to 1550. It was done on a huge piece of cloth, the enormity of this work points to the Mongoloid traditions of having huge paintings, which were placed in tents.

The Mughal style of painting developed and achieved a greater level of sophistication under successive Mughal rulers such as Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. The rulers patronized numerous artists who executed beautiful miniatures incorporating varied themes and styles. This style of painting came to be defined for its fineness, aesthetics and imperial themes was called the Mughal miniature style of painting.

• The Komagata Maru was a coal-transport steamship that had been converted into a passenger ship by Hong Kong-based businessman Gurdit Singh.
• It set off from Hong Kong in 1914, reaching Vancouver’s harbour a month later with 376 people on board, most of them Sikhs like Singh.
• The Komagata Maru was, in a sense, designed as a test of Canada’s increasingly strict immigration policies.
• Among the most cumbersome requirements for new arrivals was the Continuous Passage regulation, instituted by the Canadian government in 1908.
• It stated that immigrants must “come from the country of their birth, or citizenship, by a continuous journey” and using tickets “purchased before leaving the country of their birth or citizenship.”
• That means if you were born in India, went to China, and then continued on to Canada, you were illegal.
• The trouble was, no steamships travelled directly between Calcutta and Vancouver.
• Even if an Indian national had somehow managed to make a continuous journey, another law stated that they needed $200 in their pockets in order to be welcomed into Canada.

The Leader

• Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya published the newspaper The Leader from Allahabad in English.
• He was a moderate nationalist,
• He also served as President of the Indian National Congress.
• He founded Banaras Hindu University in 1916.
• He published the newspaper “The Leader” from Allahabad.

Additional Information

Harijan

• Published in 1933.
• It was a weekly newspaper published by Mahatma Gandhi.

Indian Opinion

• It was published by Mahatma Gandhi in 1903.

Young India

• Young India was a weekly journal published under the supervision of "Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi" from the year 1919 till 1931

• The Hindu Code Bills which came into existence in 1956 are actually a collection of 4 laws. The first amongst the four laws ‘The Hindu marriage act of 1955’ was introduced to codify the laws of marriage amongst all Hindu castes and sects in addition to Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains.  This law brought uniformity of laws for all Hindus and also introduced separation and divorce which was non-existent in earlier Sastrik law.
• The second of the acts of the Hindu code was the Hindu succession act of 1956. This law codified the succession of the estate via inheritance amongst all sections of Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains. This law gave equal rights for an inheritance to men and women. It also gave absolute authority to a woman over any property possessed by a female belonging to the above-mentioned communities.
• The third statue introduced as part of the Hindu code was the ‘Hindu minority and Guardianship act, 1956’.This law defines guardianship relationships between adults and minors and also between people of all ages. This law is also applicable to all sections of Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains. As per this law, the father is the primary guardian and the mother is the secondary guardian for a legitimate boy and a legitimate unmarried girl and their property. The mother is the primary guardian for a boy or girl less than 5 years old and the father is the secondary guardian.
• The last law of the Hindu code passed by the parliament was the ‘Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956’. This law defined the legal process to adopt children by an adult and also defined the legal obligations for an adult to provide maintenance for various family members. This law was also applicable to all sections of Hindus along with Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains.
• These laws were met with fierce opposition from conservative sections of Indian society including from conservative Congress politicians. However, it received overwhelming support from Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and the law minister B.R. Ambedkar which led to the laws being passed in 1956 despite them being introduced in the Indian parliament post-independence for the first time in 1951. Thus while both the statements are correct. R is not the correct explanation of A.

• The period from the 14^th – 16^th century is called the Renaissance period when we study European history. This period is said to have marked the break from the dark ages and ushered in a period of rethinking and discovery of Ancient Greek and Roman values, which allowed for a cultural and social revolution.
• New scientific technologies such as the printing press came to be increasingly adopted in this period to spread the Renaissance idea across Europe. The developments in art, sculpture, literature and astronomy were also noteworthy.
• The humanists argued for the superiority of Classical antiquity and through their studies sought to take a new look at their literature and philosophy to reclaim some glorious aspects of the classical civilization.
• This spread of new ideas and thought process did not however lead to the secularization of society because the level of literacy in the European society was low, and while the printing of books and its circulation via trading ships did the spread idea, it wasn’t entirely focused on democratic or secular principles to be applied to the European city-states.
• Hence while both the statements are true, R is not the correct explanation of A.

• Vishnu Digambar Paluskar was born into a family of keertankar (practitioners of musical religious form), he developed an early interest in music as he used to accompany his father to keertans at a very young age. He was trained in the Hindustani Classical Music style and trained under a Guru from the Gwalior Gharana Balkrishnabuwa Ichalkaranjikar.
• He wanted his listeners to deeply appreciate music and sought to create “Kansen’s” – this he said while inaugurating the Bharatiya Gandharav Mahavidyalya at Lahore in 1901.

• Emperor Akbar was never formally educated; however, this did not mean that he lacked practical knowledge or was disinterested in any kind of learning. It is important to note that he was fluent in languages such as Turkic, his native language and Persian. He was also well – versed with Hindustani mannerisms and customs and was trained in military skills as well. These practical skills made him one of the most successful rulers of the Mughal Empire, which reached great heights under him.
• Apart from these skills, Akbar was also known for his extraordinary memory and sense of judgment; this has been corroborated in the writings of son Jahangir’s memoir and also the accounts of Jesuit Priest at the court, Antonio Monserrate. This was facilitated by the fact that the Emperor developed a keen interest in listening to debates and discussions related to religion by engaging in discussions with religious leaders and men from all religions.
• Akbar was also known to love books and developed a huge collection of books; he had also inherited a rich collection from his father and expanded that collection. He had a staff who organized and catalogued almost 24000 books!
• The Ain-i-Akbari mentions that Akbar would choose readers every evening for books to be read to him.
• Hence the correct answer is Emperor Akbar.

Key Points

Rajaji (Raj Gopalachari) formula

• During the Second World War, the British government, under the viceroyalty of Lord Linlithgow had said that any move towards an Indian statehood would be possible only if the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League resolve their differences.
• The League was increasingly demanding a separate nation of Pakistan for the Muslims whereas the INC was against the partitioning of the country.
• To break this deadlock between the two major political parties in India**, C Rajagopalachari,** INC member who was close to Mahatma Gandhi, proposed a set of plans called the C R Formula or Rajaji Formula.
• This was the first acknowledgement by a Congressman about the inevitability of the partition of the country and a tacit acceptance of Pakistan.

Gandhi-Jinnah talks

• The CR formula acted as the basis for the negotiations. Gandhi and Jinnah met in September 1944 to ease the deadlock. Gandhi placed the CR formula as his proposal to Jinnah. Negotiations continued for two years and ultimately failed.
• Jinnah rejected CR Formula arguing that separation could not be deferred till after independence.
• Gandhi did not accept the view that the Indian Muslims constitute a separate nation, he regarded India as one family consisting of many members, and the Muslims were one of them.
• Gandhi proposed that only the Muslims living in Baluchistan, Sindh , N.W.F.P and parts of the Punjab, Bengal and Assam, who desired to lives in separation from the rest of India, should form the new state. But on this, Jinnah insisted that Pakistan should include all the six provinces resolution of the Muslim league in 1940.
• Gandhi suggested that there should be a treaty of separation to provide for foreign affairs, defense, communication, customs commerce and the like, as matters of all these matters, which were the life-blood of common central authority or government. But none of them were acceptable to Jinnah.

Bhulabhai Desai-Liaqat Ali Pact

• Desai being the leader of the Congress in the Central Assembly and a friend of Liaquat Ali (Leader of Muslim League), met him in January 1945 gave him proposals for the formation of Interim Government at centre.
• Nomination of equal number of persons by both in the Central Executive.
• Representation of the minorities in particular of the Schedule caste and the Sikhs.
• The government was to be formed and was to function with the framework of the existing Government of India Act, 1935.

Simla Conference

• Lord Wavell invited 21 political leaders including Mahatma Gandhi and M A Jinnah to Shimla, the summer capital of British India to discuss the Wavell Plan on June 25th, 1945.
• Jinnah insisted that only League members could be the Muslim representatives in the Council, and opposed to the Congress nominating Muslim members. This was because Jinnah wanted the League to be the sole representative of Muslims in India. Congress would never agree to this demand.
• .The conference was a failure because the League and the Congress could not settle their differences.

The P.C. Mahalanobis Plan

• Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis was also instrumental in formulating India’s second five-year-plan (1956-1961), which laid the blueprint for industrialisation and development in India.
• P C Mahalanobis considered the father of modern statistics in India, founded the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI), shaped the Planning Commission and pioneered methodologies for large-scale surveys.
• Mahalanobis’ birth anniversary is celebrated as National Statistics Day.

Additional Information

The Bombay Plan

• ​The Bombay Plan was a set of the proposal of a small group of influential business leaders in Bombay for the development of the post-independence economy of India. This plan was published in two parts or volume- first in 1944 and second in 1945.

The C.N. Vakil Plan

• The provision of wage goods the most important element of Vakil’s planned model.
• Prof. Vakil (along with Prof. P.R. Brahmananda) put forward an alternative approach to Indian planning, which was opposite to that of the Mahalanobis model, at the time of the formulation of the second five-year plan for India.

The John Mathais Plan

• John Mathai was an economist who served as India's first Railway Minister and subsequently as India's Finance Minister, taking office shortly after the presentation of India's first Budget, in 1948.
• Mathai graduated in economics from Madras Christian College.
• He presented two Budgets, but resigned following the 1950 Budget in protest at the increasing power of the Planning Commission and P.C. Mahalanobis.

First, we will consider the statement of Assertion.

• Centred on the idea that reason is the primary source of authority and legitimacy, the Enlightenment was a philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century.
• The Enlightenment was marked by an emphasis on the scientific method and reductionism along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy. The core ideas advocated by modern democracies, including civil society, human and civil rights, and separation of powers, are the product of the Enlightenment.
• The Enlightenment was a starting point of what some historians define as the European Moment in World History: the long period of often tragic European domination over the rest of the world.
• Therefore, in the end, the Enlightenment brought the world of Europe into the modern era.

Hence, the statement given in the Assertion is true.

In the next step, we will consider the Reason.

​Talking about the Reason,

• Science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought.
• Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought.
• Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress.
• The Age of Enlightenment was also when the first scientific and literary journals were established. As a source of knowledge derived from science and reason.

Therefore we can say, Scientific Revolution of the 17th century had created the basic intellectual milieu in which the Enlightenment was born.

Here, the Reason is also true and is the correct explanation of Assertion.

Conclusion-We find that the given Reason is also true and is the correct explanation of the given Assertion.

• The Amritsar session was held in the aftermath of the massacre at Jallianwala Bagh in April 1919.
• The President of this session was Motilal Nehru and jointly led by him and the Muslim League President, Hakim Ajmal Khan.
• Also, Congress extended support to the Khilafat Movement.
• The session was opened in the afternoon of December 27, 1919, in a pandal in the Aitchison Park opposite the railway line in Amritsar, with around 10,000 delegates attending from all over India.
• Hasan Imam, who had served as the Congress President in 1918, proposed the name of Motilal Nehru as the President and Lokamanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak seconded it. Motilal Nehru delivered his Presidential address on the same day.

Additional Information

• Amritsar session, which saw the emergence of Mahatma Gandhi to the national leadership, comes up from its eve on December 26, 1919.
• Mahatma Gandhi for a hartal against the Rowlatt legislation (observed on March 30, 1919, in Delhi and on April 6, 1919, throughout India).
• Gandhi spoke on December 29 and 30 and on January 1, 1920. Motilal Nehru’s concluding address was read out by Dr Saifuddin  Kitchlew.
• The session passed a resolution asking for the withdrawal of the Viceroy Lord Chelmsford from India.
• Lucknow Session of Congress in 1916 was the 31st Session of the INC. Ambica Charan Majumdar was the president of the Lucknow Session of Congress.
• The Calcutta session, 1920 was held under the Presidentship of Lala Lajpat Rai where Mahatma Gandhi launched the Non-Cooperation Movement.
• In the  Ahmedabad session, 1921 Hakim Ajmal Khan was unanimously elected to preside over the Session in the absence of C.R. Das, who was in jail. Gandhiji was appointed as the sole executive authority of the Congress.

The correct answer is option 2.

Key Points

• During the Enlightenment, which was a major intellectual and cultural movement of the 18th century, the thinkers and writers of that time aimed to challenge and question the traditional structures and institutions of society.
• They sought to promote new ideas and values based on reason, rationality, and individual freedom.
• The Enlightenment thinkers believed in the power of human knowledge and reason to solve the fundamental problems of existence.
• They emphasized the importance of scientific inquiry, critical thinking, and empirical evidence.
• This emphasis on reason led to scepticism towards dogma, superstition, and traditional authority.
• The intellectuals of the Enlightenment turned a critical eye on nearly all received traditions of Europe, including religious beliefs, political systems, and social hierarchies.
• They sought to examine these traditions and institutions through reason and rationality, often advocating for reforms and changes.
• The era of Enlightenment was characterized by ideas of faith in reason, progress, and humanitarian values.
• The thinkers of that time believed that through the application of reason and knowledge, society could progress and improve.
• They advocated for principles such as equality, individual rights, freedom of thought, and separation of church and state.

From the above explanation, we can conclude that options 1), 3) and 4) are correct and option 2) is not correct.

Bipan Chandra- “The definition and demarcation of ‘ages’ in the history of any country are problematic issues. These have been especially so in the case of India because our historians, all British to begin with, borrowed the highly unsuitable paradigm of Ancient/Medieval/Modern from the European experience, and further complicated the matter by inventing three other ‘ages’ – Hindu, Muslim and British.”

The correct answer is Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).

Key Points

• Assertion (A): "Even Swadeshi, like any good thing, can be ridden to death if it is made a fetish."
• In this statement, Gandhi is cautioning against an unthinking, dogmatic, or fetishistic application of Swadeshi.
• Swadeshi was a movement that was part of the broader Indian independence struggle, which encouraged the Indian populace to use goods produced domestically in India as a means to promote local economies and reduce reliance on foreign goods.
• This was not just an economic strategy but also a form of peaceful protest against British goods.
• While Gandhi was a major proponent of the Swadeshi movement, he is warning here that if it's made into a strict rule or 'fetish' without considering context or pragmatism, it can become counterproductive or harmful, as can any good idea if applied without thought to circumstance.
• Reason (R): "Swadeshi is a doctrine that has its roots in the purest Ahimsa i.e. love."
• Here, Gandhi is connecting the principle of Swadeshi to his broader philosophy of Ahimsa, which is a doctrine of non-violence and love towards all living beings.
• According to Gandhi, Swadeshi was not only an economic or political strategy but also a moral and ethical principle that springs from a sense of love and duty towards one's community and country.
• Buying locally made goods was a way to support local industries and communities, which is a form of love and non-violence, as it helps to build and sustain the local economy and prevent the harm that comes from economic exploitation.

​

​However, while both these statements express Gandhi's views on Swadeshi, the Reason (R) doesn't directly explain or elaborate on the Assertion (A). The Reason (R) provides a philosophical underpinning of the concept of Swadeshi but doesn't explain why making Swadeshi a 'fetish' could lead to its 'death'. Thus, while both statements are true, (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).​

The correct answer is (a) - (iii), (b) - (iv), (c) - (ii), (d) - (i).

Key Points

• Benedict Anderson:
• Benedict Anderson, a political scientist and historian, wrote the book "Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism," which was published in 1983.
• This book has become one of the most influential works in the study of nationalism.
• In "Imagined Communities," Anderson explores the concept of nationalism and how it has shaped modern societies.
• He argues that nations are not simply natural or objective entities but rather socially constructed and imagined communities.
• Ernest Gellner:
• "Nation and Nationalism" was written by Ernest Gellner and published in 1983.
• Ernest Gellner, a philosopher and social anthropologist, examined the phenomenon of nationalism and its relationship to the modern state in his book "Nations and Nationalism."
• He argued that nationalism is a product of modernity and industrialization, emerging as a response to the need for social and cultural cohesion in complex, industrial societies.
• Eric J. Hobsbawm:
• One of Hobsbawm's notable works related to nationalism is "Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality," published in 1990.
• In this book, Hobsbawm explores the origins and development of nationalism from the late 18th century to the present day.
• Hobsbawm examines the interplay between the rise of nations and the processes of industrialization, capitalism, and social change.
• He argues that nations are not eternal or natural entities but rather historical constructs that emerge as a response to specific economic, social, and political conditions.
• Hobsbawm also emphasizes the role of nationalism in shaping historical events, conflicts, and ideologies.
• E. Kedourie:
• "Nationalism" is a book written by Elie Kedourie and first published in 1960.
• Elie Kedourie was a historian, political scientist, and scholar of Middle Eastern studies.
• In "Nationalism," Kedourie examines the origins, characteristics, and impact of nationalism as a political ideology.
• He offers a critical analysis of nationalism, challenging the prevailing view that it is a positive force for political and social change.

Hence, the correct matching is: