UGC NET Paper 2: Education 19th Dec 2018 (Previous Year Paper)

Epistemological realism is a philosophical position, a subcategory of objectivism, holding that what you know about an object exists independently of our mind. It is opposed to epistemological idealism.

Knowledge:

• knowledge is justified true belief. That it is a kind of belief is supported by the fact that both knowledge and belief can have the same objects and that what is true of someone who believes something to be the case is also true, among other things, of one who knows it.
• For example, the sun rises in the east is the knowledge or true belief that is supported by the fact which is arrived at through daily observations for millions of years by people.

Three Divisions of Knowledge:

1. A priori Knowledge

• It is knowledge whose truth or falsity can be decided before or without recourse to experience (a priori means 'before').
• The knowledge that's a priori has universal validity and once recognized as true (through the use of pure reason) does not require any further evidence.
• Logical and mathematical truths are a priori in nature. They do not stand in need of empirical validations.
• Traditional philosophers have regarded a priori knowledge as superior to all other knowledge.
• The propositions that come under this category of knowledge are known as analytical propositions.
• An analytic proposition is one whose truth can be determined solely by an analysis of the meaning of the words in the sentence expressing it and whose truth or falsity can be decided by pure reason without recourse to verification with experience, for example, the propositions "bachelors are unmarried men" or "two plus two equals four".

2. A posteriori knowledge

• It is knowledge based on observation and experience.
• This is the knowledge of the scientific method stressing accurate observation and exact description.
• The propositions that fall under this category can be looked at from the point of view of whether they contain any factual content and from the standpoint of the criteria employed for deciding their truth or falsity.
• For example, we have propositions like Ice melts. Snow is white. Metals conduct heat and electricity. These propositions give us factual information whose truth or falsity can be decided only through observation and verification. These are called synthetic propositions.
• An analytic proposition is a statement whose negation is self-contradictory. If someone said, 'Black is not black' he would be contradicting himself. If a true analytic proposition is denied, one would get a self-contradictory proposition. One can negate the proposition "Snow is white" - assuming that whiteness is not a defining characteristic of snow - we get "snow is not white", which though false, is not self-contradictory. Thus we get

• It can be clearly demonstrated that mathematical knowledge is of the analytic- a priori type and scientific knowledge is of the synthetic- a posteriori type.

​3. Experienced knowledge

• It is always tentative and cannot exist prior to experience or be concluded from observation.
• It must be experienced to have value.
• Basic to the three types is propositional knowledge (a priori and a posteriori) and it is to this type that the structure of the knowledge question is addressed.
• This has important implications for curriculum planning.

Hence, we can conclude that Realistic epistemology will plead the case of A posteriori knowledge

Basically, philosophy means “the love for wisdom”. Philosophy seeks to justify something through rational interpretation. Philosophy is also a way of life. In a wider sense philosophy is a way of looking at life, nature, and truth. It sets up the ideals for an individual to achieve in his/her lifetime.

Relationship between education and philosophy

• Philosophy and education are two different fields of studies but they are closely linked together, because without any rational thinking prior to education, the whole educational process is directionless.
• Education in every society is directed toward specific aims and objectives. That aims and objectives are set by a philosophical approach. For example, the aims of our education system are to develop socially and morally sound people. Hence, the objectives and goals of education have to be decided by our stand on the nature of man.
• Every educational system is based upon specific teaching methodologies and the curriculum. What should be the teaching methodology? And what kind of teacher should be? And what kind of curriculum be taught to the students? All the answers are given by philosophy. Here, education is dependent on philosophy for guidance in various areas.
• There is a separate branch of philosophy which is called the philosophy of education. The branch investigates, that what should be the nature of education? Whether the educational aims be based on specific religion, social, moral, scientific basis. And how these aims can be achieved?
• The great scholars like Plato, and Aristotle wanted that their philosophies should be given practical shape. The shape can be given only through a well-planned education system.
• The main purpose of education is to have a sound mind in a sound body, and a virtuous person. Philosophy seeks to provide the meanings of what is sound mind, sound body, and what virtuous person is. We can say philosophy is the contemplative aspect of education and education is the dynamic aspect of philosophy. Hence, Education should be life itself, rather than a preparation for living.
• The choice of students must cater to the principles and purposes of philosophy. Choice of curriculum needs philosophers or leaders of thought. With the change of time and circumstances, the curricula also change and this change can be brought out by philosophers alone. The necessary conditions should be fulfilled so that the child is allowed to go in a free atmosphere with the ultimate aim of becoming a happy and a rightly adjusted person of the society. Hence, The school should encourage cooperation rather than competition.

Existentialist proposes a philosophical theory, known as existentialism, which developed as a reaction against both naturalism and idealism. It is treated as the latest movement of European thought and this philosophy is the newest to appear upon the intellectual scene.

• The important existentialist thinkers repudiate the very label, which classifies them as belonging to this or any other group of philosophers. Obviously, it is a philosophy of extreme individuality. There are some very important areas of common agreement among all the existential thinkers.
• The philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre (I905), Kierkegard (1813-55), Martin Heidegger, and Karl Jaspers have contributed towards the development of existentialism. Kierkegard is called the father of existentialism.
• For Sartre, any man is potentially always in conflict v/ith his neighbor, and all social relationships - whether with family, one's friends, one's lover, or the state itself are doomed to frustration.

According to existentialist thinker (Jean-Paul Sartre), the aims of education include:

• The aim of education is humanitarian, which means inner development of man, development of real consciousness, or real self. Thus, to impart knowledge of self-existence is the fundamental aim of education.
• Existentialists emphasize the education of the whole man i.e. development of all aspects of his inner-self, his feelings, emotions, thinking, etc. realizing ultimately what he is, what is his purpose of life, and what he has to become.
• Education must create an opportunity for free, ethical choices. Since an existentialist's choice-making is personal and subjective i.e. are emotional, aesthetic, and poetic, education must provide open learning environments for their self-expression.

Hence, Jean-Paul Sartre is related to the thesis that 'Man is potentially always in conflict with his neighbor and all social relationships are doomed to frustration'.

Education theory is the theory of the purpose, application and interpretation of education and learning. It largely an umbrella term, being comprised of a number of theories, rather than a single explanation of how we learn, and how we should teach.

Perennialism

• It advocates the permanency of knowledge that has stood the test of time and values that have moral and spiritual bases.
• The underlying idea is that education is constant, absolute and universal. Obviously, “perennialism” in education is born of “idealism” in general philosophy.
• The perennialist believes that to know the truth about something is to know its essence. As he been indicated in the foregoing, in order to know the entire truth about reality we must rely on intuition, faith or revelation. Faith and reason are two different and separate realms.
• Since the perennialist ontology is teleological, the hard core of reality is logical, permanent, and unchanging. Truth, therefore, is also logical, permanent, and unchanging. Man tends toward knowledge. His mind is basically curious; thus, he needs little special prodding to start him on his  epistemological expedition. Hence, "The only type of adjustment to which education should lead is adjustment to the truth which is universal and unchanging".
• The perennialist believes that there are certain things that are self-evident and that the structure of knowledge rests upon those self-evident truths that we know.

Additional Information

Progressivism:

• Progressivists believe that individuality, progress, and change are fundamental to one's education.
• Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, progressivists centre their curricula on the needs, experiences, interests, and abilities of students.

Existentialism:

• Existentialism is a philosophical theory that people are free agents who have control over their choices and actions.
• Existentialists believe that society should not restrict an individual's life or actions and that these restrictions inhibit free will and the development of that person's potential.

Essentialism:

• Essentialism tries to instill all students with the most essential or basic academic knowledge and skills and character development.
• The foundation of essentialist curriculum is based on traditional disciplines such as math, natural science, history, foreign language, and literature.

Important Points

The philosophy of Vedanta

• Vedanta is a philosophy taught by the Vedas.
• It is the most ancient scriptures of India.
• Its basic teaching is that our real nature is divine.
• God, the underlying reality, exists in every being.
• Religion is therefore a search for self-knowledge, a search for the God within.
• The three fundamental Vedanta texts are the

1. Upanishads -the most favored being the longer and older ones such as the Brihadaranyaka, the Chandogya, the Taittiriya, and the Katha)
2. Brahma-sutras - It is also called Vedanta-sutras, which are very brief, even one-word interpretations of the doctrine of the Upanishads
3. Bhagavadgita -Song of the Lord, it was drawn upon for support of the doctrines found in the Upanishads.

• Vedanta, one of the six systems (darshans) of Indian philosophy.
• The term Vedanta means in Sanskrit the “conclusion” (anta) of the Vedas, the earliest sacred literature of India.
• It applies to the Upanishads, which were labor
• Actions of the Vedas, and to the school that arose out of the study (Mimamsa) of the Upanishads.
• Thus, Vedanta is also referred to as Vedanta Mimamsa (“Reflection on Vedanta”), Uttara Mimamsa (“Reflection on the Latter Part of the Vedas”), and Brahma Mimamsa (“Reflection on Brahman”).

Key Points

Swami Vivekananda

• Swami Vivekananda, born Narendranath Datta, was an Indian Hindu monk.
• He was a chief disciple of the 19th-century Indian mystic Ramakrishna
• He was a major force in the revival of Hinduism in India and contributed to the concept of Indian nationalism as a tool of the fight against the British empire in colonial India.
• Swami Vivekananda's vision of Vedanta is his lasting legacy to contemporary spiritual thought.

Additional Information

J. Krishnamurti

• Jiddu Krishnamurti was an Indian speaker and writer.
• In his early life, he was groomed to be the new World Teacher, but later rejected this mantle and withdrew from the Theosophy organization behind it

Sri Aurobindo

• Sri Aurobindo was an Indian philosopher, yogi, guru, poet, and nationalist.
• Sri Aurobindo (born Aurobindo Ghose; 15 August 1872 – 5 December 1950)
• Sri Aurobindo believed that Darwinism merely describes a phenomenon of the evolution of matter into life, but does not explain the reason behind it, while he finds life to be already present in matter, because all of existence is a manifestation of Brahman.

​Rabindranath Tagore

• Rabindranath Tagore FRAS was a Bengali poet, writer, composer, philosopher, and painter.
• He reshaped Bengali literature and music, as well as Indian art with Contextual Modernism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
• Rabindranath Tagore is best known as a poet but he was a man of many talents

Therefore, Swami Vivekananda drew heavily from the philosophy of Vedanta.

'Education helps in the gradual transformation from lower to highest level of consciousness called the Gnostic Being' 

Important Points

Aurobindo

• In Sri Aurobindo's philosophy of integral yoga the dynamic manifestation of the Absolute, and the intermediary between the Spirit and the manifest world, which enables the transformation of a common being into a Divine being.
• According to Aurobindo, full yogic development consists of two parts:

1. the standard yogic goal of ascent into a formless and timeless self, and the descent and establishment of the supramental consciousness into Earthly life.
2. Through integral yoga, one actualizes the Supermind.

• The supramental consciousness transforms the entire being and leads to the divinization of the material world. This supramental transformation gives rise to a new individual, the Gnostic being.
• Gnostic being is fully formed by the supramental power.
• Division and ignorance are overcome and replaced with a unity of consciousness.
• The gnostic being sees the spirit everywhere in the world, and in every other person.
• This awareness eliminates the usual separation between man and life, and between people.
• One sees that all existences are various forms of divine reality.
• Gnostic beings can work together to create a new common life.
• This new life is superior to the present way of being.
• The  gnostic being has the will of action but also the knowledge of what is to be willed and the power to effectuate its knowledge.

Additional Information

Gandhi

• Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, also known as Mahatma Gandhi.
• He was an Indin lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist, and political ethicist.
• Gandhi maintains that education is essential for the attainment of the goal of peace.
• It can be attained only through morality and ethics.
• According to Gandhi, education is the realization of the best in man - body, soul, and spirit.
• He maintained that education must be based on ethics and morality.

Plato

• Plato was an Athenian philosopher, during the Classical period in Ancient Greece.
• He was the founder of the Platonist school of thought, and the Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world.
• Plato regards education as a means to achieve justice, both individual justice, and social justice.
• According to Plato, individual justice can be obtained when each individual develops his or her ability to the fullest.
• .For the Greeks and Plato, excellence is a virtue.
• According to Socrates, virtue is knowledge.

Aristotle

• Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece.
• Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition.
• According to him the aim of education was to teach intellectual and moral virtues side by side, and although he recognized that intellectual development would require time and experience, moral development, he believed, could be nurtured through deliberate exposure and practice.

Therefore, Aurbindo philosophical postulation was in terms of  "Education helps in the gradual transformation from lower to highest level of consciousness called the Gnostic Being'

Metaphysics

• Jain philosophy is the oldest Indian philosophy that separates the body (matter) from the soul (consciousness) completely.
• According to Jain thought, the basic constituents of reality are souls (jiva), matter (pudgala), motion (dharma), rest (adharma), space (akasa), and time (kala).
• The universe is eternal, matter and souls being equally uncreated.
• Jain philosophy deals with reality, cosmology, epistemology (the study of knowledge), and Vitalism.
• It attempts to explain the rationale of being and existence, the nature of the Universe and its constituents, the nature of the soul's bondage with the body, and the means to achieve liberation.
• It is based on seven truths or fundamental principles (tattva) which are an attempt to explain the human predicament.
• The first two are the two ontological categories of the soul and the non-soul discussed above, namely the truth that they exist.
• For the remaining five truths the factor of karma has to be brought into play because all are connected to it.
• The third truth is that through the interaction, technically called yoga, between the two substances, soul and non-soul, matter flows into (āsrava) the soul, clings to it, becomes converted into karma.
• The fourth truth is a factor of bondage (bandha), restricting the manifestation of the consciousness intrinsic to it.
• The fifth truth states that a stoppage (saṃvara) of new karma is possible through asceticism.
• An intensification of this burns up the existing karma
• The sixth truth is expressed by the word nirjarā.
• The final truth is that when the soul is freed from the influence of karma, it reaches the goal of Jaina teaching, which is liberation (mokṣa).

Therefore, the following statements best describe Jain Metaphysics are:-

• Reality is characterized by 'manyness'.
• 'Karma' is the link that unites the soul to the body.
• Matter and spirit are separate and independent reality.

Yogic philosophy says that a human body is made up of three parts:

• Physical
• Astral
• Causal

In order to obtain the state of complete health, all three parts need to be free from any ailment. The causal body is taken as the innermost body of a person. It is the source of physical and astral bodies. These three parts are further sub-classified into five layers also known as ‘Panch Koshas’. These are:

1) Annamaya kosha – the physical sheath

• The annamaya kosha (the food sheath) which is very first in classification is the part of the Physical body.
• It says that our body is whatever food we eat.
• The food reaches to every cell to provide energy and ultimately become our body.

2) Manomaya kosha – the mental sheath

• The second is manomaya kosha (the mental sheath) is exactly like the software of a computer whereas the annamaya kosha is the hardware.
• It is the medium of communicating experiences and sensations of the external world to the intellectual sheath.

3) Pranamaya kosha – the vital sheath

• The annamaya kosha and manomaya kosha cannot work until they have the life in the body which is provided by the third sheath known as pranamaya kosha (the energy or vital sheath).
• The vital sheath is composed of five pranas (life-energies) that have distinct functions in the working of the physical body.
• These five vital pranas/airs (vayus) are conjoined with the five subtle organs of action (speech, hands, legs, organs of evacuation, and procreation) which have their gross counterparts in the physical body.

4) Vijnanamaya kosha – the intellectual or wisdom sheath 

• Then next is vijnanamaya kosha (the intellectual or wisdom sheath) is the reflection of radiance of soul consciousness.
• It comprises the mind, intellect, and ego with the five organs of perception and is responsible for all the judgmental actions.

5) Anandamaya kosha – the blissful sheath

• The innermost layer or sheath of all the koshas is the anandamaya kosha which is the reflection of the blissfulness of the soul.
• It is the cause of both the subtle and gross bodies and is the result of harmony of all other sheaths.

Hence, the correct match is 

Two general or world philosophies, idealism and realism, are derived from the ancient Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle. Educators who share one of these distinct sets of beliefs about the nature of reality presently apply each of these world philosophies in successful classrooms. 

Key Points

Let us explore each of these metaphysical schools of thought.

Realism:

• Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind.
• The ultimate reality is the world of physical objects.
• The focus is on the body/objects. Truth is objective-what can be observed.
• Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his mentor's idealist philosophy, is called the father of both Realism and the scientific method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand objective reality through "the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data."
• Aristotle believed that to understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which does not change. For example, a rose exists whether or not a person is aware of it. A rose can exist in the mind without being physically present, but ultimately, the rose shares properties with all other roses and flowers (its form), although one rose may be red and another peach colored.
• Aristotle also was the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order to be able to reason about physical events and aspects.
• The exercise of rational thought is viewed as the ultimate purpose for humankind.

Realism and curriculum:

• The Realist curriculum emphasizes the subject matter of the physical world, particularly science and mathematics.
• The teacher organizes and presents content systematically within a discipline, demonstrating the use of criteria in making decisions.
• Teaching methods focus on mastery of facts and basic skills through demonstration and recitation. Students must also demonstrate the ability to think critically and scientifically, using observation and experimentation.
• The curriculum should be scientifically approached, standardized, and distinct-discipline based. Character is developed through training in the rules of conduct.

Idealism:

• In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's abilities and full moral excellence in order to better serve society.
• The curricular emphasis is the subject matter of mind: literature, history, philosophy, and religion.
• Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through lecture, discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help students discover and clarify knowledge).
• Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic are used to bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind.
• Character is developed through imitating examples and heroes.

According to the Philosophy of realism**, Science, Mathematics, and Logic combination of subjects is most appropriate for inclusion in the curriculum**.

"A child is born like a blank slate and its later behaviour is shaped by experience." The statement was first made by John Locke, who is one of the founder philosophers of empiricism. He propounded the concept "Tabula rasa" means a clean slate or a blank tablet on which anything can be written.  A child's mind is like a clean state which is influenced by impressions from the external world. 

The following are its characteristics:

• According to this approach, we learn by contact with the physical world or with spoken or written ideas of other people.
• These ideas/impressions come from without. There seems to be an organised external environment "out there" which impresses itself on us and leads to the organization of ideas "in-here".
• When this assumption is made that ideas come only from our experience, the child's mind is treated as a clean slate to be written upon or an empty vessel into which knowledge must be poured.
• In this approach, it is assumed that there are mental mechanisms, which function as present-day video-tape recorders and provide reasonably faithful copies of events occurring out there.
• The clean slate approach leads to a reliance on teacher-structured experiences as the major road to knowledge.
• It also assumes that students are passive receivers who need to be externally motivated to become involved in learning.

"The child, the school, and education itself are shaped largely by social and cultural forces"

Reconstructionism

• Reconstructionism also has known as Critical Theory.
• Social reconstructionism emphasizes that the addressing of social questions and a quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy.
• Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of education.
• The goal of reconstructionist learning is to envision the good future and spend learning as a preparation for the role in the future for which one reaches.
• This is an idea of change for a better educational system.
• Reconstructivism is a philosophical theory holding that societies should continually reform themselves in order to establish more perfect governments or social networks.
• The overall purpose of reconstructivism is to reawaken a sense of the Real in a world where everything has been demonstrated to be an illusion.

Perennialism

• Perennialism is a teacher-centered educational philosophy.
• It focuses on everlasting ideas and universal truths.
• Perennialism suggests that the focus of education should be the ideas that have lasted for centuries believing the ideas are as relevant and meaningful today as when they were written.
• Educational perennialism also referred to as Universal Curriculum.
• Perennialists believe that one should teach the things that are of everlasting pertinence to all people everywhere, and that the emphasis should be on principles, not facts.
• A perennialist classroom aims to be a closely organized and well-disciplined environment, which develops in students a lifelong quest for the truth.

Essentialism

• Essentialism is the view that every entity has a set of attributes that are necessary to its identity and function.
• Plato's idealism held that all things have such an essence, an idea, or form.
• In ontology, some properties of objects are essential to them.
• The essence of a thing is conceived as the totality of its essential properties.
• Essentialists' goals are to instill students with the "essentials" of academic knowledge, patriotism, and character development through traditional approaches.
• This is to promote reasoning, train the mind, and ensure a common culture for all citizens.

Logical positivism

• Logical positivism, also known as Logical Empiricism.
• It is a philosophy developed in the early 20th Century, notably by Moritz Schlick.
• Logical positivism is a philosophical movement that arose in Vienna in the 1920s
• It believed that scientific knowledge is the only kind of factual knowledge and that all traditional metaphysical doctrines are to be rejected as meaningless.
• Logical positivism also known as neopositivism was a movement in Western philosophy whose central thesis was the verification principle.

Therefore, "The child, the school, and education itself are shaped largely by social and cultural forces" was one of the basic principles of Reconstructionism.

Idealism

• A diverse group of metaphysical assert that reality is indistinguishable or inseparable from human perception and understanding.
• It is mentally constituted.
• Idealism is the metaphysical view that associates reality to ideas in the mind rather than to material objects.
• It lays emphasis on the mental or spiritual components of experience and renounces the notion of material existence.
• It stresses the central role of the ideal in the interpretation of experience

Naturalism

• Naturalism is a literary movement that began in the late nineteenth century.
• It embraced determinism, detachment, scientific objectivism, and social commentary.
• The movement largely traces to the theories of French author Émile Zola.
• In philosophy, It is the idea or belief that only natural laws and forces, as opposed to supernatural or spiritual ones, operate in the universe.
• A central thought in ontological naturalism is that all spatiotemporal entities must be identical to or metaphysically constituted by physical entities.

Existentialism

• Existentialism is a philosophical inquiry that explores the problem of human existence and centers on the lived experience of the thinking, feeling, acting individual.
• Existentialism theory is that people are free agents who have control over their choices and actions.
• Existentialists believe that society should not restrict an individual's life or actions and that these restrictions inhibit free will and the development of that person's potential.
• It is an interpretation of human existence in the world that stresses its concreteness and its problematic character.
• People are free agents who have control over their choices and actions.

Positive relativism

• The doctrine of positive relativism is that some central aspect of experience, though evaluation or reality is somehow relative to something else.
• The standard of justification moral principles or truth or validity are sometimes said to be relative to language, culture dress pattern, a different way of living.
• Relativist arguments begin with truistic premises. for example, we are culturally and historically situated creatures that we can’t talk without using language or think without using concepts.
• Positive relativism believes all truth is relative to a speaker, a judge, a place, a time, or a society.
• Positive relativism, a concept developed in American education by Bigge (1971).
• It is synthesized primarily from the thesis/antithesis of logical empiricism and subjective idealism.
• Relativism is a family of philosophical views that deny claims to objectivity within a particular domain and assert that facts in that domain are relative to the perspective of an observer or the context in which they are assessed.

Therefore, Positive relativism will favor the thought "The school should actively foster the democratic spirit and allow its students as much scope as possible for governing themselves"

Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)

• MOOCs are free online courses available for anyone to enroll.
• MOOCs provide an affordable and flexible way to learn new skills, advance your career, and deliver quality educational experiences at scale.
• MOOCs integrate social networking, accessible online resources, and are facilitated by leading practitioners in the field of study.
• Most significantly, MOOCs build on the engagement of learners who self-organize their participation according to learning goals, prior knowledge and skills, and common interests.

MOOC is a platform for delivering learning content online to any person who wants to take a course, with no limit on attendance. So, the introduction of open and distance education in complementation with MOOC in India gives leeway to Equality of educational opportunity, especially to the disadvantaged groups.

Relationship means the way two or more things are connected. So the question is how education and home are connected.

Analysis of phrases given in the options:

World as family: this phrase compares the world with family. So this doesn't define education relation with home.

Loco parentis:

• This is a Greek phrase that means in place of parents.
• It means anyone or anything which can take place of parents or can play role of parents as caretaker, guardian, knowledge provider, etc.
• Education and people in the field of education e.g. teachers play the same role in a child's life as caretaker, guardian, knowledge provider, etc.
• In the question, home refers to parents, the caring environment of home which is provided by education. So, this phrase describes the relationship between education and home.

Schools a subsystem of social system: It describes that school is a part of society but doesn't give relation to home

Schools a societal laboratory: It describes school help to experiment, explore, and discover various aspects of life and society but again this phrase doesn't relate anything to home.

Therefore, Loco parentis illustrates the relationship between education and home.

In today's era of globalization, the Indian social system which is a democratic society promotes the goal of equality (equal opportunities for everyone) and excellence (Individual's overall development and making an individual self-reliant). So, the goal of equality and excellence are not two opposite poles.

Philosophy: Philosophy is the study of knowledge, nature, existence, and meaning of life through various theories, facts, and reasoning. 

John Dewey:

• John Dewey was an American philosopher belonging to western school of thoughts. He was pioneer of pragmatism (school of thoughts which believes in scientific and practical approach).
• According to John Dewey, ‘Education is not a preparation for life, rather it is the living. Education is the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences’.
• Dewey's philosophy of school as a miniature society is based on democratic education and scientific method of learning which also states that school is a replica of society but it doesn't mention anything about goals of excellence. Therefore the goal of equality and excellence will be viewed as two opposite poles in terms of pragmatism

Mahatma Gandhi:

• Mahatma Gandhi believes in Idealism (a school of thought which believes in ideals and values).
• Gandhi's philosophy of basic education is based on the principle of nonviolence, injustice and equality (equal opportunities every individual) and excellence (focuses on overall development of the individual).
• Idealism in education emphasizes the development of the self, develop individual abilities, and moral skills to be a responsible person and serve the society in a better way.
• Gandhiji’s educational philosophy ideal on self-realization and character building of an individual. He believed in “education for life, education through life, and education throughout life”.
• He strongly felt that basic education should be value-based and at the same time job centred and mass-oriented.
• This philosophy supports the Indian social system. Therefore the goal of equality and excellence will not be viewed as two opposite poles in terms of idealism.

Shankaracharya:

• Shankaracharya's Vedantic philosophy (based on Hindu religious texts like Vedas) who belongs to orthodox school of philosophy of education which doesn't focuses on equality and excellence.

Mohammad:

• Mohammad's Islamic philosophy states that every men and women should pursue education but nothing is mentioned about excellence.

The term ‘equality’ means the absence of special privileges to any section of the society and the provision of adequate opportunities for all individuals without any discrimination.

Equality of Educational Opportunity

• The Preamble to the Indian Constitution secures to all citizens of India equality of status and opportunity. This is tried to achieve through various provisions in the Constitution as well as through various laws and policies enacted from time to time.
• Articles 14 to 18 provides for the right to equality which aims to secure all citizens their civic equality.
• Articles 325 and 326 aims to secure all citizen's political equality.
• Article 39 under the Directive Principles aims to secure all citizen's economic equality.

Hence, it can be concluded that  Ensuring equality of good quality education irrespective of caste, color, and religion,  Providing financial assistance and other support services to the needy, and Ensuring utilization of welfare schemes for low income and educationally disadvantaged groups are most relevant in the context of Equality of Educational Opportunities.

Socialization: 

• It is a comprehensive process. According to Horton and Hunt, Socialization is the process whereby one internalizes the norms of his groups, so that a distinct ‘self emerges, unique to this individual.
• Personality and family traits that support a child's socialization include sex (girls are more attractive for peers than boys), age (the older the child is, the less attractive he is for peers), number of siblings (not more than two brothers or sisters), family's prosperity (more attractive children come from well-off.

There are many factors that play key roles behind the socialization of a child, In the Indian context in particular. Some of them are given below

Important Points

• Family: family is usually considered to be the most important agent of socialization. As infants, we are completely dependent on others to survive. Our parents, or those who play the parent role, are responsible for teaching us to function and care for ourselves. They, along with the rest of our family, also teach us about close relationships, group life, and how to share resources.
• School: Of course, the official purpose of school is to transfer subject knowledge and teach life skills, such as following directions and meeting deadlines. But, students don't just learn from the academic curriculum prepared by teachers and school administrators. In school, we also learn social skills through our interactions with teachers, staff, and other students. For example, we learn the importance of obeying authority and that to be successful, we must learn to be quiet, to wait, and sometimes to act interested even when we're not.
• Peers: Another agent of socialization that relates to school is our peer group. Unlike the agents we've already discussed - family and school - peer groups give us an opportunity as children to form relationships with others on our own terms, plus learn things without the direction of an adult. Our peers have an incredible amount of influence on us when we're young, so it's understandable that parents worry about the type of friends we choose. Often, we discuss topics and learn behavioral norms from our peers that our parents do not or would not approve of.
• Mass media

Key Points

The above-mentioned factors play a vital role in the socialization of the child as it is through those factors the child learns and norms and codes of conduct of the society he or she lives in. The negative or broken familial conditions can adversely affect the socialization of the child and can result in the child developing a negative attitude towards life.

According to the points mentioned above, it can be concluded that the options Location of family and its neighborhood, Sports and games organized in school, and Illiteracy of family are the factors which affect the socialization of a child in the Indian context. ​

Key Points

Normal Probability Curve: It is a bell-shaped curve having highest point at mean which is symmetrical along the vertical line drawn at the mean. It is used to interpret the percentile or the percentage of no of cases for respective value of z scores.

Mean: Mean (average) is sum of all quantities divided by no of quantities.

Standard deviation: It is used to measure how deviated or dispersed the numbers are with respect to the mean in the same set of data.

Percentile Rank: It is a measure to find how many values are below the score. It is basically the rank of the score.

Z score: Z score is a value calculated through the above formula, used to interpret percentile of a given score or value.

Important Points

Given: n = 360, Mean Score (x̄) = 45 , σ = 9 

To find: percentage of students who scored outside the limits of scores 36 – 54 

Formula: Z = (x−x̄)/σ

Calculation: 

To find out the percentage of students in a limit, we need to calculate z score 

At x=36, Z = (36−45)/9 = -1 

At x= 54, Z = (54−45)/9 = 1 

  

From Normal Probability curve, when z score is -1 to 1, percentage/ percentile rank is =68.26%

Percentage of students who scored outside the limits of scores 36 – 54  = Total - 68.26%= 100% - 68.26% = 31.74% = 32% approx

Key Points

Normal Probability Curve: It is a bell shaped curve having highest point at mean which is symmetrical along the vertical line drawn at the mean. It is used to interpret the percentile or the percentage of no of cases for respective value of z scores.

Mean: Mean (average) is sum of all quantities divided by no of quantities.

Standard deviation: It is used to measure how deviated or dispersed the numbers are with respect to the mean in the same set of data.

Percentile Rank: It is measure to find how many values are below the score. It basically rank of the score.

Z score: Z score is a value calculated through the above formula, used to interpret percentile of a given score or value.

Important Points

To calculate: the percentile rank

Given: score(x) = 72, mean (x̄) = 54 and standard deviation = 9.

Formula: Z = $(X - \bar{X}) \over σ$

Calculation:

Step 1:

Calculate z scores

z = (72-54)/9 = 2

Step 2:

Calculate the percentile rank

From Normal Probability Curve, the total percentage of cases:

• from 0 to mean is 50
• from mean to 2 σ = $\frac {95.44\%}{2}$ = 47.72 %
• from mean to 2(z score = 2) = 47.72

So total percentage of cases = 50 % + 47.72 % = 97.72 % = 98approx.

From Normal Probability curve, when z score is 2, percentile rank is  = 98approx.

So the nearest answer is 99%

As defined by Barber, social mobility refers to movement, either upward or downward between higher or lower social classes; or more precisely, movement between one relatively full time, functionally significant social role and another that is evaluated as either higher or lower.

Given below are some of the factors which affect social mobility;

1. Motivation:

Each individual has a desire not only to have a better way of living but also wants to improve upon his social stand. In open system, it is possible to achieve any status. This openness motivates people to work hard and improve upon skills so that one can attain higher social status. Without such motivation and efforts on the part of the individual social mobility is impossible.

2. Achievements and Failures:

The achievement here refers to extraordinary, usually unexpected performance, which attracts the attention of a wider public to the abilities of a person. Failures and misdeeds have a similar effect on downward mobility. Fraudulent bankruptcy will remove a member of the upper classes from blue books; he will receive no dinner invitations from his peers and he will become ineligible as a marriage partner.

3. Education:

Education not only helps an individual to acquire knowledge but is also a passport for occupational position for higher prestige. To become a doctor one has to have education in science subjects. Similarly, to appear in a competitive examination of I.A.S., one has to be at least graduate.

4. Skills and Training:

Each society makes provision to impart skill and training to the younger generation. When they complete their training, they are entitled to high positions, which are far better than those positions which they might have taken without such training.

5. Migration:

Migration also facilitates social mobility. People migrate from one place to another either due to pull or push factors. A particular place may not have opportunities and facilities to improve upon. Hence, people are forced to migrate to other places to earn their livelihood. At new places, where they migrate, may have different openings and opportunities.

6. Industrialization:

Industrial Revolution ushered in a new social system in which people are given status according to their ability and training. No importance was given to their caste, race, religion, and ethnicity. Industrialization resulted in mass production at cheaper rate. This forced the artisans out of their work. In search of jobs they migrated to industrial towns.

7. Urbanization:

In the cities there are more people, they have formal relations. People do not know each other intimately. Urban centers are marked by anonymity. People are close to their friends and relatives only. Urban settlements provide secrecy to individual’s caste and background. Individual’s position is largely dependent upon his education, occupation, and income rather than his background.

8. Legislation:

The enactment of new laws can also facilitate social mobility. When Zamindari Abolition Act was passed, most of the tenant cultivators became owner cultivators which indicates improvement in their status i.e. from tenants to owner cultivators. Similarly, the legal provision for reservation of jobs and promotion for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes has also helped in social mobility.

9. Politicisation:

With education and greater exposure to mass media of communication as well as greater contacts have made people aware about their rights. The political parties also educate the people about their rights. To achieve their rights people unite and force the authority in power to accept their demands. These persons may use agitations, strikes etc. as methods of attaining the desired goals.

10. Modernization:

The process of modernization involves the use of scientific knowledge and modern technology. It also refers to rationality and secular way of life. With the improvement in technology, people engaged in occupations of low prestige like scavengers discard their traditional occupations and take up occupations which are not dirty and have no polluting effects.

From the above-mentioned points, it could be concluded that the alternatives, Providing expanding range of educational opportunities and Technology based potential for urbanization and industrialization are factors that contribute to social mobility.

Hence the answer is option 1.

Random sampling and extraneous variable

• Extraneous variables are any variables that are not intentionally studied in any experiment or test.
• In experiments, the impact of independent variables on the dependent variables is studied. Sometimes some other variables influence the result of the experiment. They are called extraneous variables.
• Randomization prevents selection bias and insures against accidental bias.
• Random sampling is a part of the sampling technique in which each sample has an equal probability of being chosen.

Randomization and extraneous variables

• One way to control the extraneous variables is by random sampling.
• Random sampling does not eliminate any extraneous variable but it only ensures it is equal between all groups.

Conclusion: Since Randomization does not eliminate extraneous variable but control it. Hence, Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Educational psychology has now acquired the status of a science and as such it follows the scientific method in obtaining answers to meaningful questions in the formal and informal educational settings. Quite recently various methods of the inquiry being followed by this discipline have been broadly put under the following two heads:

1. Distal Methods
2. Proximal Research Methods

1) Distal Method:

• The term distal methods have been used to indicate the strategies which are designed to approach an understanding of universally consistent or generalized laws applicable to contexts that are temporally, spatially, and environmentally remote or distal to the original context under study.
• These include those popularly accepted in methodological literature, such as observation, experimental, quasi-experimental, differential, and ex-post-facto methods of co-relational and criterion-group designs.

​2) Proximal Research Methods

• The term proximal methods are being increasingly used for the enquiry which does not assume or pretend to assume universal application.
• Its main value lies in the validity of its temporal generalizations, whereas environmental generalization is restricted to contexts identical or proximal in character to the context originally studied.
• Whereas distal research methods discover universal consistent laws or generalizations, the proximal research methods are in search of contextually consistent laws or generalizations.
• The various strategies of the proximal research are the introspection, the clinical methods, the evaluative enquiry, operations research (OR), simulation of problem solves performance and cybernetic monitoring.

​Hence, An example of a distal method in Educational Psychology is Ex post facto method.

Dr. Montessori’ revealed that there are four different stages of development from birth to early adulthood.

• She referred to these as planes of development.
• Each plane of development is characterized by distinct sensitive periods for learning.
• Children exhibit certain needs, attributes, and characteristics at each plane of development.
• a child undergoes a period of intense developmental change

The First Plane: Birth to Age 6 (Early Childhood)

• During this plane, children are soaking up the world.
• This plane is called the absorbent mind.
• As it is believed that at this plane the child’s brain has a sponge-like capacity to absorb from the environment all that is necessary to develop an individual from her specific culture.
• The main focus of children at this plane is at the self and they have a strong desire for physical independence.

The Second Plane: Ages 6–12 (Childhood)

• This plan is focused on a thirst for knowledge and a strong desire for intellectual independence.
• Children at this plane begin searching for moral order and develop their conscience or sense of right and wrong.
• Fairness, and how they can help others are the values learned at this plane.

The Third Plane: Ages 12–18 (Adolescence)

• Self-concern and self-assessment are the focus of this plane.
• It is a sensitive period for critical thinking and exploring deeper moral and social values.
• It is marked by a deep desire for emotional independence.
• Adolescence develops social self and feels the need to participate and have more control over their life.

The Fourth Plane: Ages 18–24 (Maturity)

• The young adult works on their spiritual self or constructing a higher-level of self-understanding in this plane.
• It is marked by a strong desire for financial independence.

Therefore, in Childhood one start taking at the intellectual plane of others.

Causal comparative:

• Causal-comparative research seeks to find relationships between independent and dependent variables after an action or event has already occurred.
• The researcher's goal is to determine whether the independent variable affected the outcome, or dependent variable, by comparing two or more groups of individuals.
• In the given example, Causal-comparative research is used to identify cause-effect relationships or to examine the consequences of differences that already exist between two groups.
• Causal-comparative research is also sometimes referred to as "ex-post-facto" research because the researcher is attempting to determine the cause or reason for differences that already exist among groups of individuals.

Descriptive:

• Descriptive research is carried out to provide information about a person, thing, or process.
• It describes the characteristics of an individual, group, organization, or phenomena, conditions, or situation.
• The characteristics are described in terms of the dependent variables.
• The description may be limited to events of past or present but not of the future. In that case, it becomes experimental research. Most of the research in social sciences is descriptive in nature.

Correlational research

• It provides some indication as to how two or more things are related to one another or, in effect what they share or have in common or how well a specific outcome might be predicted by one or more pieces of information.
• Correlational research uses a numerical index called the correlation coefficient as a measure of the strength of this relationship.
• For example, if you are interested to find out the relationship between the number of hours spent studying and their achievement, then you would be doing correlational research because you are interested in the relationship between these two variables.

Experimental research

• It is mainly used in science subjects such as physics, chemistry, medicine, biology, etc.
• The experiment requires two variables, one independent variable, and the other dependent variable.
• It is important that in experimental research the independent variable is manipulated and the effect of manipulation is observed on the dependent variable.

Jean Piaget, a swiss psychologist, who belonged to the cognitive school of psychology, is famous for his work on child development. He made a systematic study of cognitive development in his theory that is categorized into four stages. The stages are explained below:

The school system in India has four levels: 

1. Pre-primary (3-5)
2. Primary (6-10)
3. Secondary (11-17)
4. Tertiary  (18-22)

Hence, Secondary and senior secondary level in India corresponds to Piaget's 'Formal Operational Stage' of development.

There are many theories in psychology that are related to different schools of psychology such as cognitive, humanistic, behavioristic, etc. These theories are propounded by eminent psychologists to provide a framework to understand different aspects of human behavior.

Important Points

Operant conditioning:

• Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.
• Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect.
• According to the principle, law of effect, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.

Additional Information

Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior: Natural operants, Reinforcement, and Punishment.

 

• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
• Reinforcement: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Whenever you see a behavior persisting or increasing over time, you can assume the consequences of that behavior are reinforcers for the individual involved.
• The reinforcement process can be diagrammed as follows:

• Punishment: Punishment, on the other hand, involves decreasing or suppressing behavior. A behavior followed by a punisher is less likely to be repeated in similar situations in the future. Again, it is the effect that defines a consequence as punishment, and different people have different perceptions of what is punishing. One student may find suspension from school punishing, whereas another student wouldn’t mind the break at all.
• The process of punishment is diagrammed as follows:

E. L. Thorndike, an American psychologist, is known as the founder of modern educational psychology. He propounded 'Trial and Error Theory' which represents that learning is the result of associations forming between stimulus and responses. "Mistakes teach individual" statement is based on the 'Trial and Error Theory'.

Based on Trial and Error Learning Theory, Thorndike gave certain laws of Learning:

Law of Readiness:

• When any conduction unit is ready to conduct (an individual ready to learn something), for it to do so is satisfying.
• When any conduction unit is not in readiness to conduct, for it to conduct is difficult. So, it implies that if you are not ready to learn something, you cannot learn it effectively.
• Readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness. Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn, and do not learn well if they see no reason for learning.
• In other words, when students are ready to learn, they meet the instructor at least halfway, simplifying the instructor’s job.

Law of Exercise: 

• This law is further divided into two sub-laws: (a) law of use and (b) law of disuse.
• Repeated exercising of a response strengthens its connection with the stimulus and disuse weakens it.
• Later he recognized that mere blind repetition is not sufficient for effective learning, rather knowledge of results is an essential condition for it.

Law of Effect: 

• Acts leading to satisfaction becomes associated with the situation. So, it is our natural tendency to learn things which give us happiness and satisfaction and to avoid others.
• We want to learn the things which make us feel happy and satisfied

A group of services to individuals to assist them in securing the knowledge and skills needed in making plans and devices, and in interpreting life. Educational Guidance is the services that are given to the students by the guidance counselors individually or as a group of students to improve their study skills, time management skills, learning strategies, growth, and development.

Job analysis

• It is a family of procedures to identify the content of a job in terms of the activities it involves in addition to the attributes or requirements necessary to perform those activities.
• Job analysis is a procedure through which you determine the duties and responsibilities, nature of the jobs, and finally to decide qualifications, skills.
• It Describes the aspects related to a particular job for matching individuals with job characteristics.

Follow-up Service

• The follow-up services are the component of a complete and compact guidance program.
• The children are left at proper places and do what they can.
• There is a follow-up action.
• It may be called a monitoring service.
• It looks into the things that pupils are rightly placed or not.
• The measures are taken by a counselor or clinician in helping a client with ongoing problems or new manifestations of the original problems.
• Also include evaluation of a client's progress and the effectiveness of counseling to date.
• Therefore, it determines the pace of progress of former pupils on the basis of their contextual placement.

Job Satisfaction

• Job satisfaction or employee satisfaction is a measure of workers' contentedness with their job,
• Whether they like the job or individual aspects or facets of jobs, such as the nature of work or supervision.
• Job satisfaction can be measured in cognitive, affective, and behavioral components.
• Liking of a particular job by a person which is visible through gestures etc. while going to the workplace.

Placement Service

• Helping a person to get an appropriate place according to his qualifications and abilities, thus enabling him to get absorbed successfully in any occupation.
• It aims at providing assistance to students in deciding educational and vocational stream.

Hence the correct match is

Additional Information

Counseling

• The counseling process is a planned, structured dialogue between a counselor and a client.
• It is a cooperative process in which a trained professional helps a person called the client to identify sources of difficulties or concerns that he or she is experiencing.
• The process of assisting and guiding clients, especially by a trained person on a professional basis, to resolve especially personal, social, or psychological problems and difficulties.

Occupational Information Service

• Occupational information refers to the collection of details about occupational and educational opportunities.
• Occupational information can include details about the employment outlook, salary, related occupations, education and training, and job duties.

Job analysis

• Job analysis is a family of procedures to identify the content of a job in terms of the activities it involves in addition to the attributes or requirements necessary to perform those activities.
• Job analysis is a procedure through which you determine the duties and responsibilities, nature of the jobs, and finally to decide qualifications, skills.
• Job analysis is the process of gathering and analyzing information about the content and the human requirements of jobs, as well as, the context in which jobs are performed.
• This process is used to determine the placement of jobs.
• Job analysis defines the organization of jobs within a job family.
• Essentially, a job analysis allows organizations to measure as many job-relevant characteristics as are feasible, so that they don't overlook important characteristics needed to predict employee success and potentially reap lower returns from the pre-hire process.
• Job Analysis helps in determining what kind of person is required to perform a particular job. The objective is to fit the right person in a right place. Hence, Job Analysis helps in identifying the right person for the right job.
• The main purpose of job analysis is to streamline human efforts and get the best possible output. It helps in designing, redesigning, enriching, evaluating, and also cutting back and adding the extra responsibilities in a particular job. This is done to enhance employee satisfaction while increasing human output. Hence, job analysis helps with job satisfaction and job efficiency.
• Job Analysis defines client needs in specific terms.
• Job Description describes the roles, activities, duties, and responsibilities of the job while job specification is a statement of educational qualification, experience, personal traits, and skills required to perform the job. Hence, Job Analysis assists in knowing the personnel specifications for various jobs.

​Purpose of job analysis

• One of the main purposes of conducting job analysis is to prepare job descriptions and job specifications which in turn helps hire the right quality of workforce into an organization.
• The general purpose of job analysis is to document the requirements of a job and the work performed.

Pavlovian conditioning paradigm

• Pavlovian is of or relating to Ivan Pavlov or to his work and theories Pavlovian conditioning.
• Classical conditioning also known as Pavlovian conditioning is a procedure for presenting stimuli.
• In the classical conditioning paradigm, an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus are presented.
• In punishment training, the organism makes some response which produces the aversive stimulus.
• Classical conditioning best understood as learning through association.
• In simple terms, two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal.

Types of conditioning:

Forward conditioning

• Forward conditioning: when the neutral stimulus (NS) appears just before and during the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
• During forward conditioning, the onset of the CS precedes the onset of the US in order to signal that the US will follow.
• Forward conditioning: Learning is fastest in forward conditioning.

Backward conditioning

• Backward conditioning occurs when a CS immediately follows the US.
• The unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented before a neutral stimulus.
• The conditioned response given to the CS tends to be inhibitory
• This is a mostly ineffective method of conditioning because it doesn't allow for a clear association between the US and the NS.

Simultaneous conditioning

• The CS and US are presented and terminated at the same time.
• It occurs, frequently unintentionally or unplanned, at the same time as formal conditioning or training.
• This is not the most effective way of classical conditioning.

Delayed conditioning

• The procedure in which the conditioned stimulus is presented, and remains present, for a fixed period (the delay) before the unconditioned stimulus is introduced.
• The CS is presented and is overlapped by the presentation of the US.
• This is generally the best, especially when the delay is short.

Therefore, In the Pavlovian conditioning paradigm, when the presentation of unconditioned stimulus precedes that of neutral stimulus, the procedure is called Backward conditioning.

Directive counseling

• It is believed that the professional training and experience of the counselor or therapist equip him or her to manage the therapeutic process and to guide the client's behavior.
• It is also called directive therapy.
• The attention is focused on a particul
• ar problem and its possible solution.
• The decision is made by the client not the counselor, instead of the counselor just see whether the solution is keeping with the counseling.
• The counselor plays an active role.

Merits of Directive counseling are:-

• Time-saving
• Economic
• Organized
• Active participation of the counselor.

Analysis- This step includes the Collection of information about an individual through different sources.

Synthesis-  This step includes the Organization of information in a logical manner to analyze the potentialities.

Diagnosis-  This step includes the Interpretation of data in the light of nature and causes of the problem.

Prognosis- This step includes prediction about the future development of the problem.

Counseling-  This step includes Bringing about adjustment and re-adjustment of the client.

Follow-up- This step includes knowing the present state of affairs of the client.

Experiential learning- Kolb

• Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1984)
• Experiential learning is the process of learning through experience.
• It is learning through reflection on doing.
• Hands-on learning can be a form of experiential learning but does not necessarily involve students reflecting on their product.
• The process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience.
• Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience.

Concept mapping - Joseph D. Novak

• Concept mapping was invented by Joseph D. Novak.
• A concept map is a visual organization and representation of knowledge.
• It shows concepts and ideas and the relationships among them.
• One creates a concept map by writing keywords and then drawing arrows between the ideas that are related.

Need-reduction theory of learning - Clark Hull 

• The theory was created by behaviorist Clark Hull.
• The drive reduction theory of motivation is a way to explain behavior, learning, and motivation.
• According to the theory, the reduction of drives is the primary force behind motivation.
• The goal of motivating behavior is a reduction of a drive state.
• It is assumed that all motivated behavior arises from drives, stemming from a disruption in homeostasis and that responses that lead to a reduction of those drives tend to be reinforced or strengthened.

Sign learning - Tolman

• Sign learning has been called purposive behaviorism.
• It is often considered the bridge between behaviorism and cognitive theory.
• According to Tolman's theory of sign learning, an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal, i.e., learning is acquired through meaningful behavior.
• Tolman believed individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, and changing conditions, and they strive toward goals.
• Tolman is virtually the only behaviorist who found the stimulus-response theory unacceptable because reinforcement was not necessary for learning to occur.

S - R bond learning- Thorndike

• American psychologist Edward L. Thorndike
• Connectionism is the philosophy of Edward Thorndike.
• Learning is a product of stimulus and response.
• A stimulus is something that causes a reaction, while a response is a reaction to a stimulus.
• The connection between the two is called an S-R bond, or stimulus-response bond.
• Stimulus-response (S-R) theories are central to the principles of conditioning.
• They are based on the assumption that human behavior is learned.

Operant conditioning- Skinner

• Operant conditioning is sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning.
• It is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior.
• Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence, whether negative or positive, for that behavior
• Operant conditioning is a type of associative learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.
• It is also a procedure that is used to bring about such learning.

The two-factor theory

• Frederick Herzberg developed the model in 1959
• Two factors theory is also known as Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory and dual-factor theory.
• According to it, there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction, all of which act independently of each other

• Herzberg’s Motivation Theory model, or Two Factor Theory, argues that there are two factors that an organization can adjust to influence motivation in the workplace. These factors are:
• Mot ivators: Which can encourage employees to work harder.
• Hygiene factors: These won’t encourage employees to work harder but they will cause them to become unmotivated if they are not present.

Herzberg's model of motivation in education

• Teachers are noticeably the most important group of professionals as teachers run within the social life of a school.
• Teaching is an inspiring occupation for all the nation and also they focus on the development of children.
• Much of teaching and learning is about somewhat routine communications but truly high-quality learning comes through the kind of encouraging pedagogic arrangement and it cannot always be shaped by regulation.
• The motivator factor for the teacher will be the Recognition of students' worth. As teachers will be motivated to work for students'  betterment.

Therefore, Recognition of students' worth will be called a motivation factor.

Anecdotal record

• An anecdotal record is a detailed descriptive narrative recorded after a specific behavior or interaction occurs.
• Anecdotal records in a school setting inform teachers as they plan to learn experiences, provide information to families, and give insights into identifying possible developmental delays.
• Anecdotal notes are used to record specific observations of individual student behaviors, skills, and attitudes as they relate to the outcomes in the program of studies.
• Such notes provide cumulative information on student learning and direction for further instruction.
• An anecdotal record is a short, objective, descriptive summary of one event or incident writing down after the event has taken place.
• Often anecdotes are used when one wants to tells a story about something that happened over the weekend or something cute or funny.
• They are focused on narrative accounts of a specific event.

Therefore, An anecdotal record is a kind of narrative in respect of significant episodes in school life.

Carl Jung: Analytical psychology

• Carl Gustav Jung emphasized the idea that we need to study different cultures as it will provide the essence of humanity.
• Jung’s personality theory is known as the analytic theory or analytical psychology (1933).
• He proposed that everyone has a personal unconscious that is composed of one’s own experiences that have been repressed due to some reason.
• He proposed that everyone has the ability to balance the conscious and unconscious forces.
• Jung extended Freud’s idea of the unconscious. Freud considered the unconscious as an essential part of one’s personality. It is a storehouse of repressed memories, aggressive motives, and sexual desires.
• Jung deviated from this view and proposed the idea of the collective unconscious, which is the unconscious shared by all humans.
• According to him, due to the evolutionary process and common ancestors, we all carry some common past. The collection of this ancestral past is part of our unconscious known as the collective unconscious.
• According to him, the collective unconscious serves as the foundation for personality. This collective unconscious consists of all the archetypes and concepts which represent experiences that are primitive and from our ancestral heritage. For example, the conceptions about rebirth, God, evil, and so on.
• The elements of our collective unconscious have been termed by Jung as archetypes. It is shared by all humans and has some overarching qualities.
• He described various types of archetypes, some of these are as follows:
• The self- knowing about the wholeness of one’s own identity
• The persona- not genuine self that we show to others
• The anima- feminine side of the men
• The animus- masculine side of the female
• The shadow- the darker side of our personality, consisting of aggressive urges, biological instincts, and the feeling of inferiority.

hence, In Jung's frame of reference, the part of the mind that grows out of past experience of a human being is designated as collective unconsciousness.

Vocationalization

• When vocational educational education is mixed with general education it is called vocationlisation of education.
• The term vocationalization refers to efforts by schools to include in their curriculum those practical subjects which are likely to generate among students some basic knowledge, skills, and dispositions that might prepare them to think of becoming skilled workers or to enter manual operations.

India

• Vocational training in India historically has been a subject handled by the Ministry of Labour, other central ministries, and various state-level organizations.
• To harmonize the variations and multiplicity in terms of standards and costs, the National Skills Qualification Framework.
• According to the recommendation of the Secondary Education Commission (1952-53).
• The aim of the vocationalisation of education is to improve the vocational efficiency of the students.
• The Indian Education Commission (1966) pointed out that vocationalisation can bring education into a closer relationship with productivity.
• The National policy on Educating (1986) and its revised formulations gave stress on the introduction of systematic, well planned and rigorously implemented programs of vocational education.

Australia

• Australian Vocational Education and Training is based on a partnership between governments and industry.
• VET qualifications are provided by government institutions, called Technical and Further Education (TAFE) institutions, as well as private institutions.
• In Australia, vocational education and training is mostly post-secondary and provided through the vocational education and training (VET) system by registered training organizations.
• However, some secondary schools do offer school-based apprenticeships and traineeships for students in years 10, 11, and 12 years.

UK

• The first Trades School in the UK was Stanley Technical Trades School which was designed, built, and set up by William Stanley.
• The initial idea was thought of in 1901, and the school opened in 1907.
• The Education Act 1944 made provision for a Tripartite System of grammar schools, secondary technical schools, and secondary modern schools, but by 1975 only 0.5% of British senior pupils were in technical schools, compared to two-thirds of the equivalent German age group.

United States

• Vocational education in the United States varies from state to state.
• Vocational schools are post-secondary schools students usually enroll in after graduating from high school or obtaining their GEDs, which teach the skills necessary to help students acquire jobs in specific industries.
• The majority of post-secondary career education is provided by proprietary, privately-owned career institutions.
• About 30 percent of all credentials in teaching are provided by two-year community colleges, which also offer courses transferable to four-year universities.
• Other programs are offered through military teaching or government-operated adult education centers.

In the United States, the concept of vocationalization of education appears early.

Guilford’s Model of Structure of Intellect:

Guilford (1967) proposed a three-dimensional structure of intellect model. According to Guilford, every intellectual task can be classified according to its (1) content, (2) the mental operation involved, and (3) the product resulting from the operation.

​The Contents Dimension - This dimension includes the broad areas of information in which operations are applied. It has been divided into four categories.

1. Visual - Information arising from stimulation on the retina in the form of an image.
2. Auditory – Information arising from stimulation of the cochlea of the ear as an image.
3. Symbolic - Information perceived as symbols or signs that have no meaning by themselves; for example, Arabic numerals or the letters of an alphabet.
4. Semantic - Information perceived in words or sentences, whether oral, written, or silently in one’s mind.
5. Behavioural – Information perceived as acts of an individual/ individuals.

The Operations Dimension - This consists of five kinds of operation or general intellectual processes:

1. Cognition - The ability to understand, comprehend, discover, and become aware.
2. Memory - The ability to memorize information.
3. Divergent Production - The process of generating multiple solutions to a problem.
4. Convergent Production - The process of deducing a single solution to a problem.
5. Evaluation - The process of judging whether an answer is accurate, consistent, or valid.

The Products Dimension - As the name suggests, this dimension contains results of applying particular operations to specific contents. There are six kinds of products, they are:

1. Unit - Represents a single item of information.
2. Class - A set of items that share some attributes.
3. Relation - Represents a connection between items or variables; may be linked as opposites or in associations, sequences, or analogies.
4. System - An organization of items or networks with interacting parts.
5. Transformation - Changes perspectives, conversions, or mutations to knowledge; such as reversing the order of letters in a word.
6. Implication - Predictions, inferences, consequences, or anticipations of knowledge.

Evaluation is a systematic way to assess learner’s abilities, analyze performance, provide appropriate feedback to each learner and help them to progress. The formative evaluation assesses the performance of students, tests comprising various types of questions are constructed and administered during the period of instruction.

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Purpose of Formative Evaluation:

• Its main objective is to provide continuous feedback to both teacher and student concerning learning successes and failures while instruction is in process.
• It is used to monitor the learning progress of students during the period of instruction.
• Feedback to students reinforces successful learning and identifies the specific learning errors that need correction.
• Feedback to the teacher provides information for max living instruction and for prescribing group and individual remedial work.
• The formative evaluation depends on tests, quizzes homework, classwork, oral questions prepared for each segment of instruction.

Hence, from the above explanation, it can be concluded that when the school headmaster conducts a monitoring programme for improving classroom instructional procedure. This will be in the midst of formative evaluation.

NOTE:

• Summative Evaluation: It comes at the end of the term, course, or program of teaching. It involves formal testing of a pupil’s achievement. For example, annual examinations and half-yearly examinations in schools. Assigning grades are part of the summative evaluation.
• A norm-referenced test is a type of test, assessment, or evaluation which yields an estimate of the position of the tested individual in a predefined population, with respect to the trait being measured. Assigning scores on such tests may be described as relative grading, marking on a curve or grading on a curve.
• Criterion-referenced tests compare a person's knowledge or skills against a predetermined standard, learning goal, performance level, or another criterion. With criterion-referenced tests, each person's performance is compared directly to the standard, without considering how other students perform on the test. Criterion-referenced tests compare a person's knowledge or skills against a predetermined standard, learning goal, performance level, or other criterion. With criterion-referenced tests, each person's performance is compared directly to the standard, without considering how other students perform on the test.

Personality attributes of an individual are used in understanding their behaviour and design suitable strategies to deal with their behaviour. locus of control is one of the traits that influence behaviour.

Locus of Control:

• Locus of control is the belief regarding the outcome of their actions. In education, locus of control typically refers to how students perceive the causes of their academic success or failure in school.
• Certain people believe that their skills and abilities influence the outcome of the action. Others believe that some external factors like fate or chance influence their result.
• The locus of control may be either external or internal.
• Students with an “internal locus of control” generally believe that their success or failure is a result of the effort and hard work they invest in their education.
• Individuals with an internal locus of control are usually high on achievement motivation and are mastery-oriented in their learning

the following statements indicate the characteristics of behaviour associated with an internal locus of control:

• I feel my scores in an examination are well deserved.
• I am the master of my fate.
• One who has the potential will get selected.
• I got this job because of my capabilities.

the following statements indicate the characteristics of behaviour associated with an external locus of control:

• My grades reflect the teacher's bias.
• Things in my life are influenced by superpower.

Hence, the suitable answer is option 1.

Management by objectives (MBO)

• It is a strategic management model that aims to improve the performance of an organization by clearly defining objectives that are agreed to by both management and employees.
• According to the theory, having a say in goal setting and action plans encourages participation and commitment among employees, as well as aligning objectives across the organization.
• The term was first outlined by management guru Peter Drucker in his 1954 book, The Practice of Management.
• Critics of MBO argue that it leads to employees trying to achieve the set goals by any means necessary, often at the cost of the company.

Emotional intelligence:

• The notion of emotional intelligence broadens the concept of intelligence beyond the intellectual sphere/domain and considers that intelligence includes emotions.
• Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression, and regulation of emotions. It is the feeling side of intelligence.
• Emotional intelligence is often described as the capacity to be aware of, control, and express one’s emotions, and to handle interpersonal relationships empathetically.
• It is generally said to include skills like emotional awareness, the ability to make productive use of emotions by applying them in thinking and problem-solving tasks, and the ability to manage and regulate emotions.
• In simpler terms, emotional intelligence refers to the capability of individuals to recognize their own emotions and those of others, discern between different feelings and label them appropriately, use emotional information to guide thinking and behaviour, and manage and/or adjust emotions to adapt to environments or achieve one’s goal(s).

Hence, The statement that describes the nature and characteristics of the Emotional Intelligence of a person are:

• Ability to handle fear and anxiety
• Ability to promote the feeling of satisfaction
• Ability to see others point of view

Leadership:

• Leadership style is the pattern of behaviour that a leader exhibits, in influencing his/her subordinates towards the goals of an organization.
• Leadership style change from group to group and also from situation to situation.
• When a group lacks the sense of direction or purpose, directive style can be adopted by a leader, and when groups are clear of the organizational goals and objectives and perform well, non-directive styles can be adopted by a leader.

Important Points

Situational Approach to Leadership:

• The Situational Leadership theory of Hersey and Blanchard identifies four styles of leadership, which is based on the relative amount of task and relationship behaviour that a leader engages in.
• Task behaviour is the extent to which a leader spells out the duties and responsibilities of employees by giving direction and setting goals. Relationship behaviour is the extent to which a leader engages in multi-way communication with the employees by adopting measures such as listening, providing encouragement and coaching.
• Thus the four styles of leadership identified by Hersey and Blanchard include the following:

1. Telling Style:

• The telling style is seen as highly directive as the leader pays more attention to the task and less importance to the relationship.
• This style can be used by leaders where the followers are unable and unwilling to take responsibility and they need the direction of leaders in clarifying the goals expected of them;

2. Selling Style:

• Selling style is adopted by a leader, when the followers are unable to take the lead, but are willing and confident.
• In such situations, the leaders exhibit high orientation towards both task and relationship.
• The selling style is also very directive but in a more persuasive and guiding manner.

3. Participating Style:

• In participating style, the leaders give less direction and there is more collaboration among leaders and employees.
• In this style, the leader just shares the ideas, as the employees are able to do, but unwilling due to lack confidence and thus, there is high relationship and low task orientation in this style.

4. Delegating Style:

• In this style, the leader just delegates the tasks to the followers and is kept informed of progress, as the followers are able to do, willing and confident to take responsibility. Thus, in this style, low relationship and task orientation is shown by the leader

Five bases of power were identified by French and Raven in 1960, which laid the groundwork for most discussions of power and authority in the latter half of the twentieth century. These five types of power are coercive, legitimate, reward, referent, and expert. Power can be manifested through one or more of these bases.

Coercive power:

• This type of power relies on threats and punishment in order to influence because this type of power is easy to use and achieves quick results. It is used frequently.
• It has two critical drawbacks, however.

1. The low-power person dislikes the high power person and is motivated to end the relationship as soon as that becomes possible.
2. The use of coercive power requires that low power person be watched so that helshe does not try to deceive or avoid the grip of the high power person.

Reward power:

• This relies upon positive reinforcement as a means of influence.
• In this case, the low-power person is motivated to stay in the relationship. Keeping a watch is not necessary.
• Reward power is costly to high-power individuals because low-power persons are influenced as long as the high-power person continues to possess rewards.

Legitimate power:

• This exists when a person has a specific role, for example, as the headteacher, head boy or head girl in a school.
• One cannot 'use up' legitimate power, but this power is limited to specific domains.

Expert power:

• Expert power is taken by an expert in a certain area.
• The use of expert power does not require that low-power persons be watched.

Referent power:

• This comes to those who are liked and admired. When we want to be similar to those we admire, we change our behaviour to be like theirs.
• Referent power does not weaken, when it is used nor does it require surveillance.

Information power:

• Information power is held by those who possess information that someone needs or wants.
• For example, a teacher can influence students because of the fund of information he/she has.

Hence,

Educational administration

• It is a discipline within the study of education.
• It examines the administrative theory and practice of education in general and educational institutions and educators in particular activities.
• Educational Administration is regarded as the process of integrating the appropriate human and material resources that are made available and made effective for achieving the purposes of a program of an educational institution.
• The Administration doesn't refer to any single process or act.
• Educational administration refers to a range of professionals from supervisors, program administrators, and principals to deans, department heads, and chief academic officers as well as organizations, formed to administer school functions.

Centralized educational administration

• Centralized organizational structures rely on one individual to make decisions and provide direction for the company.
• In centralized education, all educational decisions and policies are all-around uniform.
• Those decisions and policies are from the top, made by the top, and should be implemented by the bottom levels.
• The curriculum, for instance, is uniform regardless of relevance levels of students' lives and the environment.
• In the concept of the management system, centralization and decentralization are important concepts.
• Centralization in education is usually referred to as the condition in which the administrative concentrating both authority and power at the top management.

Decentralized educational administration

• Decentralized organizations rely on a team environment at different levels in the business.
• Individuals at each level in the business may have some autonomy to make business decisions.
• Decentralization has been referred to as the extent to which authority has been passed down to the individual schools at the bottom levels.
• Within this concept, the top provides local administrators with greater autonomy which gives scope for creativity, resourcefulness, and personal enhancement particularly in the area of problem-solving.

UK

• In the UK  the educational administration is both centralized and decentralized in form and character.
• Administrative centralization and decentralization principally describe a condition or a trend in an areal hierarchy of power.
• This condition or trend can be visualized in two ways.
• One view contrasts the powers of administrators whose formal authority extends over a large geographic area with the powers of administrators whose formal authority is confined to particular segments or subsegments of that area.
• The important dimensional setting is geographic, and the classic problem is that of the whole and the individual parts.

Therefore, UK the educational administration both centralized and decentralized in form and character.

The Correct Answer is 1st April, 2010

• The Legislation on the right of children to free and compulsory education or the Law on the right to education (RTE) is an Act of the Parliament of India promulgated on 4 August 2009, which sets out the modalities of the value of free and compulsory education for children between 6 and 14 years of age in India under Article 21A of the Indian Constitution.
• India is one of 135 countries to make education a basic right for every child when the Act came into effect on 1^st April 2010.
• The Act allows education a constitutional right of any child between the ages of 6 and 14 and establishes minimum requirements in elementary schools.
• The RTE Act requires assessments to track all communities, recognize children needing education, and set up facilities to provide education.

Important Points

• The World Bank Education Specialist for India, Sam Carlson, said: "The RTE Act is the first law in the world to guarantee enrolment, attendance and completion of the Government. It is the duty of parents to send children to schools in the United States and other nations."
• The right to education for people with disabilities up to the age of 18 years is set down in a separate legislation-the Persons with Disabilities Act. A number of other clauses affecting the development of school buildings, teacher-student ratio and faculty are set down in the Act.

Operant conditioning 

• Also known as instrumental conditioning.
• It is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior.
• Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence, whether negative or positive, for that behavior.
• Operant conditioning is a type of associative learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.
• It is also a procedure that is used to bring about such learning.

Procedure-paradigm

• The procedure paradigm uses a linear top-down approach and treats data and procedures as two different entities.
• Based on the concept of a procedure call, Procedural Programming divides the program into procedures, which are also known as routines or functions, simply containing a series of steps to be carried out.

Discriminated Omission

• The stimuli that tell that omitting alternative behavior will be rewarded.
• Hold the position without doing anything else and a reward will follow.
• Omission training is a method in behaviorism used to stop undesirable behaviors.
• Discriminated Omission will follow the procedure Cue Present → Response Withheld → Positive Reinforcement.

Discriminated Punishment

• Discriminated punishment is an alternative paradigm that characterizes phobia as a choice behavior in which fear serves to punish an otherwise adaptive behavior.
• Discriminated punishment will follow the procedure  Cue Present → Response Withheld → Negative Reinforcement.

Discriminated Operant

• The discriminated operant is an operant response that is under the stimulus control of a discriminative stimulus.
• Such control is established by reinforcing the response in the presence of that discriminative stimulus.
• discriminated operant will follow the procedure Cue Present → Response Made → Positive Reinforcement.

Active avoidance

• It refers to experimental behavioral paradigms where subjects are trained, following the onset of a conditioned stimulus CS, to move from a starting position to another position in the testing apparatus within a fixed amount of time avoidance.
• Active avoidance will follow the procedure Cue Present → Response Made → Negative Reinforcement.

The key ideas (constructs) contained in cognitive field psychology can be put into five pivotal concepts and a number of auxiliary one. The essential idea of field psychology is that the meaning of its constructs is mutually interdependent. Each depends for its meaning upon the meaning of all the other. The pivotal concepts are life space, topology, vector, person and psychological environment.

Concept of Life Space:

• Life space, which is considered the principal construct, is an individual's psychological world or contemporaneous situation, which includes the person and his/her psychological environment.
• life space is a model of psychological reality or functional relationships developed for the purpose of describing what is possible and what is impossible for the person studies and of anticipating or predicting what he/she is likely to be thinking and doing now, as well as what his/her subsequent thoughts and actions would be.
• A life space represents not the physical objects as such, but functional and symbolic relationships. Hence it includes not only presently perceived objects but also memories, language, myths, art, and religion.
• In fact, there is no one life space but a continuously overlapping series of life spaces.
• It is the total psychological world, in which a person lives. It includes a person's precepts, knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and his/her time perspective.
• The two principal aspects of a life space are a person and a psychological environment. Both are surrounded by a non-psychological foreign hull.
• This non psychological environment is composed of those aspects of the person's physical social environment that are observable by the person studying a particular person but which at that particular juncture have no significance for the person being studied.
• So a person is within the psychological environment (everything that one is conscious of) and both are surrounded by a foreign hull (all those things of which the individual is not conscious at all), And if by chance things enter one's consciousness at a time they may change the entire behaviour of the individual.
• These non-psychological things, observed only by the outsider, can at the next moment become psychological ones for the person being studied.

District Institute for Education and Training (DIET):

• DIET are district-level educational institutes that have been established in each district of India by the Indian government.
• They help in coordinating and implementing government policies at the district level. About 3 million primary and elementary teachers need recurrent orientation to innovations in teaching and learning at the school level. The DIET has been charged with this responsibility.
• DIETs have been established as centers of guidance for educational institutes and schools of a district.
• They also work as a platform for research and experimental work in the educational domain. It also organizes programs to train teachers in new innovations.

Curriculum

• A curriculum is the combination of instructional practices, learning experiences, and students' performance assessments that are designed to bring out and evaluate the target learning outcomes of a particular course.
• So, Curriculum is a guide for teachers and evaluators
• It includes the lessons and academic content taught in a school or in a course or program.
• A curriculum is a totality of student experiences that occur in the educational process.
• It refers to a planned sequence of instruction, or to a view of the student's experiences in terms of the educator's or school's instructional goals.
• Curriculum implies transactional as well as evaluation strategies.
• Curriculum means a relevant set of learning experiences.
• The curriculum has to be in consonance with the objectives of education.

BRC (block resource center)

• BRC  is a block-level institution to carry out the academic activities related to mainly primary education.
• BRC carries out its academic program under the guidance and supervision of DIETA.

CRC (cluster resource center)

• Cluster resource centers have been functioning as teacher empowerment.
• where the teacher shares their experience and innovative practices in the teaching-learning process.

Demonstration model:

• Characteristic of demonstration method: (1) The demonstration should be done in a simple way. (2) In this strategy, attention is paid to all students. (3) The goals and objections of the demonstration are very clear. (4) It is a well-planned strategy.

System analysis model

• Systems Analysis and Modeling presents a fresh, new approach to systems analysis and modeling with a systems science flavor that stimulates systems thinking. Systems Analysis and Modeling present a fresh, new approach to systems analysis and modeling with a systems science flavor that stimulates systems thinking.
• Their efforts were not so much focussed on independent systems analysis, but on creating an abstract specification and invariant basis for designing.

Grassroot model

• A grassroots movement is one that uses the people in a given district, region, or community as the basis for a political or economic movement. Grassroots movements and organizations use collective action from the local level to affect change at the local, regional, national, or international level.
• An inductive approach to curriculum development, starting with specifics and building up to a general design. Taba took what is known as a grass-roots approach to curriculum development. 26.
• She believed that the curriculum should be designed by the teachers rather than handed down by a higher authority.
• Hilda Taba followed the grass-roots approach in developing the curriculum.
• She believed in an inductive approach to curriculum development. For her, it should be the teachers who should design the curriculum rather than the higher authorities.

Administrative model

• The administrative model of decision making assumes that decision-makers' rationality is bounded and that they're willing to consider only a limited number of criteria and alternatives before making decisions. As a consequence, they settle for the first 'good enough' solution that they find
• Presented by Simon - also known as the administrative man model - it assumes that people, while they may seek the best solution, usually settle for much less because the decisions they confront typically demand greater information processing capabilities than they possess.

Therefore, The Department of Education of a State Government invites proposals from DIETs for the inclusion of items in the primary school curriculum which in turn involves BRCs and CRCs.  This approach will be called the Administrative model.

Tolman's revised system of learning

• Tolman's theory combines the advantages of stimulus-response theories and cognitive field theories. He revised his theory in 1949. According to the findings of these experiments, the learner does not reach the goal in a fixed sequence of movements but changes his behaviour according to the variation in conditions.
• Edward C. Tolman (1886- 1959), like behaviourists, rejected the idea of introspection as a method of studying human behaviour.
• he believed the objective method of collecting data. He remarked that we do not only respond to the stimulus but we act on beliefs and express attitudes. Behaviour can be modified by experience and training.

According to Tolman, the behaviour depends upon:

• The need system,
• The belief value matrix
• The behaviour space

Equivalence belief learning

• Equivalence Beliefs - a feeling that a “subgoal” has the same value as the main goal. If a sporting achievement temporarily reduces a competitor's need for love, the achievement has served as an equivalence belief.

Formation of Cathexis

• Cathexis - learned tendency to associate certain objects with certain drives. In the example, vegans tend to satisfy their hunger with non-animal products (positive cathexis), and not meat (negative cathexis).
• Field Expectancies - learning in which the organism learns what action leads to what outcome. Field expectancies are formed for example when one learns what tools can be used for what task, or the way from one place to another. Field expectancies form cognitive maps. Unlike the first two mentioned kinds of learning (cathexis and equivalence beliefs), this kind of learning does not directly depend on reinforcements and suggests Tolman is at least partly cognitive theorist.
• Field Cognition Modes - Tolman offers very little explanations on this type of learning, yet it should present a way of approaching a problem-solving situation through arranging the perceptual field with a certain configuration. For example, using language when learning a maze solution in laboratory conditions. A person is likely to learn the solution as a verbal sequence of right and left turns.

Drive Discrimination

• learning to discriminate between drives in accordance with desired outcomes, like learning to satisfy hunger with food and thirst with water in animals. This type of learning is very similar to cathexis and it is not quite clear why Tolman introduced a new category for it.

Hence, the Formation of Cathexis term is taken from Freud's psychoanalytic theory of motivation - learned tendency to associate certain objects with certain drives.

Principles of Guidance given by Crow and Crow.

Principle of all-round development of the individual.

• Guidance must take into account the all-round development of the person.
• Guidance must ensure this desirable adjustment in any specific area of the individual' personality

The principle of human uniqueness.

• Guidance service must recognize these differences and guide each individual according to their specific need
• As no two humans are totally similar.
• Individuals differ in their physical, mental, social, and emotional development.
• Guidance is based on individual differences

Principle of holistic development.

• The child grows as a whole
• Guidance has to be imparted in the context of the total development of personality.

The principle of cooperation.

• The consent and cooperation of the individual is a pre-requisite for providing guidance.
• As guidance cannot be superimposed forcefully on anybody.
• Therefore, Guidance has a specific code of ethics.

The principle of continuity

• Guidance is a continuous process of service to an individual in different stages of his life.
• But, it is not the panacea for all ills

​The principle of extension.

• Guidance is not limited to a few persons, but it should be extended to all persons of all ages, who can benefit from it directly or indirectly.
• Guidance is for all

Distance Education

• Distance Education is inexpensive & provides opportunities for the students to enhance their qualifications.
• Distance Learning has evolved a lot with the advancement of technology, distance learning is now also includes e-learning or online learning.
• Most people take distance mode for higher education while they are working.
• Their main motive behind opting the distance education is to upgrade skills and put the same into practice at work.
• But it doesn’t mean that a student who is not currently working can’t take the distance course.
• Distance education is inexpensive and provides opportunities for aspirants to enhance their qualifications and growth in career options.
• The communication between the Institution, learners & teacher is mainly via electronic media such as telephone, video conferencing, email, website, chat sessions, teleconferencing, etc.
• One can also communicate through postal correspondence & limited face-to-face contact sessions organized at study centers.

The evolution of distance education programs in India in the following sequence:-

Distance education in India started in 1962 with pilot project correspondence courses, which led to the birth of the University of Delhi's School of Correspondence Courses and Continuing Education.

1. Correspondence courses

• Correspondence education is a formal educational process under which the institution provides instructional materials, by mail or electronic transmission, including examinations on the materials, to students who are separated from the instructor.
• Correspondence Education is a method of providing education to nonresident students, who receive lessons and exercises through mails and, upon completion, return them for analysis, criticism, and grading to the institute or university concerned.

2. Distance learning

• Distance learning is when students are separated from teachers and peers.
• This means that students learn remotely and do not have face-to-face learning with instructors or other students.
• Distance education, also called distance learning.
• The education of students who may not always be physically present at a school.
• Traditionally, this usually involved correspondence courses wherein the student corresponded with the school via mail. 3. Open learning
• It is an innovative movement in education that emerged in the 1970s and evolved into fields of practice and study.
• open learning is used to describe learning situations in which learners have the flexibility to choose from a variety of options in relation to the time, place, instructional methods, modes of access, and other factors related to their learning processes.

4. e-learning

• E-learning introduced in 2006 in India.
• eLearning, or electronic learning, is the delivery of learning and training through digital resources.
• This makes it easy for users to learn anytime, anywhere, with few, if any, restrictions.
• Basically, eLearning is training, learning, or education delivered online through a computer or any other digital device.
• It is a very efficient way of delivering courses online.
• Due to its convenience and flexibility, the resources are available from anywhere and at any time.
• Everyone, who is a part-time student or is working full time, can take advantage of web-based learning.

The evolution of distance education programs in India in the following sequence:

Corresponding courses →  Distance learning →  Open learning →  e-learning

Sigmund Freud’s Theory:

• Sigmund Freud, a physician by profession, was the major contributor to psychoanalytic theory.
• “Unconscious mental processes” is central to his theory. It refers to those desires, needs, and motivations of which we are not aware.
• According to Freud, the darker aspect of human behavior such as aggression and sexual desires also plays important role in our personality.
• In order to explain how our psyche (mind) works, Freud proposed;

1. A topographic model of the psyche (explains how our mind is organized)
2. A structural model of our personality
3. Psychosocial Stages of Development

A topographic model

• A topographic model of the psyche In the view of Sigmund Freud, our mind can be divided into three levels; conscious, preconscious and unconscious.

1. Conscious:

• According to him, our conscious mind is that part which deals with the current information.
• That is, all the thoughts, feelings, and actions of which you are aware at the very moment are part of the conscious mind.
• For example, you are consciously reading these pages, comprehending the words.

2. Preconscious:

• ​​Beyond the conscious is the preconscious, which is immediately not accessible but can be accessed.
• The Preconscious mind deals with all the information of which you are not currently aware but can become only if you pay attention.
• For example what you have taken in your breakfast today? Even though you were probably not aware of the breakfast menu before the question was asked, but it is now in your consciousness.
• The desires, wishes, thoughts, and feelings which are not conscious at present but could be recalled after making some efforts are stored in it.

3. Unconscious:

• ​The last level of mind is unconscious.
• This part of the mind stores those socially unacceptable needs, desires, motivations, and feelings of which you are unaware.
• According to him, this unconscious part of the mind plays a vital role in influencing our actions.

Leadership:

• Leadership style is the pattern of behavior that a leader exhibits, in influencing his/her subordinates towards the goals of an organization.
• Leadership style changes from group to group and also from situation to situation.
• When a group lacks a sense of direction or purpose, a directive style can be adopted by a leader, and when groups are clear of the organizational goals and objectives and perform well, non-directive styles can be adopted by a leader.

Participative leadership Style:

• In the participating style, the leaders give less direction and there is more collaboration among leaders and employees.
• In this style, the leader just shares the ideas, as the employees are able to do, but unwilling due to lack of confidence and thus, there is a high relationship and low task orientation in this style.

Hence, In a school, the 'participative leadership style' is likely to prove most effective when the teachers or students are able but unwilling.

Educational managers and administrators provide instructional leadership and manage the activities and resources in schools, colleges, and universities.

• School Managers and Administrators:
• Set educational standards and goals
• Establish the policies and procedures required to achieve them
• Support teaching and non-teaching staff (teachers, librarians, laboratory technicians, matrons, storekeepers, secretaries, drivers, etc)
• Monitor student's educational progress, motivate teachers and other staff.
• Handle relations with parents, students, and the community.
• They develop an annual school calendar.
• They handle Resources and supervise Projects.

Important Points

• Educational Management and Educational Administration are applied fields.
• They both originate from theories of Organizational and Business Management and Administration. Therefore we can define educational management and administration based on definitions used in the above table.
• Educational Administration refers to guidance, leadership, and control of the efforts of educational institutions or programs towards the achievement of educational goals. It is the higher-level authority that determines policies, identifies goals, and lays down principles of running an educational institution or project.
• Educational Management is the executive authority of an educational organization that deals with planning, staffing, organizing, directing, and controlling of activities and resources. It is an art of working with people and through people in the efforts of achieving predetermined educational goals through efficient utilization of available resources of a school, college, or university.

Hence, we can conclude that educational administration is different from educational management by the emphasis on following procedures, status quo in the organization and limited share ability of decisions.

Supervision refers to the process of organizing a favourable educational setting by guiding and monitoring the activities of pupils. Effective supervision is one which promotes greater pupil progress as pupils are the centre of educational settings.

Types of supervision:

1. Autocratic or Authoritarian supervision:

• Under this type, the supervisor wields absolute power and wants complete obedience from his subordinates.
• S/He wants everything to be done strictly according to his instructions and never likes any intervention from her/his subordinates.
• This type of supervision is resorted to tackling indiscipline subordinates.

2. Laissez-faire or free-rein supervision:

• This is also known as independent supervision. Under this type of supervision, maximum freedom is allowed to the subordinates.
• The supervisor never interferes in the work of the subordinates.
• In other words, full freedom is given to workers to do their jobs.
• Subordinates are encouraged to solve their problems themselves.

3. Democratic supervision:

• Under this type, the supervisor acts according to mutual consent and discussion or in other words, s/he consults subordinates in the process of decision making.
• This is also known as participative or consultative supervision.
• Subordinates are encouraged to give suggestions, take initiative, and exercise free judgment. This results in job satisfaction and improved morale of employees.

4. Bureaucratic supervision:

• Under this type certain working rules and regulations are laid down by the supervisor and all the subordinates are required to follow these rules and regulations very strictly.
• A serious note of the violation of these rules and regulations is taken by the supervisor.
• This brings about stability and uniformity in the organization. But in actual practice, it has been observed that there are delays and inefficiency in work due to bureaucratic supervision.

Hence, On the basis of research evidence, Democratic supervision will prove most effective in our schools and colleges.

Educational management is a complex human enterprise in which different resources are brought together and made available to achieve and to accomplish the desire and expected goals or objectives.

Conceptual skills are the abilities that allow an individual to better understand complex scenarios and develop creative solutions. There are different types of conceptual skills that are necessary for educational management. They are;

1. Decision-making skills involve the ability to solve problems quickly and efficiently. Whether you are interacting with coworkers or managing an issue with a project, being able to make effective decisions at all levels is important to success in management.

2. Interpersonal skills can involve any number of abilities associated with interacting with other people. To define interpersonal skills, it’s helpful to understand which types of skills are necessary to become an accomplished leader. 

• The ability to motivate others: This is a skill that can turn an individual into an asset to a company. Motivation increases employee satisfaction and productivity while setting a good example for the expectations of all team members within an organization. If you have excellent motivational skills, you may spot areas that could use improvement and approach these areas in constructive ways. This could help encourage your team members to make productive changes rather than feel discouraged.
• Professionalism in your role: Professionalism involves acting with honesty and integrity and maintaining your composure in the face of challenges. Try to hold yourself to the highest standards in these areas, creating examples for your members of the team to follow. When outlining professionalism, some examples include the ability to take the initiative, provide exceptional support with a positive attitude, and exhibit strong moral values in all situations.
• An innovative approach: In every industry, competitors are working to succeed ahead of others, so the ability to use and apply innovative thinking is necessary to stay ahead. A leader willing to innovate is more likely to lead the pack, rather than fall behind. Some examples of innovation include developing new and improved solutions for customers, re-designing or implementing new systems to improve functionality and productivity, identify shortcomings, and generate fresh ideas.

The above-mentioned conceptual skills are most needed at the level of top management such as the Director of Education than the other levels of educational management as it helps the manager to visualize the whole organization, challenges, and objectives. Hence it could be concluded that conceptual skills are most needed at the level of director of Education.

Spiritual intelligence

• It is a higher dimension of intelligence that activates the qualities and capabilities of the authentic self (or the soul), in the form of wisdom, compassion, integrity, joy, love, creativity, and peace.
• Spiritual intelligence results in a sense of deeper meaning and purpose, combined with improvements in a wide range of important life skills and work skills.

SQ = P(IQ+EQ), where P = presence, IQ = Intelligence quotient, EQ = Emotional intelligence or Emotional quotient.

• As an analysis of spiritual intelligence, the above equation means that SQ equals IQ and EQ magnified by the power of presence. Thus spiritual intelligence results when intellectual and emotional intelligence are exercised in the state of presence.

​Hence, The concept of SQ (Spiritual Intelligence) will be helpful in looking for problems that go beyond the present situation.

Sampling in research is the process of selection of units (e.g. people, organization) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample may fairly generate results back to the population from which they were chosen. The objective of sampling is to derive the desired information about the population at the minimum cost or with the maximum reliability. following are the methods of sampling in research:

1. Random/Probability Sampling - Major probability sampling methods are simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, and Cluster sampling, and Systematic sampling.
2. Non-random/Non-probability Sampling - Important techniques of non-probability sampling methods are Haphazard, Accidental, or Convenience Sampling, Quota Sampling, Sequential sampling, Purposive sampling, Snowball sampling.

Important Points

Key Points

The difference between quota sampling and stratified sampling is: although both "group" participants by an important characteristic, stratified sampling relies on the random selection within each group, while quota sampling relies on convenience sampling within each group.

Hence, The element that differentiates between stratified and quota sampling techniques is randomness in the drawing of units.

Research is an organized, systematic, and scientific inquiry into a subject to discover facts, theories or to find answers to a problem. It involves several steps including identification of a problem, review of literature, formulation of hypothesis, research design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation, etc.

Hypothesis: The word hypothesis consists of two words, where ‘hypo’ means tentative or subject to verification and ‘thesis’ implies a statement about the solution of a problem. One of the primary functions of a hypothesis is to state a specific relation between two or more variables in such a manner that it is possible to empirically test them.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis:

• The hypothesis should be empirically testable: A researcher should take utmost care that his/her hypothesis embodies concepts or variables that have clear empirical correspondence and not concepts or variables that are loaded with moral judgments or values.
• The hypothesis should be simple: The researcher must ensure to state the hypothesis as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same is easily understandable by all concerned. It should not be complex in nature.
• The hypothesis should be specific/objective: No vague terms should be used in the formulation of a hypothesis. It should specifically state the posited relationship between the variables.
• The hypothesis should be conceptually clear: The concepts used in the hypothesis should be clearly defined, not only formally but also, if possible, operationally. The formal definition of the concepts will clarify what a particular concept stands for, while the operational definition will leave no ambiguity about what would constitute the empirical evidence.
• The hypothesis should be related to a body of theory or some theoretical orientation: A hypothesis, if tested, helps to qualify, support, correct or refute an existing theory, only if it is related to some theory or has some theoretical orientation. Thus, the exercise of deriving hypothesis from a body of theory may also lead to a scientific leap into newer areas of knowledge.

Leadership:

• Leadership style is the pattern of behaviour that a leader exhibits, in influencing his/her subordinates towards the goals of an organization.
• Leadership style change from group to group and also from situation to situation.
• When a group lacks the sense of direction or purpose, directive style can be adopted by a leader, and when groups are clear of the organizational goals and objectives and perform well, non-directive styles can be adopted by a leader.

Important Points

Situational Approach to Leadership:

• The Situational Leadership theory of Hersey and Blanchard identifies four styles of leadership, which is based on the relative amount of task and relationship behaviour that a leader engages in.
• Task behaviour is the extent to which a leader spells out the duties and responsibilities of employees by giving direction and setting goals. Relationship behaviour is the extent to which a leader engages in multi-way communication with the employees by adopting measures such as listening, providing encouragement and coaching.
• Thus the four styles of leadership identified by Hersey and Blanchard include the following:

1. Telling Style:

• The telling style is seen as highly directive as the leader pays more attention to the task and less importance to the relationship.
• This style can be used by leaders where the followers are unable and unwilling to take responsibility and they need the direction of leaders in clarifying the goals expected of them;

2. Selling Style:

• Selling style is adopted by a leader, when the followers are unable to take the lead, but are willing and confident.
• In such situations, the leaders exhibit high orientation towards both task and relationship.
• The selling style is also very directive but in a more persuasive and guiding manner.

3. Participating Style:

• In participating style, the leaders give less direction and there is more collaboration among leaders and employees.
• In this style, the leader just shares the ideas, as the employees are able to do, but unwilling due to lack confidence and thus, there is high relationship and low task orientation in this style.

4. Delegating Style:

• In this style, the leader just delegates the tasks to the followers and is kept informed of progress, as the followers are able to do, willing and confident to take responsibility. Thus, in this style, low relationship and task orientation is shown by the leader

Key Points

 

Additional Information

Leadership Theories/Studies and the corresponding Leadership Styles:

Ethnographic research:

• Etymologically, the word “ethnography” originated from two Greek words ethnos (people) and graphia (writing). Therefore Ethnography accounts for the written presentation of a people or a population.
• Ethnography has its origins in the discipline of anthropology.
• Ethnography means a systematic detailed study about a particular culture or society, primarily based on fieldwork.
• Ethnographic research is conducted in the natural setting by covering the everyday activities of the subjects under qualitative investigation.
• It also attempts to describe and interpret the symbolic and contextual meanings of the practices that are conducted in the natural setting in every usual day.
• ​Artifacts in research refers to the systematic biases, uncontrolled and unintentional, that can threaten the INTERNAL or EXTERNAL VALIDITY of one's research conclusions.

Hence, In ethnographic research, a researcher uses a non-interactive strategy, which describes people's experiences and connotes their feelings. it refers to artifact collection.

Validity in research mainly stands for accuracy of procedures, research instruments, tests, etc. The concept of validity can also be understood by posing a question, ‘Are we measuring or able to measure what we originally intended to measure?’. Validity means that research must be unbiased and free from any systematic error as these may impact the applicability of research. Without validity, research goes in the wrong direction.

There there are two main categories of validity used to assess the validity of the test (i.e. questionnaire, interview, IQ test, etc.): Content and criterion.

Sample statistic

• A sample statistic is a piece of information you get from a fraction of a population.
• A sample statistic is a piece of statistical information you get from a handful of items.
• A sample is just a part of a population

How to calculate the sample mean

1. Add up the sample items.
2. Divide sum by the number of samples.
3. The result is the mean.
4. Use the mean to find the variance.
5. Use the variance to find the standard deviation

corresponding parameter

• The corresponding sample characteristic is used to summarize information about the unknown population characteristic.
• The population characteristic of interest is called a parameter.
• The corresponding sample characteristic is the sample statistic or parameter estimate.

Sampling error

• A sampling error is a statistical error that occurs when an analyst does not select a sample that represents the entire population of data.
• The results found in the sample do not represent the results that would be obtained from the entire population.

Difference Between a Statistic and a Parameter

A statistic and a parameter are very similar. The difference between a statistic and a parameter is that statistics describe a sample. A parameter describes an entire population. Therefore, Sampling error is the difference between a sample statistic and the corresponding parameter.

Additional Information

Standard error

• The standard error (SE) of a statistic is the standard deviation of its sampling distribution or an estimate of that standard deviation​.
• SE = $σ \over \sqrt n$  where, SE = the standard error of the sample, σ = sample standard deviation, n = number of samples

Systematic error

• Systematic error called systematic bias.
• It is a consistent, repeatable error associated with faulty equipment or a flawed experimental design.
• These errors are usually caused by measuring instruments that are incorrectly calibrated or are used incorrectly.

Probable error

• Probable error defines the half-range of an interval about a central point for the distribution,  that half of the values from the distribution will lie within the interval and half outside.
• Probable Error is basically the correlation coefficient that is fully responsible for the value of the coefficients and their accuracy.

The following diagram explains the T-score corresponding to a Z-score.

 

T = 10 × Z + 50

T = 10 × 2 + 50

T = 20 + 50

T = 70

Key Points

Mean: Mean (average) is sum of all quantities divided by nunber of quantities.

Standard deviation: It is used to measure how deviated or dispersed the numbers are with respect to the mean in the same set of data.

Percentile Rank: It is measure to find how many values are below the score. It basically rank of the score.

Z score: Z score is a value calculated through the above formula, used to interpret percentile of a given score or value.

Normal Probability Curve: It is a bell shaped curve having highest point at mean which is symmetrical along the vertical line drawn at the mean. It is used to interpret the percentile or the percentage of no of cases for respective value of z scores.

Important Points

In a class test, the mean for Psychology was 45 and SD was 5, while for Maths the mean was 80 and SD was 5. Mr. Bipin Kumar gets 50 marks in Psychology and 70 marks in Maths.

Formula:  Z = $(X - \bar{X}) \over σ$

Calculation for Psychology:

Step 1:

Mean (x̄) = 45 score (x) = 50 Std deviation(σ) = 5

Calculate z scores

z = (50-45)/5 = 1

Step 2:

Calculate the percentile rank

From Normal Probability Curve, the total percentage of cases from 0 to mean is 50 and mean to 1 is 34.13

So total percentage of cases from 0 to 1 = 50 + 34.13 = 84.13

From Normal Probability curve, when z score is 1, percentile rank is  = 84approx.

Calculation for Maths:

Step 1:

Mean (x̄) =80  score (x) = 70 Std deviation(σ) = 5

Calculate z scores

z = (70 - 80)/5 = -2

Step 2:

Calculate the percentile rank

From Normal Probability Curve, the total percentage of cases from 0 to -2 = 0.14 + 2.14 = 2.28

From Normal Probability curve, when z score is -2, percentile rank is  = 2approx.

Since his percentile rank is better in Psychology than Maths. he scored better in Psychology

This can also be inferred by checking the scores alone. Since, he scored above average in psychology and less than average in maths. He scored better in psychology.

Ans. Option 2

If each raw score is decreased by 5, the mean would be decreased by 5

so new mean would be

43 – 5 = 38

standard deviation would be same 8 as each raw score is decreased.

Sampling in research is the process of selection of units (e.g. people, organization) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample may fairly generate results back to the population from which they were chosen. The objective of sampling is to derive the desired information about the population at the minimum cost or with the maximum reliability.

Stratified random sampling:

• There are many different characteristics that may call for the use of stratified sampling.
• It is a type of random sampling in which the population is first divided into two or more strata or subgroups before the sampling process begins.
• Each unit is assigned to one stratum based on prior knowledge about the unit. Then, independent random samples are selected from each stratum using a procedure that is used in simple random sampling. Stratum (plural "siratan) constitutes a portion of the population i.e. they are mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive.
• The sampling units of stratum are similar in each other and the different from the members of another stratum in the characteristics that we are measuring.

Purposive Sampling (Deliberate sampling)

• In this method, samples are expressly chosen because in the light of available information they resemble some larger group with respect to one or more characteristics.
• The controls criteria for categorization in such samples are usually identified as representative areas such as a state, a district, a city, etc or representative characteristics of individuals such as age, sex, socio-economic status, etc. or representative types of groups such as elementary school teachers, secondary school teachers, college teachers, university teachers, etc.
• These control criteria may be further subdivided e.g. the group of college teachers can be divided into male and female teachers or teachers in science/arts/commerce colleges etc.
• For example, An investigator wants to conduct a study on orthopedically handicapped children.

Quota Sampling:

• The researcher is guided by some visible characteristics, such as gender or race, of the study population that is of interest to him.
• The sample is selected from a location that is convenient and easily accessible to the researcher and whenever a person with this visible relevant characteristic is seen that person is asked to participate in the study.

Accidental sampling: 

• It is also known as grab or opportunity sampling, is a form of non-probability sampling that involves taking a population sample that is close at hand, rather than carefully determined and obtained.

Hence, An investigator wants to conduct a study on orthopedically handicapped children. The type of sampling to be used would be Purposive.

Blalock (1960) indicated that most sampling methods could be classified into two categories: Non-probability sampling methods and Probability sampling methods.

Reliability

A test must be reliable, that is, it must have the ability to consistently yield the same results when it is repeatedly administered to the same individuals under the same conditions.

For example, if an individual record his/her responses on various items of a questionnaire and thus provides a certain type of information, he/she should provide approximately the same type of responses when the questionnaire is administered to him/her on the second occasion. If an achievement test is administered to learners and then re-administered after .a gap of fifteen days without any special coaching in that subject, within these fifteen days, the learners must show a similar range of scores on the administration of the test.

• The repeated measure of an attribute, characteristic, or trait by a tool may provide different results. They may be due either to a real change in the individual's behavior or to the unreliability or inconsistency of the tool itself.
• It varies from sample to sample. It does not give the same or fixed result in varied situations.
• It is affected by the variance of scores.
• It is the correlation of scores on the testing tool itself. The results in terms of two sets of measures obtained by the use of the tool are correlated to measure the level of reliability.
• If the variation in the results is due to a real change in behavior, the reliability of the tool is not to be doubted. However, if the variation is due to the tool itself, then the tool is to be discarded.

There are various procedures to assess the reliability of a test. These include (i) the test-retest method, (ii) the alternate or parallel-form method, (iii) the split-half method, and (iv) the rational equivalence method.

Variability:

Variability means ‘Scatter’ or ‘Spread’. Thus measures of variability refer to the scatter or spread of scores around their central tendency. The measures of variability indicate how the distribution scatter above and below the central tender.

The need for Variability:

1. Helps to ascertain the measures of deviation
2. It helps to compare different group

Measures of Variability:

  1. The Range:

• The range is the difference between in a series. It is the most general measure of spread or scatters. It is a measure of the variability of the varieties or observation among themselves and does not give an idea about the spread of the observations around some central value.
• Range = H-L
• Here H = Highest score and L = Lowest score   2. The Quartile Deviation (Q):
• Next to range quartile deviation is another measure of variability.
• It is based upon the interval containing the middle fifty percent of cases in a given distribution.
• One quarter means 1/4th of something when a scale is divided into four equal parts.
• “The quartile deviation or Q is the one-half the scale distance between the 75t and 25th percentiles in a frequency distribution.”   3. The Average Deviation (A.D.):
• It is because both the dispersions do not take all individual scores into account.
• We can overcome some of the serious shortcomings of range and quartile deviation by using another dispersion called Average deviation or Mean deviation.
• “Average deviation is the arithmetic mean of all the deviations of different scores from the mean value of the scores without the regard for a sign of the deviation.”

Important Points  

4. The Standard Deviation (SD):

• Standard deviation tells you how spread out the data is.
• It is a measure of how far each observed value is from the mean.
• In any distribution, about 95% of values will be within 2 standard deviations of the mean.

Therefore, Standard deviation is used for describing the units of differences from the central tendency measure such as mean.

Homogenous tests

• In the test of homogeneity, random samples are selected from each subgroup or population separately and data is collected on a single categorical variable.
• The null hypothesis says that the distribution of the categorical variable is the same for each subgroup or population.
• Both tests use the same chi-square test statistic.
• Analyzing the Homogeneity of a Dataset

1. Calculate the median.
2. Subtract the median from each value in the dataset.
3. Count how many times the data will make a run above or below the median (i.e., the persistence of positive or negative values).
4. Use significance tables to determine thresholds for homogeneity.

• Test for homogeneity can be used to draw a conclusion about whether two populations have the same distribution
• Homogenous tests have low reliability. As higher coefficients result from heterogeneous groups than from homogeneous groups.

The range of test scores affects reliability.

• Reliability in statistics is the overall consistency of a measure.
• A measure is said to have a high reliability if it produces similar results under consistent conditions.
• The consistency of a research study or measuring test.
• The score of the test should be similar in order for the test to be reliable.
• Therefore, **the range of test scores affects reliability.**​

As the reason for Homogenous tests having low reliability is that higher coefficients result from heterogeneous groups than from homogeneous groups. Therefore, Both (A) assertion and (R) reason are true, but (R) reason is not the correct explanation of (A) assertion.

Reliability 

• Reliability in statistics and psychometrics is the overall consistency of a measure.
• A measure is said to have a high reliability if it produces similar results under consistent conditions.
• Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure.
• Psychologists consider three types of consistency:

1. overtime (test-retest reliability)
2. across items (internal consistency)
3. across different researchers (inter-rater reliability).

Correlation

• Correlation represents the strength of a relationship between two variables.
• It is expressed numerically by the correlation coefficient.
• The correlation coefficient's values range between -1.0 and 1.0.
• A perfect positive correlation means that the correlation coefficient is exactly 1

Methods of reliability:

• Split-half reliability
• In split-half reliability, a test for a single knowledge area is split into two parts.
• Both parts are given to one group at the same time.
• Then the scores from both parts of the test are correlated.
• The split-half method assesses the internal consistency of a test.
• Inter-rater reliability
• Inter-rater reliability is the extent to which two or more raters or observers, coders, examiners agree.
• It addresses the issue of consistency in the implementation of a rating system.
• Inter-rater reliability can be evaluated by using a number of different statistics.
• Inter-rater reliability is the degree of agreement among raters.
• It is a score of how much homogeneity or consensus exists in the ratings given by various judges.
• In contrast, intra-rater reliability is a score of the consistency in ratings given by the same person across multiple instances.
• Kuder-Richardson formula 20
• The Kuder–Richardson Formula 20 (KR-20) was first published in 1937.
• It is a measure of internal consistency reliability for measures with dichotomous choices.
• It is often claimed that a high KR-20 coefficient (e.g., > 0.90) indicates a homogeneous test.
• The closer the score is to 1, the more reliable the test.
• Just what constitutes an acceptable KR-20 score depends on the type of test.
• In general, a score of above . 5 is usually considered reasonable
• Cronbach's alpha
• Cronbach's alpha is a measure of internal consistency.
• It shows, how closely related a set of items are as a group.
• It is considered to be a measure of scale reliability.
• As the average inter-item correlation increases, Cronbach's alpha increases as well (holding the number of items constant).
• \(\rho_{T} = \frac {k^{2} \overline {\sigma_{i\ j}} } {\sigma^{2}X}\) where, \(\rho{T}\) = tau-equivalent reliability , $k$= number of items , $\sigma_{i\ j}$ = covariance between Xi and Xj , ${\sigma^{2}_X}$ = item variances and inter-item covariances.
• Kuder-Richardson formula 21
• Kuder-Richardson Formula 21 KR-21 is a simplified version of KR-20.
• It can be used when the difficulty of all items on the test are known to be equal.
• KR-21 tends to be a more conservative estimate of reliability than KR-20, which in turn is a more conservative estimate than Cronbach's α.
• KR21 = estimated reliability of the full-length test. n = number of items. Var = variance of the whole test (standard deviation squared) M = mean score on the test.

Therefore, from the above explanation we can conclude that Cronbach's alpha is the method of reliability of a test that describes the average correlation of all split-half correlations and can be applied when there are more than two options to each item.

Educational technology is the systematic application of science and technology in the field of education. Science is a search for profound knowledge. Scientists investigate the world around us. They observe how things work and based on this, develop ideas about ways to make them work better. Sometimes they try to test an idea as to find out how things work or do not work. The knowledge thus discovered is useful for many things that we do in our day to day life. It can help to build new machines, develop new medicines or cure diseases. Technology is the use of scientific knowledge to create new things.

• ET is based on the systems approach to education: the input, output and the process.
• It directs both the teachers and learners to formulate learning objectives, and to develop appropriate strategies of teaching and learning evaluation techniques.
• It helps in providing efficiency to the task of teaching and learning and facilitates effective communication between teachers and students.
• Educational technology is not merely confined to the use of audio-visual aids, software and hardware, nor is it limited to the use of the psychological principles and instructional theories, for bringing change in the teaching-learning process. It has a much broader scope.
• It is a field of study that investigates the process of analyzing, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating the instructional environment and learning materials in order to improve teaching and learning.
• It is the combined use of computer hardware, software, and educational theory and practice to facilitate learning.
• It creates, uses, and manages technological processes and educational resources to help improve user academic performance

Hence, In the following descriptive statements, those which relates to the concept of Educational Technology (ET) are:

• ET is a network of techniques for promoting effective learning conditions.
• ET optimizes learning outcomes with the use of a number of instrumentalities.
• The design of effective teaching-learning outcomes is facilitated by ET.

Note:

• The maximum use of hardware is called ET: ET is not limited to the use of a computer or certain devices made of hardware, but the software used is the major part of ET
• ET is used for enhancing student participation in the classroom: It could be one of the reasons to use ET in a classroom but it cant be the major goal.
• Focussing on the development of software is called ET: the Focus is always learning.

ANOVA is a test used to detect differences between continuous variables when there are more than two groups, so it would be ideal to use an ANOVA to compare four groups of students on numerical ability on the basis of a test. As part of performing an ANOVA on this data, we need to calculate an F-ratio.

The F-ratio is defined as the ratio of the between-group variance (MSB) to the within-group variance (MSW).

⇒F = $\frac{between\ group\ variance}{within\ group\ variance}$ = $\frac{MSB}{MSW}$

The calculated F-ratio can be compared to a table of critical F-ratios to determine if there are actually any differences between groups or not.

MSB = Sum of Squares (between)/ degree of freedom(df_between) 

MSB = 625/3 = 208.333

MSW = Sum of Squares (within)/ degree of freedom(dfwithin) 

MSW = 2128/36 = 59.111

F = $\frac{between\ group\ variance}{within\ group\ variance}$ = $\frac{MSB}{MSW}$

F = 208.333/59.111 = 3.52

Correlational Research in educational psychology:

• In research, we often wish to determine the relationship between two variables for prediction purposes.
• For example, you may be interested in knowing whether “the amount of study time” is related to the “student’s academic achievement”. you simply find out the relationship between the two variables to determine whether they are associated, or covary or not.
• The strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables are represented by a number, known as the correlation coefficient.

Correlation coefficient:

• Its value can range from +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0.
• The coefficient of correlation is of three types: positive, negative, and zero.

1. A positive correlation

• It indicates that as the value of one variable (X) increases, the value of the other variable (Y) will also increase.
• Similarly, when variable X decreases, a decrease in Y too will take place.
• Suppose, it is found that the more time the students spend on studying, the higher was their achievement score. Also, the less they studied, the lower was their achievement score. This type of association will be indicated by a positive number, and the stronger the association between studying and achievement, the closer the number would be to +1.0.
• A correlation of + 0.85, indicating a strong positive association between study time and achievement. On the other hand,

2. a negative correlation

• It tells us that as the value of one variable (X) increases, the value of the other (Y) decreases.
• For example, you may hypothesize that as the hours of study time increase, the number of hours spent on other activities will decrease. Here, you are expecting a negative correlation, ranging between 0 and –1.0.

3. zero correlation:

• It is also possible that sometimes no correlation may exist between the two variables. This is called a zero correlation.
• Generally, it is difficult to find zero correlation but the correlations found may be close to zero, e.g., -.02 or +.03.
• This indicates that no significant relationship exists between two variables or the two variables are unrelated.

Hence, An investigator obtained a correlation coefficient of +0.65 between two variables. The other investigator obtained a correlation coefficient of -0.65 between the same variables. Both indicate the same degree of the relationship if one variable decreases then the other variable increases.

Instructional Design

• Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specifications.
• It is used to ensure the quality of instruction.
• It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system.
• Instructional design is the design, development, and delivery of learning experiences.
• It constructs those experiences in a way that learners acquire either knowledge or skills.
• Instructional designers follow various academic theories and models related to how people learn and the cognitive processes behind the learning experience.
• These models ensure the instruction is as effective as possible for imparting knowledge or teaching skills to learners.

Using a software approach for instructional designs will be relevant to the following:-

• Use of evidence on learning- Evidence about the progress students make is important information for teaching. It is beneficial for establishing whether, and how effectively, individuals are learning. Low levels of progress may indicate a lack of student effort and/or ineffective teaching, and so warrant closer investigation.
• Use of the findings of researches in behavioral sciences- Behavioral and social sciences research enables to predict, prevent, and manage learning/ illness related to learning ability, in individuals and in whole populations. This research also helps people change their behaviors, understand treatments, and learn how to stick with them.
• Insights from the use of various learning resources-  Learning resources are used as an integral part of the instructional process. The purpose and objective with which the resource is added can be determined by the instructional design chosen.

Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC):

• The development of the original system of interaction analysis was primarily the work of Ned Flanders.
• The system is often referred to as the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis (FIA) – an innovation which made possible significant insights into the analysis and improvement of instruction.
• Flanders’ interaction analysis system is an observational tool used to classify the verbal behaviour of teachers and pupils as they interact in the classroom.
• Flanders’ instrument was designed for observing only the verbal communication in the classroom and non-verbal gestures are not taken into account.
• Flanders Interaction Analysis is a system of classroom interaction analysis which is concerned with verbal behaviour only, primarily because it can be observed with higher reliability than can non-verbal behaviour and more also, the assumption made that the verbal behaviour of an individual is an adequate sample of his total behaviour.
• Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) is a Ten Category System of communication which is said to be inclusive of all communication possibilities.
• There are seven categories used when the teacher is talking (Teacher talk) and two when the pupil is talking (Pupil talk) and the tenth category is that of silence or confusion.

Hence, The focus of the Ned Flanders interaction analysis categories system is on the study of Verbal behaviour of teachers.

Additional Information

Flander’s interaction analysis categories:

Learning disability

• A learning disability is a neurological disorder.
• It is a learning disability results from a difference in the way a person's brain is different.
• Children with learning disabilities are as smart or smarter than their peers.
• Learning disabilities are due to genetic and/or neurobiological factors that alter brain functioning in a manner that affects one or more cognitive processes related to learning.
• These processing problems can interfere with learning basic skills such as reading, writing, and/or math.
• They can also interfere with higher-level skills such as organization, time planning, abstract reasoning, long or short-term memory, and attention.

 The following are characteristics of a learning disabled child:-

• Children with learning disabilities often struggle with various areas of academic performance.
• A  discrepancy between ability and achievement begins to emerge in students with learning disabilities.
• Academic deficits for children with learning disabilities normally fall into the following areas: reading, mathematics, and written expression
• Reading difficulties are observed among students with learning disabilities more than any other problem area of academic performance.
• Learning disabilities have difficulties with reading fluency
• Math difficulties are second only to reading disabilities as an academic problem area for students with LD
• The child has some minimal brain dysfunction.

​Hence the following combination of statements indicates the characteristics of a learning disabled child:

• The child has serious difficulties in basic academic skills - reading, writing.
• There is a discrepancy between the child's potential and actual achievement.
• Child has some minimal brain dysfunction.

A child may face a disability while learning or performing a task. According to the nature of the disability, several types of disabilities are observed in children. Different types of disabilities are described below:

Hence, Asphyxia is not a type of learning disability.

Additional Information

Asphyxia, the failure or disturbance of the respiratory process brought about by the lack or insufficiency of oxygen in the brain.

t-test : t- test is a statistical term which is used to define the significant difference between two groups, the differences are measured in terms of means of the groups.

Hypothesis testing

• It uses sample data to make inferences about the population.
• It gives tremendous benefits by working on random samples, as it is practically impossible to measure the entire population.
• Hypothesis testing is a procedure that assesses two mutually exclusive theories about the properties of a population.
• For Hypothesis testing, the two hypotheses are as follows:

1. Null Hypothesis
2. Alternative hypothesis

• There are two errors defined, both are for null hypothesis condition
• Type-I error corresponds to rejecting H0 (Null hypothesis) when H0 is actually true, and a Type-II error corresponds to accepting H0 (Null hypothesis)when H0 is false. Hence four possibilities may arise:
• The null hypothesis is true but the test rejects it (Type-I error).
• The null hypothesis is false but the test accepts it (Type-II error).
• The null hypothesis is true and the test accepts it (correct decision).
• The null hypothesis is false and test rejects it (correct decision)

Significant difference: Significant differences in statistics means measurable differences.

Given: 

Error Type: Type I error

Experiment done: 20 times

Significant difference: 19 times

To find: Probability of type I error

Terms:

Formula: Probability = No of favourable outcome/Total no of outcome

Calculation:

Probability= No of favourable outcome/Total no of outcome

Since we want to find the probability of type I error, we will calculate the total number of cases (= 20) and  number of cases in favour of type I error or which not significant (20-19=1)

Probability= No of favourable outcome(in favour of type I error) /Total no of outcome (cases) 

                 = 1/20

                 = 0.05

Hence, The probability of committing a type I error was 0.05

The percentile rank

• The percentile rank of a score is the percentage of scores in its frequency distribution which are lower.
• For example, a test score that is greater than 90% of the scores of people taking the test is said to be at the 90th percentile.
• Percentile ranks are commonly used to clarify the interpretation of scores on standardized tests.
• For the test theory, the percentile rank of a raw score is interpreted as the percentages of examinees in the norm group who scored below the score of interest.
• The distribution of percentile ranks is uniform and is rectangular in shape.

Let's understand the concept with the example given below:

• Normal Distribution Curve— In the norming sample, 50% of examinees score within the 90-110 range of standard scores.   In the same sample, 68.26% score between 85 and 115.
• **Scale Score—**A scaled score is generally a subtest score that has a mean (average) of 10 and a standard deviation (SD) of 3. Therefore, a subtest that has a score of 10 would be at the 50th percentile; a score of 7 would be at the 16th percentile; a score of 13 would be at the 84th
• **Standard Score (SS)—**A standard score would have a mean (average) of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Achievement composite scores and Cognitive Index, Cluster, and Full-Scale scores are generally quoted as standard scores. Therefore, a child with a cognitive score of 100 would be at the 50th percentile; a score of 85 would be at the 16th percentile; a score of 115 would be at the 84th
• **Percentile Rank—**The percentile rank shows how one examinee’s score relates to others in the norming sample. For instance, a child who scored at the 47th percentile would have a score that is greater than or equal to 47% of other children in the norming sample, and the score would be less than 53% of other students.
• **Standard Deviation—**Standard deviation (SD) refers to how far the data is spread from the mean (gray line in the above picture.) For example, one standard deviation on either side of the mean will account for about 68% of the scores.

Hence, the shape of the curve showing the distribution of percentile ranks is rectangular.

Additional Information

Normal distribution: 

Leptokurtic:

Bimodal distribution:

Errors In Hypothesis Testing

Type-I error corresponds to rejecting H0 (Null hypothesis) when H0 is actually true, and a Type-II error corresponds to accepting H0 (Null hypothesis)when H0 is false. Hence four possibilities may arise.

1. The null hypothesis is true but the test rejects it (Type-I error).
2. The null hypothesis is false but the test accepts it (Type-II error).
3. The null hypothesis is true and the test accepts it (correct decision).
4. The null hypothesis is false and test rejects it (correct decision)

Important Points

1. Type-I Error:

• In a hypothesis test, a Type-I error occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected when it is in fact true. That is, H0 is wrongly rejected. For example, in a clinical trial of a new drug, the null hypothesis might be that the new drug is no better, on average than the current drug. That is, there is no difference between the two drugs on average.
• A Type-I error would occur if we concluded that the two drugs produced different effects when in fact there was no difference between them. A Type-I error is often considered to be more serious, and therefore more important to avoid than a Type-II error.
• The exact probability of a Type-I error is generally unknown. If we do not reject the null hypothesis, it may still be false (a Type-I error) as the sample may not be big enough to identify the falseness of the null hypothesis (especially if the truth is very close to the hypothesis).

Additional Information

2. Type-II Error

• In a hypothesis test, a Type-II error occurs when the null hypothesis, H0, is not rejected when it is in fact false.
• For example, in a clinical trial of a new drug, the null hypothesis might be that the new drug is no better, on average than the current drug; that is Ho: there is no difference between the two drugs on average.
• A Type-II error would occur if it was concluded that the two drugs produced the same effect, that is, there is no difference between the two drugs on average, when in fact they produced different effects.
• A Type-II error is frequently due to sample sizes being too small.
• The probability of a Type-II error is symbolized by â and written: P (Type-II error) = â (but is generally unknown).
• A Type-II error can also be referred to as an error of the second kind.

​Hence, An investigator commits type I error in testing hypothesis ​when he/she rejects null hypothesis when it is true.

Significance of mean

Standard error of mean: The standard error is a statistical term that measures the accuracy with which a sample distribution represents a population by using standard deviation. In statistics, a sample mean deviates from the actual mean of a population—this deviation is the standard error of the mean.

In the question, we have given:

• Sample Mean (X) = 42
• Sample Standard deviation ($\sigma$) = 8
• No. of students (N) = 256

Step 1: Calculate standard error of mean

⇒ $\sigma_{E} = \frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{N}}$

⇒ $\sigma_{E} = \frac{8}{\sqrt{256}}$ = 8/16 = 1/2

Step 2: locate z-value of 0.95% ( ∵ the probability is 0.95) from the z table i.e 1.96

Step 3: Calculate confidence interval at 0.95

 = X + z × $\sigma_{E}$  , X - z × $\sigma_{E}$ 

 = 42 + 1.96 × 1/2, 42 + 1.96 × 1/2

 = 42 + 0.98, 42 - 0.98

 = 42.98, 41.02

upper limit = 42.98

Slow learners

• The slow learner is distinct from the mentally handicapped learner though s/he is often mistaken for it.
• A slow learner is an individual whose mental ability is high enough to justify keeping her/him in the regular classroom but low enough to give her/him considerable difficulty in keeping up with the average speed of the class.
• Her/His I.Q. range falls into the 70-90 range, making her/him a borderline case.
• A slow learner is a student who has the ability to learn necessary academic skills, however, at a rate and depth below that of typical peers.
• They progress through the curriculum at a slightly slower rate and may struggle to keep up with concepts, despite working hard.
• It is commonly misunderstood that these children fail at learning or are merely stupid or dumb. The truth is that every child has his own pace to learn and develop. Some children naturally learn much faster, and others are known to take their time to learn the same concepts and lessons.

Characteristics of slow learners

• Slow learners, because of their mental slowness either ask too many questions or withdraw completely from academic activities. Therefore, They have a negative attitude towards learning.
• These children may be proficient in intellectual knowledge, but it takes them longer to understand & grasp the concepts. Therefore, They face difficulty in linking new information.
• They also become socially isolated as their peers find them dull and boring.
• They are distractive and lack concentration in classroom.
• Slow learners, research has indicated, are slow in practically all aspects of development including poor memory and a delay in speech and language developmental patterns.
• They verbalize information in a diffuse manner, have poor coordination, and get poor grades.
• They tend to lack self-reliance and their physical and social development is also inferior to that of their peers.
• Children with personal learning problems seem to have less control over their emotions.
• They tend to fall back to anger quickly, get frustrated faster than most, express emotions like anxiety for seemingly minor issues, or get depressed over setbacks.

Delinquency

• A delinquent child is a child of any age, who has violated a criminal law or engaged in disobedient, indecent, or immoral conduct.
• A delinquent child is usually in need of rehabilitation.
• An act of juvenile delinquency is basically a crime committed by a minor and handled outside of the criminal justice system.
• Delinquency is something improper or criminal in nature or something that is late in being done.
• An example of delinquent behavior is robbing a store. An example of a delinquent is a credit card payment that should have been paid several months earlier.
• A teen adopts moral and ethical values from his parents and other family members.
• Bad relations can cause teens to go astray and become violent. As continuous rejection, punishment may lead to bad relations with parent and teacher it may result in the child being delinquent.

Additional Information

Mental retardation

• Below-average intelligence or mental ability and a lack of skills necessary for day-to-day living.
• Mental retardation is the substantial limitations in present functioning.
• It starts before age 18.
• Individual have subaverage intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the following applicable adaptive skill areas: communication, self-care.
• The intellectual function can be measured with a test.
• The main symptom is difficulty thinking and understanding.
• Life skills that can be impacted upon include certain conceptual, social, and practical skills.
• Special education and behavioral therapy can help a person live to his or her fullest.
• People with intellectual disabilities can and do learn new skills, but they learn them more slowly.

Learning disability

• A learning disability is a neurological disorder.
• It is a learning disability results from a difference in the way a person's brain is different.
• Children with learning disabilities are as smart or smarter than their peers.
• Learning disabilities are due to genetic and/or neurobiological factors that alter brain functioning in a manner that affects one or more cognitive processes related to learning.
• These processing problems can interfere with learning basic skills such as reading, writing, and/or math.
• They can also interfere with higher-level skills such as organization, time planning, abstract reasoning, long or short-term memory, and attention.

Brain Disorder

• When the brain is damaged, it can affect many different things, including memory,  sensation, and even personality.
• Brain disorders include any conditions or disabilities that affect the brain.
• Some common Brain disorders are:-
• ALS and Neuromuscular Diseases.
• Autism and Neurodevelopment.
• Brain and Nerve Tumors.
• Brain and Spine Trauma.
• Dementia – Alzheimer's and LBD.
• Epilepsy-Seizure Disorders.
• Headache and Pain.
• Movem ent Disorders.​

Therefore, If a child is exposed to frequent rejections, punishment and teasing by the parents and teachers, usually it may lead to Delinquency.

A hearing loss can happen when any part of the ear or auditory (hearing) system is not working in the usual way.

There are four types of hearing loss:

1. Conductive Hearing Loss: Hearing loss caused by something that stops sounds from getting through the outer or middle ear. This type of hearing loss can often be treated with medicine or surgery.
2. Sensorineural Hearing Loss: Hearing loss occurs when there is a problem in the way the inner ear or hearing nerve works.
3. Mixed Hearing Loss: Hearing loss that includes both a conductive and a sensorineural hearing loss.
4. Auditory Neuropathy Spectrum Disorder (also known as central auditory processing disorder (CAPD)): Hearing loss that occurs when sound enters the ear normally, but because of damage to the inner ear or the hearing nerve, the sound isn’t organized in a way that the brain can understand.

Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to objects and events in accordance with a set of rules. To grasp the full impact of measurement, it is important to understand the concept of a measurement scale. There are several different kinds of scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

Scales of Measurement:

1) Nominal (Label or category):

• With a nominal scale, numbers are assigned to objects or events simply for identification purposes.
• For example, participants in various sports have numbers on their jerseys that quickly allow spectators, referees, and commentators to identify them. This identification is the sole purpose of the numbers.
• Labeling or naming allows us to make qualitative distinctions or to categorize and then count the frequency of persons, objects, or things in each category.

2. Ordinal (Rank order):

• An ordinal scale allows us to rank-order events.
• Original numbers are assigned to the order, such as first, second, third, and so on.
• For example, grades such as “A,” “B,” “C,” “D,” and “F”; scores are given in terms of high, medium, and low; birth order in terms of firstborn, second-born, or later-born; a list of examination scores from highest to lowest; a list of job candidates ranked from high to low; and a list of the ten best-dressed persons.
• For example, a researcher may pose a question to a teacher as follows: 
• ​

• Although most psychological scales are probably ordinal, psychologists assume that many of the scales have equal intervals and act accordingly.
• The difference in the level of aggression between a score of 1 and a score of 2 is about the same as the difference in the level of aggression between a score of 2 and a score of 3, and so on.
• Many researchers believe that these scales do approximate equality of intervals reasonably well, and it is unlikely that this assumption will lead to serious difficulties in interpreting our findings.

3. Interval (Rank order + Equal Intervals):

• When we can specify both the order of events and the distance between events, we have an interval scale.
• The distance between any two intervals on this type of scale is equal throughout the scale.
• The central shortcoming of an interval scale is its lack of an absolute zero point—a location where the user 5 - 8 can say that there is a complete absence of the variable being measured. This type of scale often has an arbitrary zero point, sometimes called an anchor point.
• For example,
• scores on intelligence tests are considered to be on an interval scale.
• With intelligence test scores, the anchor point is set at a mean IQ value of 100 with a standard deviation (SD) of 15.
• A score of 115 is just as far above the mean (one SD) as a score of 85 is below the mean (one SD). Because we have a relative zero point and not an absolute one, we cannot say that a person with an IQ of 120 is twice as intelligent as a person with an IQ of 60. It is simply not meant to do so.
• Some additional examples of interval scales are both the centigrade and Fahrenheit scales of temperature, altitude (zero is sea level rather than the center of the earth), and scores on a depression scale or an anxiety scale.

4. Ratio (Rank order + Equal Intervals + Absolute zero)

• A ratio scale has a number of properties that the others do not. With ratio scales, we can identify rank order, equal intervals, and equal ratios—two times as much, one-half as much.
• Ratios can be determined because the zero points are absolute, a true anchor—the complete absence of a property.
• Zero weight or height means the complete absence of weight or height. A 100-pound person has one-half the weight of a 200-pound person and twice the weight of a 50-pound person. We can say these things because we know that the starting points for these dimensions or measures are 0.
• For example, you might measure a child’s aggressive behavior by counting the number of times that the child inflicts physical harm on another person during a one-week observation period. Clearly, 10 incidents would be twice as many as 5, and 0 incidents would represent the absence of the variable you are measuring.

 

 

Hence, we can conclude that when a teacher prepares a list of the latest arrivals in the various libraries of the colleges of a university. His list reflects the number of books as reported. A ratio scale is implied in this example.

• Rank order = order of the books that arrive Latest.
• Equal interval = arrival of the books recently.
• Absolute zero = No. of books.

 

Key Points

Correlation coefficient is a numerical term used to show the strength of the relationships between two variables. 

Reliability: is the state of being consistence or reliable. A test is reliable if different trials gives same results or different parts of test gives same results.

Reliability coefficient is a numerical term used to show how reliable the test is.

Important Points

Given: Correlation coefficient (r) = 0.48

To find: Reliability coefficient

Formula: Reliability coefficient = = $\frac{nr}{(1 + (n - 1) r)}$

Calculation:

Here two parallel tests are combined and made same test which acts like spilt half test so to calculate reliability coefficient we can use Spearman- Brown formula, Reliability coefficient = $\frac{nr}{(1 + (n - 1) r)}$

                                 = 2r/(1+r)         (since there are two parallel tests n=2)

                                  = 2* 0.48 / (1+0.48)

                                  = 0.96/1.48

                                 = 0.6486 = 0.65 approx

The teaching process takes the learner along with herself/himself in order to stimulate, promote, and endorse learning.

The teaching-learning process takes place in three phases:

Pre-active preparation stage

• Before beginning actual teaching the instructor must be aware of the teaching objectives to be achieved at the end of the process.
• The aims are fixed keeping in mind the level (interest, capability, aptitude, psychology, background, etc.) of learners, content, and expectations (of teacher, learner & society), etc.

​Pre-active planning stage

• After fixing the goals, the next level is analyzing the content. The analysis of the content should be done accordingly since the aims are clear and the matter is organized, the teacher must prepare strategies to accompany the teaching and make it more interesting and creative. Efforts should be made to make the learning experience of the learner as effective as possible.
• This stage includes documentation of the plan.
• Deliverables and requirements are defined and a schedule is created.

Activities will be considered most relevant for the pre-active stage of teaching​ are:-

• Writing of instructional objectives- Planning objectives before the lesson plan is the starting point of every planning.
• Preparation of Lesson Plan-  Preparation and documentation of the lesson planning is the main part of the pre-active planning stage

Note: 

• Presentation of content in relation to objectives - Interactive stage
• Preparing a guideline for improvement in teaching - Post- active stage
• Asking probing questions - Interactive stage

Learning outcomes

• Learning outcomes, intended and achieved learning outcomes are two sides of the same coin.
• A learning outcome is what a learner is expected to be able to do, know about, and/or value at the completion of a unit of study, and how well they should be expected to achieve those outcomes.
• It includes the substance of learning and how its attainment is to be demonstrated.
• The knowledge or skills students should acquire by the end of a particular assignment, class, course, or program, and help students understand why that knowledge and those skills will be useful to them.
• It is a measurable skill, abilities, knowledge, or values that the student demonstrates as a result of completing a given unit.

Therefore, Teaching as a system will be considered most effective if the difference between intended (the objectives planned before the interactive stage of the teaching-learning process) and actually achieved outcomes (after assessing the learners) is minimum.

MENTAL RETARDATION

• Below-average intelligence or mental ability and a lack of skills necessary for day-to-day living.
• Mental retardation is the substantial limitations in present functioning.
• It starts before age 18.
• Idividual have subaverage intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the following applicable adaptive skill areas: communication, self-care.
• The intellectual function can be measured with a test.
• The main symptom is difficulty thinking and understanding.
• Life skills that can be impacted upon include certain conceptual, social, and practical skills.
• Special education and behavioral therapy can help a person live to his or her fullest.
• People with intellectual disabilities can and do learn new skills, but they learn them more slowly.

 Post-natal 

• The postpartum or postnatal period begins immediately after childbirth.
• As the mother's body, including hormone levels and uterus size, returns to a non-pregnant state.
• The terms puerperium, puerperal period, or immediate postpartum period are commonly used to refer to the first six weeks following childbirth.
• Basic care for all newborns should include promoting and supporting early and exclusive breastfeeding, keeping the baby warm, increasing handwashing and providing hygienic umbilical cord and skincare, identifying conditions requiring additional care and counseling on when to take a newborn to a health facility
• Postnatal cause of mental retardation are:
• severe malnutrition or other dietary issues
• severe cases of early childhood illness, such as whooping cough, measles, or meningitis
• brain injury

Pre-natal

• The process of prenatal development occurs in three main stages.
• The first two weeks after conception are known as the germinal stage, the third through the eighth week is known as the embryonic period, and the time from the ninth week until birth is known as the fetal period.
• Prenatal care, also known as antenatal care, is a type of preventive healthcare.
• It is provided in the form of medical checkups, consisting of recommendations on managing a healthy lifestyle.
• Prenatal care is when you get checkups from a doctor, nurse, or midwife throughout your pregnancy.
• It helps keep you and your future baby healthy.
• Pre-natal cause of mental retardation
• inherited disorders, such as phenylketonuria (PKU) or Tay-Sachs disease
• chromosome abnormalities, such as Down syndrome

Perinatal

• Pertaining to the period immediately before and after birth.
• The perinatal period is defined in diverse ways.
• Depending on the definition, it starts at the 20th to 28th week of gestation and ends 1 to 4 weeks after birth.
• Quality skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth is key for the health of the baby and the mother.
• Prinatal cause of mental retardation
• In the perinatal period, the predominant cause is birth asphyxia.
• It is technically referred to as the critically impaired intrapartum gas exchange.

Hence, the correct match is (a) - (iii), (b) - (i), (c) - (ii).

The activities of teaching and learning may be organized at various levels of abstraction; ranging from the use and application of simple mental powers to the most complex ones. Such organizations are distinguished and labeled as 'forms and levels' of teaching. There are three identifiable levels of teaching and learning activities: Memory level, understanding level, and Reflective level. Morris L. Biggie (1976) has added one more level under the rubric 'autonomous development'. 

The four levels of teaching and learning may be shown on a continuum in the following way: 

1) Autonomous development level:

• The autonomous development level is student-centered.
• there is little or no leadership, direction, coercion, prescription, or imposition of student thought or behavior to promote self-feelings leading to a sense of freedom.
• 'Intellectual development is something that just naturally happens'.
• The obvious implication of this level is that there is no need for any kind of formal teaching.

2) Memory level

• Memory level teaching or learning is the least thoughtful.
• Recall, recognition, and retention are especially emphasized in this form of teaching or learning.
• The instructional arrangement is such that the learner is helped in cramming or parroting the content presented to him.
• In this process, the learner may not show thoughtful assimilation or understanding of the elements or items of knowledge.
• Thus the memory level teaching and learning is marked by the teacher's arrangement of the material to help or aid the process of quick recall, recognition, and retention.

3) Understanding level 

• The understanding level is characterized by seeing relationships and tool use of a fact.
• This level of teaching is that teaching which seeks to acquaint students with the relationship between generalization and particulars and between principles and solitary facts, which show the uses for which the principles may be applied.
• The 'explanatory understanding' as a form of teaching is supported by the Theory of Apperception of Herbart. According to this theory, three stages of learning are implied.

1. First is the stage primarily of 'sense activity'.
2. The second stage is of 'memory' which is characterized by exact reproductions of previously formed ideas.
3. The third and highest level is that of conceptual thinking' or 'understanding'.

• Teaching becomes a highly systematic and ordered set of activities in the 'understanding level' presentations.
• The main objective is to know the subject in-depth and developing insight leading to clarity of structures.
• Preparation, presentation, comparison, generalization, and application are five Herbartian steps indicated here to equip the students to generalize insights which can be employed in problematic situations both in and outside the school.

4) Reflective level 

• The term 'reflective level' is indicative of the highest level of thoughtfulness on the part of the teacher as well as the learner.
• This level basically involves the use of the scientific method to the understanding of the problems with which a person is confronted.
• It consists of two phases:

1. Problem raising and
2. Problem-solving.

• The personal involvement of the learner and his intensity of feeling for obtaining a solution are the indicators of the success of a reflective level of teaching and learning.
• The 'cognitive field theory' provides support to the reflective level of teaching and learning.
• The method of teaching in this frame of reference becomes an inquiry into the problems and their solutions.
• It assumes spontaneous interchange between the teacher and student.

From the above-explained points, we can conclude when In a language classroom if a teacher is merely pointing out the similarities and differences between common and proper nouns, his/her teaching is at the Understanding level because the comparison is taking place between common and proper noun.

Reflective level of teaching:

• • It is a problem-centric approach to teaching.
• The reflective model of teaching is developed by Hunt.
• At this level, the student is made to face a real problematic situation. The student by understanding the situation and using his critical abilities succeeds in solving the problem
• At this level, the emphasis is laid on identifying the problem, defining it, and finding a solution to it. The student’s original thinking and creative-abilities develop at this level.
• The aim is to develop the reflective power of learners so that they can solve problems of their lives by reasoning, logic, and imagination and lead successful and happy lives.

Transactional Communication :

• A model of communication where all persons are engaged in sending (encoding) and receiving (decoding) messages simultaneously, the sender and receiver each take turns to send or receive messages.
• In this model communication is a dynamic process in which there is an interactive relationship between the sender and the receiver and each person is affecting each other.
• This model believes that there is a continuous process of feedback in communication.
• The model is mostly used for interpersonal communication, group discussions, reporting, and is also called a circular model of communication.

From the above-explained points, we can conclude that when a teacher is organizing reflective level academic deliberations in the classroom. The scope for transactional communication will be optimum in such a situation**.**

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the range of hearing loss is

Note: The range for profound is over 81 dB therefore, we cannot consider the range 75 – 90 decibels because it contains the values below 81. Hence, the most suitable answer is option 1.

Correlation coefficients are used in statistics to measure how strong a relationship is between two variables.

There are several types of correlation coefficient:

 

Hence, the correct match is a-ii, b-iv, c-v, d-i, e-iii

Microteaching:

• ​Microteaching is an appropriate innovative technique for helping the teacher’s being trained in their acquisition of the desired teaching skills.
• Microteaching is a specialized training technique that provides opportunities to the teachers for the practice and development of some specific teaching skills.
• In it, a microform classroom is organized- miniature in terms of class size, time duration and content to be covered. These are core teaching skills.
• It is a device of imparting training to the inexperienced or experienced teachers for learning the art of teaching by practicing specific skills
• It is helpful because it reducing the complexities of real normal teaching in terms of the size of the class, time, and content.
• Microteaching enable teacher in Core teaching skills related to competencies.

Simulation:

• Simulations are instructional scenarios where the learner is placed in a world defined by the teacher.
• They represent a reality within which students interact.
• The teacher controls this world and uses it to achieve the desired instructional results.
• Simulation is a technique for practice and learning that can be applied to many different disciplines and trainees.
• Simulation-based learning is the way to develop health professionals' knowledge, skills, and attitudes, whilst protecting patients from unnecessary risks.
• Simulation removes the risk from the first steps and enables the learner to come to terms with the demands of a complex skill learning without the stress of the real situation.
• Simulated teaching is used prior to the classroom teaching practice with the objective of developing a specific skill of communication.
• It can be used for pre-service teachers to make them effective.
• The simulated strategy enables teachers in perceptual skill-related competencies.

​Interaction analysis procedure

• Interaction Analysis is a system for describing and analyzing teacher-student verbal interaction.
• It is basically, has been used to help quantify teacher verbal behavior.
• The system can also be used to study the relationship between teaching style and student achievement.
• Interaction Analysis is a technique for capturing quantitative and qualitative dimensions of teacher verbal behavior in the classroom.
• As an observational system, it captures the verbal behavior of teachers and students that is directly related to the social-emotional climate of the classroom
• Interactive analysis procedure enables teachers diagnostic skill-related competencies

Action research

• Action research is an interactive inquiry process that deals with problem-solving actions implemented in a collaborative context with data-driven collaborative research to understand underlying causes enabling future predictions.
• Action research is simply a form of self-reflective inquiry.
• Action research refers to a wide variety of evaluative, investigative, and analytical research methods designed to diagnose problems or weaknesses and help researchers to develop practical solutions to address them quickly and efficiently.
• Four ‘Moments’ of Action Research:

          • to develop a plan of action to improve what is already happening;

          • to act to implement the plan;

          • to observe the effects of action in the context in which it occurs; and

          • to reflect on these effects as a basis for further planning, subsequent action, and so on, through a succession of cycles 

• Action research is usually described as cyclic, with action and critical reflection taking place in turn. The reflection is used to review the previous action and plan the next one.
• Action research enables the teacher in school-community relationship competencies.

​Hence, the correct match is (a) - (i), (b) - (iv), (c) - (v), (d) - (ii).

National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT):

• It is an autonomous organization set up in 1961 by the Government of India to assist and advise the Central and State Governments on policies and programs for qualitative improvement in school education.
• The major objectives of NCERT and its constituent units are to:
• undertake, promote and coordinate research in areas related to school education;
• prepare and publish model textbooks, supplementary material, newsletters, journals and develops educational kits, multimedia digital materials, etc.
• organize pre-service and in-service training of teachers;
• develop and disseminate innovative educational techniques and practices;
• collaborate and network with state educational departments, universities, NGOs, and other educational institutions;
• act as a clearinghouse for ideas and information in matters related to school education,
• act as a nodal agency for achieving the goals of Universalisation of Elementary Education.

State Council of Educational Research & Training (SCERT): 

• It is an autonomous body, established in 1988 has been providing academic resource support to the Directorate of Education and the Education Departments of MCD and NDMC and Cantonment Board so as to achieve an overall improvement in the quality of school education.
• Its mission is to raise the quality of school education by improving the attitudes, increased application of knowledge, and enhanced teaching skills of teachers.
• Its vision is to grow into a premier institute of resources, research, educational technology, and skill development in the field of teacher education in India.

​National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)​:

• The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) as a statutory body came into existence in pursuance of the National Council for Teacher Education Act, 1993 on the 17th August 1995.
• The main objective of the NCTE is to achieve planned and coordinated development of the teacher education system throughout the country, the regulation and proper maintenance of Norms and Standards in the teacher education system and for matters connected therewith.
• It covers the whole gamut of teacher education programs including research and training of persons for equipping them to teach at pre-primary, primary, secondary, and senior secondary stages in schools, and non-formal education, part-time education, adult education, and distance (correspondence) education courses.

Additional Information

Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE): The main objectives of CBSE are: 

• To define appropriate approaches to academic activities to provide stress-free, child-centered, and holistic education to all children without compromising on quality.
• To analyze and monitor the quality of academic activities by collecting feedback from different stakeholders
• To develop norms for implementation of various academic activities including quality issues.
• To adapt and innovate methods to achieve academic excellence in conformity with psychological, pedagogical, and social principles.
• To encourage schools to document the progress of students in a teacher and student-friendly way
• To propose plans to achieve quality benchmarks in school education consistent with the National goals
• To organize various capacity building and empowerment programs to update the professional competency of teachers
• To prescribe conditions of examinations and conduct public examination at the end of Class X and XII. To grant qualifying certificates to successful candidates of the affiliated schools.
• To fulfill the educational requirements of those students whose parents were employed in transferable jobs
• To prescribe and update the course of instructions of examinations
• To affiliate institutions for the purpose of examination and raise the academic standards of the country.

Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR):

• Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) was established in the year 1969 by the Government of India to promote research in social sciences in the country.
• ICSSR provide grants for projects, fellowships, international collaboration, capacity building, survey, publications, etc. to promote research in social sciences in India.
• Documentation center of ICSSR - National Social Science Documentation Centre (NASSDOC) - provides library and information support services to researchers in social sciences.
• ICSSR has developed ICSSR Data Service to serve as a national data service for promoting a powerful research environment through sharing and reuse of data among the social science community in India.