UGC NET Paper 1: Held on 3rd Dec 2019 Shift 2 (Previous Year Paper)

Minimum possible venn diagram:

Conclusions: 

A) Some diaries are books → False (All diaries is part of copy and No copy is book. So this is definitely false)

B) Some books are copies → False

C) No book is copy → True (As No copy is book is given)

D) No diary is book → True (As All diaries is part of copy and No copy is book.)

Only C and D follows.

Hence, option 2) is the correct answer.

Communication is a mutual exchange of facts, thoughts, and perceptions, resulting in a common understanding of all parties. This does not imply agreements.

• Communication is purpose-oriented.
• It is a two-way process.

The classroom is an excellent example of a place of communication in group situations where teachers spend hours communicating with students to share information and knowledge. 

Important elements of communication include:

• Sender
• receiver
• message
• encoding
• decoding
• channel of feedback
• fields of experience, etc. (without these conducting a communication becomes difficult or not possible)

Field of experience:

• This includes cultural habits, attitudes, beliefs, values, experiences, etc. one possesses and uses them (consciously and sub-consciously) while having interaction/communication.
• It can affect the mode, tone, and quality of the communication.
• The speaker and listener communicate better if they have common fields of experience which overlap.

Conclusion: Hence, we can conclude that field of experience is an important element of classroom communication.

In fact, in Schramm Communication Model, Schramm gave a huge emphasis on the field of experience.

(Source: Shodhganga and Egyankosh)

The activities of teaching and learning may be organized at various levels of abstraction; ranging from the use and application of simple mental powers to the most complex ones. Such organizations are distinguished and labeled as 'forms and levels' of teaching. There are three identifiable levels of teaching and learning activities: Memory level, understanding level, and Reflective level. Morris L. Biggie (1976) has added one more level under the rubric 'autonomous development'. 

The four levels of teaching and learning may be shown on a continuum in the following way: 

Understanding Level of Teaching

• The understanding level is characterized by seeing relationships and tool use of a fact.
• This level of teaching is that teaching which seeks to acquaint students with the relationship between generalization and particulars and between principles and solitary facts, which show the uses for which the principles may be applied.
• The 'explanatory understanding' as a form of teaching is supported by the Theory of Apperception of Herbart. According to this theory, three stages of learning are implied.

1. First is the stage primarily of 'sense activity', for example, the student renders facts and information in his own words​.
2. The second stage is of 'memory' which is characterized by exact reproductions of previously formed ideas, for example, the student gives his/her own examples to explain his point.
3. The third and highest level is that of conceptual thinking' or 'understanding', For example, the student interprets the meaning in various ways.

• Teaching becomes a highly systematic and ordered set of activities in the 'understanding level' presentations.
• The main objective is to know the subject in-depth and developing insight leading to clarity of structures.
• Preparation, presentation, comparison, generalization, and application are five Herbartian steps indicated here to equip the students to generalize insights which can be employed in problematic situations both in and outside the school.

Hence, as understanding level teaching involves learning and understanding;

(A) The student renders facts and information in his own words

(C) The student gives his/her own examples to explain his point

(D) The student interprets the meaning in various ways

These are associated with the understanding level of teaching.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

• It was founded in 1995,
• It is an international institution that oversees the global trade rules among nations.
• The goal is to ensure that trade flows as smoothly, predictably, and freely as possible.
• At present 164 nations are members of WTO.

WTO discussed the following topics in the talks on higher education:

• Two-way classification of trade in educational services. 

1. ​​First describes the five categories of primary education, secondary education,  higher education, adult education, and other education. It is not mandatory to mandatory to open up all educational categories.
2. The second is based on the nature of trade in educational services. Trade is classified into four modes: Cross-border supply, Consumption abroad, commercial presence, and movement of a natural person.

• Education is a tradable commodity rather than a resource for development.
• Withdrawal of the ‘offers’ given to WTO-GATS in Higher Education.
• In August 2015, the Government of India had proposed WTO to market the 'Higher Education Sub-Sector.'

​Hence, WTO negotiating on higher education deals with issues like:

D) education as a trade

E) education as a commodity

F) withdrawal of public sector from higher education

The presence of excessive or unwanted sounds in the environment is called noise pollution. Major causes of noise pollution are sounds of vehicles, explosions including the bursting of crackers, machines, loudspeakers, etc. Television and transistor radio at high volumes, some kitchen appliances, desert coolers, air conditioner.

• It is defined as "unwanted or offensive sound that unreasonably interferes with our daily activities".
• A person who is exposed to a loud sound continuously may get temporary or even permanent impairment of hearing.
• Unlike others, the sound is not a chemical but it is simply a wave motion in the air. So the noise pollution is a form of energy pollution. Pollution affects mostly the physical system, unlike noise pollution which affects physical as well as the mental systems.

Noise Pollution can cause: 

• Apart from hearing loss, noise can cause annoyance, sleep disturbance, interference with communication, heartburn, indigestion, ulcers, high blood pressure, heart disease, and affects social behavior.
• Noise-induced stress creates severe tension in daily living and contributes to mental illness.
• People experiencing high noise levels (especially around airports or along road-rail corridors) differ from those with less noise exposure in terms of the increased number of headaches, greater susceptibility to minor accidents, increased reliance on sedatives and sleeping pills, increased mental hospital admission rates.

Confusion Points

Noise pollution may have a suppressive effect on immunity because of stress created which will alter the immunity. Any kind of pollution has an effect on our immune system, but its effect is less and indirect as compared to air or water pollution.

Hence,  from the given options, Noise pollution can cause problems like sleeplessness, speech interference, an increase in blood pressure, a shift in the threshold of hearing.

Deemed-to-be-university also called Deemed University 

• An Institution of Higher Education, other than universities, working at a very high standard in the specific area of study, can be declared by the Central Government on the advice of the UGC as an Institution Deemed-to-be-university.
• Institutions that are ‘deemed-to-be-university’ enjoy the academic status and privileges of a university but these institutions are not a full-fledged university.
• A deemed university has full autonomy in courses, syllabus, admissions, and fees.
• The primary objective behind the idea of Deemed-to-be University is to provide for higher education leading to excellence and innovations and provide high-quality teaching and research that recognized nationally and globally.
• Recently, the Government of India amended the eligibility criteria for an institution to be declared as an institution of Deemed-to-be University. Which is are as follows-

1. It should Have been in existence for not less than 20 years.
2. It should be Having at least 2,000 students and 100 teachers. The teacher-student ratio must be 1:20.
3. Not less than 1/3^rd of the total students in the institution must be enrolled in the postgraduate or research courses.
4. Must have at least 5 Post Graduate Departments in existence for at least 3 years with research programs.
5. Must have a built-up area of not less than 30 sq.mts. per student.

HEFA (Higher Education Finance Agency) 

• The Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA) is a collaborative effort between the MHRD Government of India and Canara Bank (equity participation in the ratio of 91% and 9% respectively) to fund capital resources development in premier educational institutions of the country.
• It was incorporated on 31^st May 2017.
• The primary objective of  HEFA is to leverage funds from the market and provide low-interest loans to universities for infrastructure and R&D.
• Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA) to give a major push for the creation of high-quality infrastructure in premier educational institutions like the development of world-class Labs  IITs/IIMs/NITs/AIIMSand such other institutions.
• Basically, HEFA is a non-banking finance company set up by the MHRD to extend infrastructure loans to public educational institutions.
• HEFA is registered under Section 8 [ Not-for-profit] under the Companies Act 2013 as a Union Govt company and as Non–deposit-taking NBFC-ND with RBI.
• Government of India allotted to HEFA Rs 2,200 Crore In the financial year 2020-21.
• HEFA’s scope has been expanded to cover school education, educational institutes under the Ministry of Health, etc.

Thus, option 1 is the correct answer.

Assertion and reasoning-type questions have one assertion (A) and one reason (R). We must first determine whether the statement is true. If the statement is true, we must next determine whether the reason correctly explains the assertion.  

• A disaster is an extreme disruption of the functioning of a society that causes widespread human, material, or environmental losses that exceed the ability of the affected society to cope with its own resources
• The best way to reduce vulnerability is to improve the socio-economic standings of the most vulnerable groups and these people must have an assured income that will enable them to acquire social and economic creditworthiness within the local economy. From an economic perspective, however, a natural disaster can be defined as a natural event that causes an obstruction to the functioning of the economic system, with a significant negative impact on assets, production factors, output, employment, consumption, and human resource.
• A disaster makes it very evident that the poor are vulnerable because they are poor and this can lead to profound political and social changes in society. There is substantial evidence that disaster impacts can affect social factors resulting in political disruption, especially during the period of disaster recovery.

So, the assertion states that The impact of natural disasters does not depend on socio-economic factors, this statement is false because from the above explanation provided above it is clear that the vulnerability of natural disasters is also dependent upon socio-economic factors.

• Natural disasters have not discriminated between people and countries although, affecting some parts of the world more severely than others. This · is, particularly true of developing countries where the effects of a disaster have been exacerbated by vulnerable socio-economic conditions. These include steady population growth, higher incidence of poverty, lack of adequate resources, and absence of basic infrastructural facilities, and disorganized institutional situations.

So, the reason stated that Natural disasters do not discriminate between people of a society and other communities are true because it affects everyone equally.

Conclusion: Hence, Assertion is false but Reason is true.

Computer security is the protection of computer systems and information from harm, theft, and unauthorized use, it is the safe and responsible use of information and communication technology.

• Every year International Computer Security Day is celebrated on the 30^th of November.
• It is also known as International Cyber Security day.
• The primary aim of this event is to put together international and local IT and security experts to exchange their experiences, develop expertise, and obtain understanding to protect the most precious asset information of their organization.

Other Important days related to Computer technology:

1. Safer internet day – 9^th February
2. Computer literacy day – 2^nd December

Assertion and reasoning-type questions have one assertion (A) and one reason (R). We must first determine whether the statement is true. If the statement is true, we must next determine whether the reason correctly explains the assertion. 

Assertion (A): 

• The withdrawal of public funding to higher education shows the non-priority of the state towards it.
• If higher education was the government's priority it would have been funded by the government.

Hence, the assertion is true.

Reason (R): 

• Free enterprise, or the free market, refers to an economy where the market determines prices, products, and services rather than the government.
• As higher education is not funded by the govt, there is no option other than bringing in private companies to meet various challenges and expand their market.

Hence, the reason is true and the correct explanation of assertion.

Two types of devices allow the computer system to interact with the outside world by moving data into and out of the system, known as input and output devices. 

Visual Display Unit (VDU),

• It is also called or synonymously used with "monitor" which is an output device of the computer.
• VDU or monitor displays entered text or images or graphics whenever the user enters it using any input devices.
• VDU is the CRT type monitor with the main part being the Cathode Ray Tube, commonly called a picture tube.
• CRT technology provides a cheap and good color output.

The cathode-ray tube (CRT):

• The cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube that contains one or more electron guns and a phosphorescent screen and displays images when the electron guns emit electron beams and the beams strike on the phosphorescent surface.
• In other words, CRT generates the beams, accelerates them at high speed, and deflects them for creating the images on a phosphorous screen so that the beams become visible.

Given:

A is directly proportional to B

B is inversely proportional to C

C is directly proportional to D

Calculation:

A) A is inversely proportional to D 

D) A is inversely proportional to C

∴ options  A and D are true

Application of Information and Communication Technology ICT in research is the integration of technology in the research to get access to information that is relevant to the researcher topic. The ICTs have brought about revolutionary changes in the development of a virtual corporate library that provides all-round access to information resources and services. 

Applications of ICT which contribute to research:

1. Wide Area Network provides no limit of distance. In most WANs, the subnet consists of two distinct components. A WAN provides long-distance transmission of data, voice, image, and video information over large geographical areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole world. A WAN that is wholly owned by a single company is often referred to as an enterprise network. WAN provides coverage of wide-area and provides needed information on a large scale. WANs may utilize public, leased or private communication devices usually in combination and span their own unlimited number of miles.
2. A Local Area Network (LAN) is generally a privately owned network within a single office, building, or campus, covering a distance of a few kilometres. The main reason for designing a LAN is to share resources such as disks, printers, programs, and data. It also enables the exchange of information. Classically, LANs had data rates of 4-16 Megabits per second (Mbps).
3. An Intranet is a private network with Internet technology and protocols used as the underlying architecture and is secured behind the organization’s firewalls – hardware and software combinations that allow only certain people to access for specific purposes. It is an internal information system that works much the same way as the Internet. With one very important difference — only the people in your organization can access or post information. Because an Intranet requires private identifications and passwords, it is closed to the rest of the world.
4. Skype is a kind of chat software with a video calling feature.  Here students are asked to share their ideas through Skype or any chat room and finally, the teacher concludes the topic. But this mode of study requires a computer facility with an internet connection.

Conclusion: WAN is the only network that ensures wider coverage and accessibility of needed information.

• Teachers must devise new and creative ways to teach, assess, and suggest new initiatives in curricular reforms.
• The research conducted by teachers links their learning with teaching and provides effective solutions for the real problems faced by them.
• The research conducted by teachers is done mainly to improve their practices obviously informed by educational theories whereas academics conduct research to generate new knowledge.

Teaching is an act on the part of the teacher which intends to bring about change in the learner. This act exerts influence on the learner and thus modifies his/her behaviour. Teaching is a variety of actions performed by a teacher with a view to bring positive and tangible behaviour in students and thus achieve educational objectives.

• In the teaching-learning process, the teacher's behaviour is instrumental to bring change in learner's learning and shaping his/ her behaviour. The totality of teacher's behaviour and its influence on the learner can be understood from two dimensions:
• Personal qualities like warmth, affectionate, sympathetic, democratic, optimistic, dynamic, etc.
• Professional competencies like command on the subject matter, effective communication, proper use of teaching aids, classroom management, evaluating students' learning, etc.
• Effective teaching behaviour leads to good academic record, Promoting **low error rate (**high success) contributing to increased levels of students' self-esteem and positive attitude, Academic achievement is the core of a wider term i.e. educational growth and plays on an important role in the life of a child. High academic achievement in the school builds self-esteem and self-confidence which leads to better adjustment with the group. Achievement encompasses enhancement, self-actualization,self-improvement and some form of competitiveness.
• Lesson clarity: A teacher should make the ideas clear to learners at different understanding levels and provide the opportunity for learners to think logically. And provide additional information related to the topic for the extension of learning.
• Instructional variety: Teacher should use various instructional strategies in delivering the lesson or concept. It can be done using learning materials like computer software, displays, internet and space in the classroom. It will help learners to engage and motivate them.
• Engagement in the learning process: It is important to engage students in the learning process. The more they will engage in the learning the more learning will be effective. It can be done by teachers using strategies like setting rules in the classroom, moving around to monitor learner’s work, ensuring independent assignment are interesting and worthwhile, avoiding time-consuming activities, and make fruitful use of resources and activities.

Conclusion: Promoting a low error rate (high success) contributive to increased levels of students' self-esteem and positive attitude is a key to effective teaching behaviour.

Selecting a sample is one of the steps in the research process. There are eight steps in the research process:

1. Formulation of Research Problem
2. Preparing Research Design
3. Developing Data Collection Instrument.
4. Selecting Samples.
5. Writing a Research Proposal
6. Collecting Data
7. Processing and Analyzing Data
8. Writing a Research Report

Sampling

• It is required when the population under study is too large.
• A sample is defined as a representative subset or cross-section of the population in miniature.
• There are two types of sampling techniques - Probability sampling and Non-probability sampling

Probability sampling: 

• It is based on a random selection of units from a population. In other words, the sampling process is not based on the discretion of the researcher but is carried out in such a way that the probability of every unit in the population of being included in the same. For example, in the case of a lottery, every individual has an equal chance of being selected.
• Probability or random sampling is mostly correct, still, some error, technically known as ‘Margin of Error’ cannot be avoided. It can be calculated statistically and accounted for in the results.
• NET aspirants can refer to terms, such as ‘level of significance’ for a better idea.
• Simple random sample, stratified random sample, and Cluster sample are types of probability sampling.

Non Probability sampling: 

• ​​It is a non-structured sample and items are included in the study due to some convenience of the researcher, etc. This sampling takes less time and is handy.
• As all members of the population do not get an equal chance of being selected, non-probability sampling may be lopsided, loaded with biases, and has a higher margin of error.
• Convenience sampling, Judgement or purposive sampling, Quota sampling, Accidental sampling, and Snowball sampling are some types of Non-Probability sampling.

Survey research 

• The researcher collects data with the help of standardized questionnaires or interviews which is administered on a sample of respondents from a population.
• Survey research is undertaken to study and describe the ground realities or current state-of-the-art of a situation, group of persons, or institutions.

Action research: 

• According to Kurt Lewin, the founder of the term Action Research, it is an ongoing strategy; the cycle is repeated to form a spiral; reformulated plan, revised action, more fact-finding, reanalysis. Hence, most feminist researchers follow this tool as there is value in building equality of relationship between the researcher and those researched.
• Action Research also means learning by doing.
• It usually emerges out of situational needs and a solution to a problem is also designed with respect to the situation.
• The researcher intends to discover new and alternative ways to achieve the objectives, be it teaching or management sector.
• It is mostly in social situations, such as in educational institutions.

Experimental research

• It is mainly used in science subjects such as physics, chemistry, medicine, biology, etc.
• The experiment requires two variables, one independent variable, and the other dependent variable.
• It is important that in experimental research the independent variable is manipulated and the effect of manipulation is observed on the dependent variable.

Correlational research

• It provides some indication as to how two or more things are related to one another or, in effect what they share or have in common or how well a specific outcome might be predicted by one or more pieces of information.
• Correlational research uses a numerical index called the correlation coefficient as a measure of the strength of this relationship.
• For example, if you are interested to find out the relationship between the number of hours spent in studying and their achievement, then you would be doing correlational research because you are interested in the relationship between these two variables.

Phenomenology based researchers

• It is a form of qualitative research in which the researcher attempts to understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon. For example, interviewing the wives of 10 prisoners of war and asking them to describe their experiences.

Note: In the case of Phenomenology based researchers and Action Research, non- probability sampling procedures are mostly used.

Reporting research involves deciding on audiences, structuring the report in a format acceptable to these audiences, and then writing the report in a manner that is sensitive to all readers.

• Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research.
• In addition, it educates and monitors scientists/researchers conducting research to ensure high ethical standards.
• A researcher while reporting his/her research findings gives weightage to the stakeholder's perspective in a qualitative research theme.
• This will involve the disclosure of real situations.

Conclusion:

Violation of ethical norms, bias and prejudices, and inappropriate interference of others are the few conducts that are against the ethics of research.

• Every communication involves at least one sender, a message, and a recipient (audience).
• It can be done in various ways like orally, non-verbally, or in writing.
• These can be done formally or informally, downwardly or upwardly.

Oral communication:

• information is conveyed in the verbal form so there are chances that there might be some variation in its format entry level.
• Knowing the audience is important because it helps the sender to start the conversation and choose the topic as per the audience.
• The communicator should know what s/he is about to convey and should have a prior practice of conveying. It makes her/him consistent while conveying the message.
• Oral communication should also use comprehensible and simple words and the presentation of the message should be such that it can be deciphered by everyone listening to it.

Hence, self-confidence, consistent practice, and knowing the audience are necessary for effective oral communication.

A Curriculum is an overall plan, which is taught by the teacher, through instruction, and implements the plan. A curriculum covers all the issues relating to the planning, implementation, and evaluation of a series of learning events.

There are two phases in the curriculum development process, and these phases are divided into five steps.

The concept of the Zone of Proximal Development(ZPD) proposed by Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896 - 1934).

Zone of Proximal Development(ZPD)

• ZPD level has been defined as a distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.
• ZPD is the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he/she can do with help of a more knowledgeable person.
• It indicates learner’s readiness to learn by emphasizing the upper level of competence.
• The word "proximal" refers to those abilities that "close" the learner to mastering.
• According to Vygotsky if the teacher can evaluate the learner ZPD and provide assistant to learners accordingly it helps to improve the efficiency of the teaching and enhance learning outcomes.

A fallacy is the class name given to bad (illogical) arguments. There are four main categories: fallacies of relevance, induction, presumption, and ambiguity.

Begging the question (Petitio principii):

• It is the fallacy of presumption.
• It consists of cleverly assuming the conclusion in the premises instead of proving it.
• Example: ‘I should not do this because it is wrong.’ This argument does not prove why the action is wrong but merely assumes it to be evil. Thus, if we assume what needs proof, then we are mere beggars, begging what we ought to earn by proof.
• This fallacy ends where it begins.
• J. S. Mill argued that categorical syllogism commits the fallacy of petitio principii.
• For example, consider this argument. ‘All men are mortal; Ram is a man; Therefore, Ram is mortal.’ Here while establishing the truth of the premises, the conclusion is already taken into account. Without disputing this comment, let us take a non-syllogistic argument committing this fallacy: A man registered a woman in a hotel as his wife and replied, when asked for proof, ‘Certainly she’s my wife because I am her husband.’
• This fallacy is not limited to common man. Sometimes even powerful minds are snared by this fallacy. For instance, logicians have, for long, sought to prove the reliability of the law of uniformity of Nature.

​Circular Argument:

• It often occurs when the definition of a term is changed during the course of an argument, to suit the conclusion we wish to reach.
• Example: Suppose your friend argues that religious people are better human begins than those who are not religious, because religious people are more dutiful, or do not hurt or harm others. suppose you respond with examples of people who were religious, but were quite irresponsible, or committed a variety of crimes. Then your friend replies with, "oh, those were not truly religious people". Here your friend has changed the definition of "religious".

Hence, an informed fallacy in which the conclusion of an argument is stated or assumed in any one of the premises is known as begging the question, circular argument, and petition principii.

Missing The Point (Ignoratio Elenchi):

• It is the fallacy of relevance.
• It is diverting attention from the real point at issue. It is arguing beside the point.
• This applies to many kinds of arguments where the conclusion does not follow from the premises.
• Example: ‘The object of war is peace; therefore, soldiers are the best peacemakers.’ Even if it is assumed that the object of war is peace, still it does not imply that soldiers are the best peacemakers.
• Of the various informal fallacies of relevance, ignoratio elenchi is perhaps the most difficult to describe with precision.
• It is confusing in reasoning that the speaker does not fully recognize. Aristotle, who classified fallacies, explained it as a mistake made in trying to refute another’s argument; the defender tries to argue for P and the opponent counters it with an irrelevant Q.
• In a sense, every fallacy is an ignoratio elenchi because there is a gap between the premises and the conclusion, and thus the debator misses the point.
• So, ignoratio elenchi is a catch-all class of fallacies: Non sequitur is a similar fallacy in which the conclusion does not simply follow from the premises. Non sequitur is more often applied when the failure of the argument is obvious. ‘A great, rough non sequitur,’ Abraham Lincoln observed in a speech in 1854, ‘was sometimes twice as dangerous as a well-polished fallacy.’

Pattern is as follows:

Similarly,

Hence, option 3) is the correct answer.

From the given table we can say that 

Export of all the companies in the year 2009 

⇒ 40 + 25 + 55 + 60 + 50 + 40 = 270 

Export of all the companies in the year 2011

⇒ 45 + 50 + 90 + 15 + 100 + 75 = 375 

⇒ increase in Export = (375 - 270) = 105

∴ Percentage increase = (105/270) × 100 = 38.89%

Ratio of export to import of country F in the year 2008 = 4 : 1 

Export of country F in the year 2008 = 24 crore 

⇒ 4 units = 24 crore 

⇒ 1 units = 6 crore

⇒ Import of company F in the year 2008 = 6 crore  

Export of country D in the year 2008 = 45 crore 

⇒ 1 units = 45 crore 

⇒ 2 units = 90 crore

⇒ Import of company D in the year 2008 = 90 crore

∴ import of company F and D in the year 2008 = 90 + 6 = 96 crore

From the table we can say that 

Export of country E over the given years = 60 + 50 + 55 + 100 + 110 = 375 crore

Average export of  country E = 375/5 = 75 crore 

Export of country C over the given years = 50 + 55 + 70 + 90 + 65 = 330 crore 

Average export of  country C = 330/5 = 66 crore 

∴ required percentage = (75 - 66)/66 × 100 = 150/11%

From the table we can say that 

Export of all the countries together in the year 2012

⇒ 90 + 100 + 65 + 25 + 110 + 120 = 510 crore 

Import of the countries together in the year 2012 = 385 crore

Now,

Profit = Export - Import 

⇒ Profit = 510 - 385 = 125 crore

∴ Profit of all the countries together in the year 2012 = 125 crore

From the table we can say that 

Export of country B in 2011 = 50 crore 

Export of country E in 2010 = 55 crore

⇒ Total export of country B in 2011 and country E in 2010 = 50 + 55 = 105 crore

According to the question,

Export of country A in 2013 = (120/100) × 105 = 126 crore

Import of country A in 2013 = 92 crore 

Profit = Export - Import

⇒ Profit = 126 - 92 = 34 crore 

∴ profit of country A in 2013 = 34 crore

Geothermal energy is a form of energy derived from the internal heat of the earth. The rock, water, and fluids present beneath the earth's surface consist of this heat or thermal energy in the form of geothermal energy. In other words, Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because the water is replenished by rainfall and the heat is continuously produced inside the earth.

• Word geothermal has been derived using two Greek words, “GEO” and “THERMOS”, meaning earth and heat respectively, as it is nothing but the power extracted from the heat energy stored in the earth.
• The utilization of geothermal resources is an alternative, sustainable energy, which needs to be harnessed in India.
• India has a vast potential of geothermal energy sources; it has been estimated that India has about 10,000 MW appx. of geothermal power potential that can be harnessed for various purposes.
• The three main uses of geothermal energy are:

1. Direct Use and District Heating Systems which use hot water from springs or reservoirs near the surface.
2. Electricity generation in a power plant requires water or steam at a very high temperature.
3. Geothermal heat pumps use stable ground or water temperatures near the earth's surface to control building temperatures above ground.

• Geothermal reserves up to depths of 10 km are estimated at 403X106 Quads. The world average geothermal heat flow is 0.06 W/m^2.
• There are four major types of Geothermal energy resources:
• Hydrothermal
• Geopressurised brines
• Hot dry rocks
• Magma
• Currently, hydrothermal energy is being commercially used for electricity generation and for meeting thermal energy requirements.
• In 1997, The world's geothermal electricity generation capacity was 8000 MW and another 12000 MW for thermal applications.
• In India, exploration and study of geothermal fields started in 1970. The GSI (Geological Survey of India) has identified 350 geothermal energy locations in the country. The most promising of these is in the Puga valley of Ladakh.
• The estimated potential for geothermal energy in India is about 10000 MW.

Hence, the potential for geothermal power in India is approximately 10 GW.

Air pollution means the presence of one or more contaminants such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke or vapour in quantities and duration in the outdoor atmosphere that are injurious to human, plant, or animal life or to property or which unreasonably interfere with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property. Such contaminants that pollute the air are called air pollutants.

Volatile organic compounds (VOC) are found in many of the households and other products like air fresheners, paints, paint strippers and other solvents, wood preservatives, aerosol sprays, cleansers and disinfectants, moth repellents and, stored fuels and automotive products, hobby supplies, dry-cleaned clothing and pesticide.

The environmental impacts of VOCs are as follows:

• environmental stresses like unpleasant weather
• Reduction in agricultural crop and commercial forest yields
• Reduced growth and survivability of tree seedlings
• Increased plant susceptibility to disease, pests

1. Inhalable particulate matter is used to describe particles that are suspended in the air and pollute it. Particles may be solid or liquid. These particulates are mainly responsible for pollution. They can enter the human respiratory system and penetrate deeply into the lungs, causing adverse effects.
2. ozone is a shield in the stratosphere. This may protect more ultraviolet light (UV) to reach the earth's surface and cause damage to human and animal health; disturb terrestrial ecosystems and adversely affect crops and vegetation.
3. Carbon monoxide affects the number of greenhouse gases, which are linked to climate change and global warming.

Hence, Volatile organic compounds are produced from room deodorizers.

Education plays an important role in the development of human beings as well as the nation. Every country develops its own system of education India, at the present, is recognized together of the youngest nations within the world with over 50% of the population under the age of 30 years. India needs an academic system that should be of top quality, affordable, flexible, and relevant to the individuals, economy, and to society as a whole. 

• The 12^th Five Year Plan of the Design Commission has laid special emphasis on the expansion of skill-based programs in education. It recommends fixing of Community Colleges (CC) to serve various needs:
• career-oriented education and skills to students who are curious about directly entering the workforce;
• training and education programs for the  local employers;
• high-touch remedial education for graduates who not able to enroll in traditional colleges, giving them a path to transfer to 3 or four-year institutions; and
• general interest courses to the community for private development and interest.
• These are Self-financing institutions recognized under UGC Act 1956, and not receiving general development and maintenance assistance from the UGC. They have to abide by the rules of UGC as amended from time to time, but won't be entitled to any financial assistance under the scheme. The community colleges shouldn't be a neighborhood of departments of a university /college and it should have a separate entity within the institution.
• The Government / Society / Trust or a corporation can also found an independent junior college, to implement the scheme and should offer courses as per the guidelines. The financial assistance to such community colleges is governed as per the existing policy of the Commission.

Conclusion: Hence, the community colleges have the provisions for self-financing system.

A/C Crow and Crow- “Learning involves the acquisition of habits, knowledge, and attitude.”

• 'Learning to learn' is one of the very initial stages in the process of learning.

• In this, the teacher teaches the learner " how to learn?".

• In simpler words, under this, the capability to learn (know-how) is generated and imparted so that a learner can use this as a foundation for advanced learning.

• If a learner doesn’t know how to learn, eventually, he/she will fail to learn anything because they just do not know how to learn.

• In the process of learning to learn the teacher plays a vital role. The teacher teaches learners how to learn. Organizing teaching is the most appropriate way for encouraging 'learning to learn' as it increases the opportunity for the transfer of learning.

• Let's understand this with a very simple example*: Let's assume that a person doesn’t know how to hold a pen (implies s/he does not know how to hold, use a pen to write). Now if s/he wants to learn Calligraphy; s/he cannot, no matter which script he/she wants to opt for learning Calligraphy. S/he won't be able to because s/he does not know how to hold a pen.*

• Learning to learn is the ability to pursue and persist in learning, to organize one's own learning, including through effective management of time and information, both individually and in groups.

Conclusion

Therefore, for the above question, the option 2 is the most appropriate answer. Other options require learners to have prior learning about the activity/skill (to use, access, or opt for these activities, require prior learning about 'how to' in learners and this 'how to' will be learned through 'learning to learn' process channelized by teaching).

• The style of thesis writing, regardless of the subject domain being science or any other, must be scientific in respect of language used.
• Scientific writing is technical writing that researchers do to share their findings and analysis with others in a particular field of the same interest.
• Scientific writing is predicated on the rigors of scientific inquiry, so it must reflect the same precision as that demanded in the research process.

Research Article:

• A research article reports on the results of original research reviews its contribution to the knowledge body in a specific field and publishes it in a peer-reviewed journal.
• It generally consists of a title and abstract, an introduction, a methodology, results, discussion, and references.
• Before they are published, the editor of the journal to which the manuscript was submitted sends it to experts in the same field for review.
• Such researchers will review the paper, among others, for its adequacy and relevance to the topic.
• may suggest revisions. The cycle of peer review is long.
• The time between the submission and the publication of an article can be one year or longer.

Thesis:

• A Thesis or Dissertation is a text that describes the author's work and results in support of an application for an academic degree or professional qualification.
• It consists of a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters like introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and bibliography or more usually a references section.

​Note: In the thesis and research article writing there is less scope of creativity and variability in referencing because a researcher is bound to include all the aspects that have been done while doing research. Figures and tables should be in a format that can vary as per the requirement.

Logic: A particular way of thinking, especially one that is reasonable and based on good judgment.

• In Indian Logic, Pramana is Valid means of knowledge.
• Real Knowledge which is true.
• Pramana is a theory of knowledge and encompasses one or more reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate and true knowledge.
• There are Six types of Pramana: Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana, Arthapati, Anupalabdhi, Sabda.

​

Anumana (Inference):

• Anu means; “after”, Mana means; “Knowledge”.

• So, Anumana means knowledge based on prior knowledge.

• Inference occupies a central place in the Hindu school of logic (Nyaya).

• Some Terms, which explains Anumana in a better way. There are three in it.

• Let’s take the following example: The hill is fiery. Because the hill is smoky.

• Whatever has fire has smoked. In the above example, we pass from the perception of smoke in the hill to the knowledge of the existence of fire in it on the basis of our previous knowledge of the universal relation between smoke and fire.

• The character which is inferred (Fire) is called Sadhya - Major Term, the mark on the strength of which the character is inferred is the hetu – Middle Term (smoke); while the subject where the character is inferred is paksa – Minor Term (Hill).

• Three terms are involved in this inference— Hetu, Paksa, Sadhya.

• In the above-mentioned example; three points are to be noted.

• There is the perception of a mark or reason (hetu), (e.g., smoke) in a subject (hill).

• There is a recollection of the relation of invariable concomitance between smoke and fire as we have observed in the past.

• There is the inference of the existence of an unperceived object (e.g., fire) in the subject (hill)

Note: when one sees smoke on a distant hill, one remembers one’s experience of the universal (invariable) concomitance, i.e. Vyapti, between smoke and fire and concludes that there is fire on the distant hill.

So, Hetu is not the minor term, it is middle term.

The linear model of communication

• The linear model of communication comes in one way straight-line communication with procedure simple and easy to understand that does not involve any feedback from the receiver.
• This model of communication comprised three elements,

1. the first part is the sender, who is speaking and
2. the second part of the model is the channel, transmitting the message and
3. the last part of the model is the receiver who collects the message.

• The linear model of communication originated from Shannon and Weaver which late adapted by David Berlo into his own model known as the SMCR model of communication.
• However, the Linear model is not appropriate in general human communication but applicable in mass media communication like television, radio, etc.

Shannon and Weaver’s model of communication is simple and broad which was later used to describe different fields of communication.

• Other than the concept, sender, encoder, channel, decoder, and receiver of Shannon-Weaver’s model, there is also a concept of “noise” included in the model, that goes through the channel and reduces the message more difficult to recognize by the receiver.

Semantic is considered as problems related to the interpretation of meaning by the receiver as that of the intended meaning of the sender.

• When a semantic information source sends a message, the source expects the destination to “understand” the message to some degree. The destination, thus, rather than mechanically decoding the syntax of the message, will be able to draw conclusions from the received message, as well as from its current local knowledge.
• The linear model of communication is drafted by weaver and Shannon who believed that Semantic accuracy is the result of the linear model of communication.

For example, the child, after learning that “Tweety is a bird”, may infer that “Tweety is an animal” if her knowledge base tells her that “birds are animals”. 

Conclusion: Hence, semantic accuracy can be expected in the linear model of communication.

• Psychological disruption: psychological pressure, pre-occupation, stress, or threat.
• Removal of physical noise: noise distractions including crackling on the telephone, background noise of the office, loud music from adjacent areas, a third party interrupting the conversation, or this may be a technical disturbance in the radio and television transmission.
• High level of obstruction: factors interfere with communication making it in-effective i.e. delayed not received or misunderstood messages. Everything from physical barriers to nonverbal barriers results in a high level of obstruction in the communication process.

An information system may be defined as a set of people, procedures, and resources that collects transforms and disseminates information in an organization. Computer-based information systems use hardware, software, and people resources to transform data resources into information products for end-users.

Geographical Information System (GIS) is a computer-based system:

• It stores and manipulates data that is viewed from a geographical point of reference.
• It is defined as a computer system that is used for capturing, storing, managing, querying, analyzing, and displaying geographical data (Chang, 2010).
• GIS helps to evaluate the real-world features which are represented as geographical data in terms of their position and in relation to the coordinate system, their attributes, and spatial interrelation with each other.
• GIS is a computer system of hardware and software used for storage, retrieval, mapping, and analysis of geospatial data.
• The entire GIS is also considered to include the operating personnel and data that go into the system. Spatial features are stored in a coordinate system (e.g., latitude, longitude) which references a particular place on the surface of the Earth.

Other Information Systems: 

1. Database System is a collection of software that is used to store, delete, modify, and retrieve data that is stored in a database. A database allows the user in many different ways to reorganize and retrieve data.
2. Geographic System is beyond locational analysis. It based on solving social problems based on geographical data.
3. System software may be viewed as an organized collection of software consisting of procedures for operating a computer and providing an environment for the execution of programs. It acts as an interface between users and the hardware of a computer system.

Conclusion: Hence, the Geographical Information System is a computer-based system that stores and manipulates data that is viewed from a geographical point or reference.

Explanation:

The correct answer is option 4 i.e. 'Commodity price and labor value are directly related.'

• The passage majorly speaks of the 'labor theory of value.'
• Based on the first two sentences of the passage, it may seem that labor is the only important factor in production. However, the following sentence mentions these to be 'assumptions.'

Statement: "Under the labor theory of value, the value or price of a commodity depends exclusively on the amount of labor going into the production of the commodity."

• The sentence following this clearly states that "Commodity price depends on the amount of labor".
• This is in keeping with option 4 where it states that Commodity price and labor value are directly related

Explanation Point:

The correct answer is option 1 i.e. 'less workers.'

• The passage speaks of the 'labor theory of value.'
• Option 1 is based on this sentence from the passage: "For example, much more capital equipment per worker is required to produce some products, such as steel, than to produce other products such as textile."
• This sentence speaks of 'capital equipment' being required more for products like steel. However, the options and the question speaks of 'workers' or 'laborers' and not 'capital.'

Therefore the correct answer is Products like steel need less workers (but more capital equipment).

Explanation

In the following sentences given in the passage:

1. Under the labour theory of value, the value or price of a commodity depends exclusively on the amount of labour going into the production of the commodity.
2. This implies that either labour is the only factor of production or labour is used in the same fixed proportion in the production of all commodities and that labour is homogeneous, i.e. of only one type.

The second statement clearly says that in the production of commodities three important implications are that:

• labour is the only factor of production
• labour is used in the fixed proportion
• labour is homogeneous.

From the above explanation, we can conclude that In the Labour Theory of Value, when it comes to the production of commodities, engagement of labour is in-fixed proportion. The correct answer is option 2 i.e. in-fixed proportion.

Explanation

The correct answer is option 4 i.e. C, D and E.

• The statement (C) **"less capital equipment per worker is required for products like textile" is drawn from the line, “For example, much more capital equipment per worker is required to produce some products such as steel, than to produce other products such as textile.”
• The statement (D) "opportunity cost can help explain comparative advantage" is drawn on the sentence,” In any event, the theory of comparative advantage need not be based on the labour theory of value but can be explained on the basis of the opportunity cost theory which is acceptable.”
• The statement (E) "Ricardo used the labour theory of value only to explain comparative cost" is drawn upon the sentences, ‘...Ricardo himself did not believe in the labour theory of value and used it only as a simple way to explain the law of comparative advantage. The law of comparative advantage is sometimes referred to as the law of comparative cost.’​​

Therefore, the options can easily be identified from the passage as they are more or less direct.

Explanation

The correct answer is option 1 i.e. 'theory of comparative advantage.'

• In the passage Ricardo is introduced through his theory in the following sentence: "Indeed, this is how the Ricardian theory of comparative advantage has been tested empirically."
• The passage clearly states the law and theory and its tenets.
• It is also referred to as the 'law of comparative cost.' It is based on the opportunity cost theory.

Therefore, the theory of comparative advantage is credited to Ricardo also known as the Ricardian Theory.

Given:

Average of two numbers a and b is 22

60% of a = 50% of b

Formula Used:

Average = (Sum of all the observations)/(Total number of observations)

Calculation:

Average of two numbers a and b is 22

Sum of two numbers a and b = 22 × 2 = 44

Now, 

60% of a = 50% of b

⇒ a/b = 5/6

Let a be 5x and b be 6x 

⇒ a + b = 44

⇒ 5x + 6x = 44

⇒ 11x = 44

⇒ x = 4 

⇒ a = 5 × 4 = 20 

⇒ b = 6 × 4 = 24

∴ product of two numbers = 20 × 24 = 480

The standard form of categorical proposition having the same subject term and predicate term but may differ from each other in quality or quantity or both. Such differing has been called opposition. The term opposition is used when there is no apparent disagreement between the propositions.

Types of Opposition:

Contradictories:

• The standard form of a categorical proposition that has the same subject and predicate term but differs from each other in both quantity and quality.
• Two propositions are contradictories if one is denial or negation of the other if they can’t be true or can’t be both false.
• Example:   All republics are grateful.   Some republics are not grateful.

Contraries: 

• Two propositions are said to be contraries if they can’t both be true, and the truth of one entails the truth of the other.
• That is both can’t be true and both can’t be false.
• If either of these propositions is true, then the other must be false.
• Example: All artists are dreamers. No artist is a dreamer

Sub-contraries: 

• If a particular proposition having the same subject and predicate terms but differing in quality, one affirming the other denying.
• Two propositions are said to be sub-contraries if they can’t both be false although both may be true.
• Example: Some cars are vehicles. Some cars are not vehicles.

Subalternation: 

• It is the opposition between a universal proposition and its corresponding particular proposition.
• In the corresponding proposition, the universal proposition is called the superaltern and the particular proposition is called subaltern.
• These propositions have the same subject and predicate terms and agree on quality.
• Both are affirming or both denying but differ in quantity.
• On universal and the other particular.
• Example: No hens are birds. Some hens are not birds

The square of opposition: 

• There are four ways in which propositions may be opposed as contradictories, contraries, sub-contraries, subalterns, and superalterns.
• These are represented using a diagram called the square of opposition.

Therefore, according to the relations given in the image, If two propositions are so related that they cannot both be false, although they may both be true; they are called - Subcontraries. ​

Kyoto Protocol

• In the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) process, the Kyoto protocol treaty was adopted on December 11, 1997, at the Kyoto (Japan COP).
• Under the protocol, 39 industrialized countries, committed themselves to reduce emissions by 5.2 percent of the 1990 levels by 2012.
• Under this, a country can finance carbon dioxide saving measures in another country and thus offset its own emissions.

In the first commitment period from 2008-12, the industrialized countries are committed to specific quantitative reductions in emissions.

• The Kyoto Protocol requires countries to cut emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Some 141 countries, accounting for 55% of greenhouse gas emissions, have ratified the Kyoto Protocol, which came into force on February 16, 2005. It pledges to cut these emissions by 5.2% during the first implementation period between 2008 and 2012. Each country has been set its own individual targets according to its pollution levels. Large developing countries including India, China, and Brazil are not required to meet specific targets for now. Different positions within the political debate on climate change can be demonstrated by the different responses to the Kyoto Protocol.

The Kyoto Protocol specifies three flexible mechanisms to help meet the challenge of combating climate change:

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): The CDM is a system that would give industrialized countries credit for financing technologies in developing countries aimed at reducing emission

Joint Implementation activities (JI):  JI projects undertaken in the Kyoto Protocol have focused on the forestry sector. Forests as you know act as carbon sinks: As trees grow, they absorb carbon dioxide from the air and transform it into carbohydrates, the storehouse of carbon. About 50% of the dry weight of a tree is carbon.

Emissions Trading: Afforestation of previously cleared land can markedly increase the total carbon stored on the land and provide carbon credits for trading to offset the emissions of greenhouse gases. The intention is that credits will be certified and recognized by a certificate owned by individuals or companies who have created the storing of the greenhouse gas.

A term is a word, or a combination of words, which by itself is capable of being used as a subject or predicate of a proposition. In the proposition ‘Gandhiji is the father of the nation’, ‘Gandhiji, and ‘father of the nation’ are terms because they occur at the boundaries of the proposition.

Denotation: 

• When a term is applied to denote objects or show their number, it is said to be used in denotation.
• For example, the term ‘man’ denotes several individuals like Plato Aristotle, Gandhi, and others, and all men of past, present, and future.
• Denotation is also known as an extension of a term because it shows the extent or range of objects to which a term is applied.
• All the objects to which a term is extended constitute the extension of a term.

Terms are used to describe the object. Every term has a meaning. It stands for certain qualities.

Connotation:

• The function of suggesting qualities (attributes) possessed by an object is known as connotation.

• Every term denotes certain objects and connotes certain qualities (attributes).

• It is also known as the intension of a term because it refers to general qualities intended by a term.

• For example, while defining man, rationality and animality are the two essential qualities (attributes) that are considered. Hence man is defined as a rational animal.

• It consists of the attributes which describe, a question arises as to which attributes are meant by the connotation.

• The extension of the term ‘college’ is all the various colleges, while its intention is the various qualities describing the term, namely educational institutions giving higher education.

• It is customary to use ‘extension’ instead of ‘denotation’ and ‘intension’ instead of ‘connotation’ when a term refers to a class.

• There is a reason why the words ‘extension’ and ‘intension’ are used while we deal with classes.

• A class may have sub-classes, sub-classes with further subclasses.

• By ‘extension’ we would then mean the range of sub-classes or number of members within that class.

• Intention means the sum of the qualities which describe a general name.

• The scope of application of the term is to all the members of the class, and this signifies extension.

• The qualities or properties of content or subject matter of the term signifies intention.

Conclusion: The attributes shared by all and only those objects to which a term refers is known as the intention of a term or Connotation.

Imagine, how many filing-cabinet drawers would be required to hold the millions of files of, say, tax records kept by the Income Tax Department or historical employee records kept by Indian Railways. The record storage rooms would have to be enormous. Computers can be used to store information contained in such records in a highly compressed manner. The physical space that is required to store the same amount of information on a computer might be amazingly small. The place where information is stored is generally referred to as memory.  There are two types of memory Primary memory and secondary memory:

Storage Devices:

1. Hard- Disk:

• It consists of one or more magnetic disks contained in a box.
• Consists of a rigid platter made of aluminum alloy or glass and coated with magnetic material.
• The single platter is 10-20mm thick with separate read and write heads.
• It can store up to 2 Terabyte (TB) data.
• It is rectangular with a length of 3 to 6 inches and the same width with a thickness of 2 to 3 inches.
• Hard disks, currently reaching double-digit GB ranges, have the advantage of being the fastest mass storage but are permanent (i.e. the storage disks cannot be switched).

2. Magneto-optical disks are

• It is removable.
• It has gigabyte storage capacities, supposedly up to 20 GB.
• The read/write capability of these disks is currently compromised by its relatively slow access time compared to hard disks.

3. Floppy Disc

• It is made of flexible Mylar plastic coated with magnetic oxide.
• They come in 8, 5.25, and 3.5-inch sizes, can have single (SD), double (DD), or high densities (HD), and can be either single- or double-sided.
• Floppy disks are read and written by a floppy disk drive (FDD). It has a capacity of 800 KB to 2.8 MB (with a standard of 1.44 MB).
• It is a relatively small, flexible magnetic disk that is enclosed in a stiff protective envelope and is widely used as a backing store device

4. Compact Disc:

• An abbreviation for Compact Disk-Read Only Memory. An optical storage device used as a ROM of high capacity.
• Thin round plastic plate with one side shining that store the information.
• It is writable only once.
• It is economical.
• Used to take the backup of files.
• The files cannot be deleted accidentally or by a virus.
• It can store up to 650 Megabyte (MB) data or information.

Conclusion: Hence, Hard disc has the highest capacity to store data up to 2 Terabytes.

Pattern is as follows: 

Hence, option 1) is the correct answer.

Assertion and reasoning-type questions have one assertion (A) and one reason (R). We must first determine whether the statement is true. If the statement is true, we must next determine whether the reason correctly explains the assertion.  

As the Assertion states that Communication includes both spoken and written words. 

Verbal communication is communication through words.

• This can occur in either of two modes, oral (Spoken) or written.
• Spoken or oral communication is more natural and spontaneous, and we use this mode most of the time.
• A great percentage of our communication is oral communication.
• In formal situations, written communication is required, and not everyone can communicate effectively in writing.

The Oral Mode is Used Where :

• Personal authentication is needed. e.g., between an officer and her personal secretary; a journalist and her source.
• Social or gregarious needs must be met. e.g.,' speaking with a visiting delegation.
• Warmth and personal qualities are called for. e.g., group or team interaction.
• An atmosphere of openness is desired. e.g., talks between management and workers.

The Written Made is Used Where:

• The information has to be stored and retrieved. e.g., official records
• Crucial decisions and actions are to be considered. e.g., plans and proposal
• Personal presence is not required. e.g., circulating a list of holidays for organizations to choose from; routine good wishes in the new year.
• Written communication supplements oral communication. e.g., the minutes of a meeting.

But, the Reason states that Communication through any medium does not happen through attitudes of encoders is false because even if there is no intermediary or encoder in the communication process, still the communication takes place. The sender is also called an encoder, s/he chooses appropriate medium for transmitting the message to the receiver. The whole communication process is not totally dependent on the encoder's attitude. 

Hence, we can say that Assertion is true but Reason is false.

Research is a systematic inquiry towards understanding a complex social phenomenon or a process. Based on the research problem, the selection of research methods by the researcher may vary.

Ethnographic method

• The process of studying and describing a culture.
• It is qualitative research.
• It provides an insider's picture of a community under study.
• The researcher can go and live in a specific community where the research is going to conduct and study the culture and their educational practices.

Case study method

• A case study is a deep, detailed and intensive study of a social unit;
• It is a method of qualitative research;
• It preserves wholeness of the units i.e. it is an approach that views any social unit as a whole.
• It helps to collect detailed information about the unit of study and gives clues to new ideas and further research.
• As a tool of analysis, it helps to ascertain a number and variety of traits, qualities, and habits confined to a particular instance.
• Case Study method shows the way to deepen our perception and sharpen insights to understand biographies.

Ex post-Facto Method           

• An ex-post-facto the researcher attempts to trace an effect that has already occurred to its probable causes.
• The researcher has no direct control over the independent variable because it has occurred much prior to producing its effects.

Narrative research 

• It is an approach to review the literature.
• It is qualitative research.
• Sometimes, it is contrasted with a systematic review.
• It tends to be less focused than a systematic review and seeks to arrive at a critical interpretation of the literature that it covers.

Experimental method

• It is designed for establishing causal relationships between two or more variables.
• In this method, an independent variable is manipulated.
• All other variables except the independent variable are held constant.
• The effect of the manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent variable is observed.

Hence, Ethnographic Probe, Case study method, and Narrative method are methods, an empirico-inductive paradigm is employed.

The evaluation focuses on grades and other than course content and mastery level reflects classroom components. An evaluation can be used as a final review to gauge the quality of instruction. It is product-oriented and judges learning level.

Computer Testing Based Assessments -

• Form of assessment that is marked with the aid of computers, such as those using optical mark reading (OMR).
• In recent times these are more favoured than the paper-pencil tests as they reduce the chances of unfair means adopted by students and produce speedy results.
• In a classroom teaching process, surprise tests, creative activities, mid-lecture questioning give ample opportunities to children to perform well and build their knowledge and improve their mistakes through their own activities.

Conclusion: Formative assessment includes any form of classroom interaction, that is why it is optimum for increasing intrinsic motivation.

Symbol table

B is Mother of A.

Hence, option 4) is the correct answer.

The data are defined as numbers that represent measurements from the real world. Datum is a single measurement.

• We often read the news like 20 centimetres of continuous rain in Barmer or 35 centimetres of rain at a stretch in Banswara in 24 hours or information such as New Delhi – Mumbai distance via Kota – Vadodara is 1385 kilometres and via Itarsi - Manmad is 1542 kilometres by train. This numerical information is called data. It may be easily realised that there is large volume of data available around the world today.
• However, at times, it becomes difficult to derive logical conclusions from these data if they are in raw form. Hence, it is important to ensure that the measured information is algorithmically derived and/or logically deduced and/or statistically calculated from multiple data. Information is defined as either a meaningful answer to a query or a meaningful stimulus that can cascade into further queries.
• Information is a processed form of data. It is organized, meaningful, and useful.

Every day we come across a lot of information in the form of facts, numerical figures, tables, graphs, etc. These are provided by newspapers, televisions, magazines and other means of communication.

• These may relate to cricket batting or bowling averages, profits of a company, temperatures of cities, expenditures in various sectors of a five-year plan, polling results, and so on.
• These facts or figures, which are numerical or otherwise, collected with a definite purpose are called data. Data is the plural form of the Latin word datum. Of course, the word ‘data’ is not new for you. You have studied about data and data handling in earlier classes. Our world is becoming more and more information oriented. Every part of our lives utilises data in one form or the other. So, it becomes essential for us to know how to extract meaningful information from such data.

Conclusion: Hence data represents raw facts, whereas information is processed meaningful data.