UGC NET Paper 1: Held on 2nd Dec 2019 Shift 2 (Previous Year Paper)

A fallacy is a type of arguing which appears to be valid, but actually invalid. The term fallacy comes from the Latin word ‘fallo,’ meaning ‘I deceive.’ The fallacy is the class name given to bad (illogical) arguments. Fallacies are like plastic flowers: They give you the impression that they are valid. But, a student of logic, like a bee, should be able to distinguish between the real (valid) and the artificial (invalid). 

Examples: ‘This man is not clever because he cannot talk fast’ or ‘He is not a patriot because he does not wear khadi.’ Any argument of this sort is fallacious.

1. APPEAL TO EMOTION (ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM) is making use of the feelings and prejudices of people rather than their reason. This is perhaps the most common of fallacies.

Example: In campaigning for election in India one might ask: ‘Should you not vote for the Congress? Did not the congressmen suffer imprisonment for the sake of the country?’ Thus, the speaker appeals to patriotism, an honorable emotion, without clear evidence to appeal to the feelings of his audience. Besides politicians, many others, like advertisers, commit this fallacy.

2. EQUIVOCATION is the fallacy that consists in using words or phrases with two or more meanings, deliberately or accidentally, while formulating an argument.

3.THE APPEAL TO INAPPROPRIATE AUTHORITY (ARGUMENTUM AD VERECUNDIAM) This is a very common and crafty fallacy because a person who is an expert in one field is taken as an expert in some other, comparatively, unrelated field. If, for example, we take Bertrand Russell, a great authority on philosophy, as an authority on the matter of shoes, we commit this fallacy.

4. MISSING THE POINT (AD IGNORATIO) is diverting attention from the real point at issue. It is arguing beside the point. Example: ‘The object of war is peace; therefore, soldiers are the best peacemakers.’ Even if it is assumed that the object of war is peace, still it does not imply that soldiers are the best peacemakers.

Hence, From the above explanation, it is clear that “Everyone is going to the party; you should go too.” the kind of fallacy stated here is AD POPULUM,   because in this kind of fallacy people try to convince us of something, rather than logically relevant reasons.

Pramana is a valid means of knowledge. Knowledge can be valid or invalid, valid knowledge is called prama and non-valid knowledge is known as aprama and its important four means include:

1. Pratyaksa (Perception)
2. Anumana (Inference)
3. Upamana (Comparison)
4. Shabda (Verbal testimony)

​Pratyaksha (Perception)

• It is basically which is before one’s eyes, ‘aksa’ means sense organ, and ‘prati’ means the function of each sense organ.
• A perception is a valid form of knowledge produced by the contact of an object with a sense organ.
• It is the first of the five means of knowledge or pramanas, that enable a person to have correct cognitions of the world.
• Pratyaksha is of two kinds,

1. Anubhava: Direct perception
2. Smriti: Remembered perception

• The knowledge arises by contact of sense organs (indriya) with an object. Such contact is not the sole condition of perception, but it is its distinctive feature or extraordinary cause (karana) of perception. The actual process is given below:
• The self comes into contact with the mind (manas)
• The manas with the senses
• The senses with the object
• The modern school of Nyaya gives a new definition of perception as it is direct or immediate cognition that is not derived through the instrumentality of any other cognition. It applies to all cases of perception, human or divine. Even God’s omniscience has the highest degree of immediacy conceivable. It excludes inference, analogy and verbal testimony. It excludes ‘memory’ as well.
• Perception is divided into the following two categories.

1. Ordinary (Laukika)
2. Extraordinary (Alaukika)

• According to later logicians, there are two kinds of verbal testimony as given below.

1. Vaidika or Alukika: It is also known as divine or scripture.
2. Laukika or secular

• The former relates to the words of God. The Vedas are created by God and therefore, valid perfectly. The latter relates to the words of trustworthy people.
• According to Nyayikas, since human beings are not perfect, only the words of trustworthy people can be considered as Laukika Shabda.

Hence, The distinction between laukika and alaukika is made with reference to Pratyaksha.

Anumana (Inference)

• It means after knowledge i.e., the knowledge that follows other knowledge.
• This may be explained with the help of the typical example of inference, the presence of fire on the perception of smoke. When one sees smoke on distant hill one remembers one’s experience of the universal concomitance (Vyapti) between smoke and fire and concludes that there is fire on the distant hill.

Upamana ("comparison"),

• A means of having knowledge of something, in which observance of its similarities to another object provides knowledge of the relationship between the two.

Sabda (verbal testimony) the knowledge gained by means of texts

The correct solution is option 4 i.e Increased consumer purchasing power.

• The above passage is about intra-industry trade.
• Let us refer to this line from the passage, "Because of this, large welfare gains arise from the ability of consumers to greatly increase the variety of goods that they can purchase through trade."
• From the above lines, we get to know that when the prices of the products are low then the consumers tend to buy more.
• So, consumer purchasing power is increased.

From the above lines, we can infer that lower Product price means increased consumer purchasing power.

The correct solution is option 2 i.e. The limited varieties of the same product.

• The above passage is about intra-industry trade.
• Let us refer to this line from the passage, "That is, international competition forces each firm or plant in industrial countries to produce only one or at most a few, varieties and styles of the same product rather than many different verities and styles".
• From the above line, we get to know that there is an international competition between countries.
• Due to which, industrial countries produce only one type of products with the same style. Therefore, there is a limited variety of same product.

From the above lines, we can infer that the impact of international competition on intra-industry trade can be seen in the limited varieties of the same product.

The correct solution is option 3 i.e. Import of varieties of product.

• The above passage is about intra-industry trade.
• Let us refer to this line from the passage, "With few varieties and styles, more specialised and faster machinery can be developed for continuous operation and a longer production run. The nation then imports other varieties and styles from other nations."
• From the above line, we get to know that as industrial countries produce only one type of same product so specialised and after machinery will help them to produce new varieties of products and import new varieties and styles.

From the above lines, we can infer that development and use of specialised machinery will lead to the import of varieties of product.

The correct solution is option 1 i.e. Low cost of the unit.

• The above passage is about intra-industry trade.
• Let us refer to this line from the passage, "international competition forces each firm or plant in industrial countries to produce only one or at most a few, varieties and styles of the same product rather than many different verities and styles. This is crucial in keeping unit costs low".
• From the above line, we get to know that industrial countries produce only one type of same product due to international competition.
• As the same product is produced in the same style its cost is low and same. So, it keeps the unit cost low.

From the above lines, we can infer that mass production of a few varieties of products will result in low cost of the unit.

The correct solution is option 4 i.e. Emphasis on differentiated products.

• The above passage is about intra-industry trade.
• Let us refer to this line from the passage, "The importance of intra-industry trade became apparent when tariffs and other obstructions to the flow of trade among members of the European Union, or common market were removed in 1958."
• From the above line, we get to know that barriers to the flow of trade in the European Union was removed in 1958. It was found that volume of trade surged but most of the increase involved the exchange of differentiated products within each broad industrial classification.
• After the removal of the barrier, intra-industry trade became more apparent which lead to the import of many varieties of goods and products. So, emphasis on differentiated products increased.

From the above lines, we can infer that Emphasis on differentiated products was the consequence of the removal of barriers to the flow of trade in the European Union.

National Policy on Education (1968)

• Arising out of the recommendations of the Kothari Commission, the National Policy of 1968 marked a significant step in the history of Independent India.
• It aimed to promote national progress, a sense of common citizenship and culture, and to strengthen national integration. It laid stress on the need for a radical reconstruction of the education system to improve its quality at all stages.
• The Policy also emphasized the enrichment of curricula and the improvement of textbooks and teaching methods. It advocated the strengthening of Science education at the school level and stepping up of scholarship schemes for backward sections of the society.

​The National Policy Education (1986):

• A variety of new challenges and social needs made it imperative for the Government to formulate and implement a New Education Policy for the country. During this period India reached a stage in its economic and technical development when a major effort had to be made to derive the maximum benefit from the assets already created Constitutional Provisions and to ensure that the benefits of such development reach all sections and Educational Policies it was also felt that education is the highway to reach this goal.
• The NPE (1986) provided a comprehensive policy framework and a set of guidelines for the development of education.
• It also suggested programmes of actions for implementation of the policy decisions of action for implementation of the policy decisions.
• Under the reorientation of the content and process of education, it recommended that “The existing schism between the formal system of education and the country's rich and varied cultural traditions need to be bridged”.
• It was made clear that the preoccupation with modern technologies cannot be allowed to sever the new generations from the roots in India's history and culture.
• It was suggested that the de-centralization, de-humanization, and alienation has to be avoided at all costs. Education must bring about a fine synthesis between change-oriented technologies and the country's continuity of cultural tradition to balance the social and cultural lag.

NITI Aayog-Three Year Action Agenda (2017-18 to 2019-20):

• After the dissolution of the Planning Commission and end of the 12^th five-year plan, the government has decided to set up its development priorities and direct those priorities through the NITI Aayog. One of the major mandates of the NITI Aayog is “to design strategic and long-term policy and program frameworks and initiatives.”

Draft National Education Policy 2019:

• The policy focuses to make the pre-primary education universal by 2025 and provide foundational literacy to all by the end of the year 2025. The Draft National Education Policy, 2019 is also out in the public domain.

Hence, National Policy on Education – 1986 emphasized that education needs to be in an atmosphere of utmost intellectual rigor, the seriousness of purpose and of freedom essential for innovation and creativity

The UN Environment Programme’s Champions of the Earth award is the world’s flagship environmental honor. Since 2005, this organization recognized heroes who inspire, encourage others to join them, and defend a cleaner future.

Champions of the Earth are celebrated in four categories:

1. Policy leadership – individuals or organizations in the public sector leading global or national action for the environment. They shape the dialogue, lead commitments, and act for the good of the planet.
2. Inspiration and action – individuals or organizations taking bold steps to inspire positive change to protect our world. They lead by example, challenging behavior, and inspire millions.
3. Entrepreneurial vision – individuals or organizations challenging the status quo to build a cleaner future. They build systems, create new technology, and spearhead a groundbreaking vision.
4. Science and innovation – individuals or organizations that push the boundaries of technology for profound environmental benefit. They invent possibilities for a more sustainable world.

Cochin International Airport

• **It received the **award for the Entrepreneurial Vision category.
• Kerala's Cochin International Airport Ltd (CIAL) was honored for its leadership and Entrepreneurial Vision in the use of sustainable energy,
• It received UN ‘Champions of the Earth’ award on the sidelines of the 73^rd UN General Assembly at a ceremony in New York on September 26, 2018,
• This is the world's first fully solar-powered airport, Cochin is showing the world that our ever-expanding network of global movement cannot harm the environment,

Note: The 2019 Champion of the Earth for Policy and Leadership goes to Costa Rica. As it battles to preserve its biodiversity, Costa Rica has emerged as a global leader in sustainability, green development, and clean energy. The Central American nation is also moving toward carbon neutrality faster than other countries and plans to phase out fossil fuels through new policies and incentives. It has pledged to achieve a zero net emissions economy by 2050.

Sustainable Development Goals:

The United Nations General Assembly adopted the "2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development" in 2015, with global goals.

The 193 members of GA  adopted the framework "Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development" with 17 goals & 169 targets.

• These goals were aimed to wipe out poverty, fight inequality & tackle climate change in the next 15 years.
• This Agenda is a plan of action for people, the planet, and prosperity.
• It also intends to strengthen universal peace in larger freedom.
• They seek to realize the human rights of all & to achieve gender equality & the empowerment of all women.

The Division for Sustainable Development Goals in the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) acts as the Secretariat for the SDGs.

Those 17 goals are:

1. Take urgent action to combat climate change & its impact.
2. ​End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
3. Reduce inequalities within & among countries.
4. Achieve gender equality & empower all womens' & girls.
5. Zero hunger.
6. Good health & well-being.
7. Quality Education.
8. Clean water & sanitation.
9. Affordable & clean energy.
10. Decent work & economic growth.
11. Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure.
12. Sustainable Cities & Communities.
13. Responsible consumption & Production.
14. Life below water.
15. Life on Land.
16. Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions.
17. Partnership for the goals.

Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

• The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was adopted at the United Nations Summit in New York from 25 to 27 September 2015.
• The Agenda is a broad and universal policy agenda, with 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), with 169 associated targets that are integrated and indivisible.
• Building on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the 2030 Agenda seeks to guide the Member States to transform their approach to achieve inclusive, people-centred and sustainable development with no one left behind.
• They are integrated and indivisible and balance the three dimensions of sustainable development: the economic, social and environmental. The inter-linkages and integrated nature of the SDGs are of crucial importance in ensuring that the purpose of the new Agenda is realized.
• If we realize our ambitions across the full extent of the Agenda, the lives of all will be profoundly improved and our world will be transformed for the better.

Hence, Zero Hunger, Quality Education, Clean Water and Sanitation, and Climate Action are included in the list of SDG goals 2030.

The Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Substances is the most influential multilateral environment agreement regulating the development and use of nearly 100 human-made chemicals known as Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS). Such chemicals destroy the stratospheric ozone layer of Earth, the protective shield against harmful radiation from sunlight when released to the atmosphere. The Protocol adopted in 1995 was the first UN treaty ever ratified on earth-all 197 Member States of the United Nations to date.

• ​The Montreal Protocol used different scenarios for controlling the release of such chemicals and one such option has been to enforce 80 percent freeze on the use of CFCs in 1994 from its level, as it was in 1986.
• The Montreal Protocol phases down the consumption and production of the different ODS in a step-wise manner, with different timetables for developed and developing countries
• Developing countries were, however, given some concessions to slowly decrease the use of CFCs in ten years.
• The Protocol calls for periodic review.
• The London amendment to the Protocol was made in 1990 and the Copenhagen amendment was made in 1992, which if fully followed, would bring significant improvements in total restrictions on the use of CFCs.
• Such drastic actions would lead to arrest and finally disappearance of the ozone hole in the next several decades.
• Observations taken in 2002 Antarctic spring season have shown the encouraging effect of these regulatory measures as the ozone hole in 2002 is found to split into two parts and shrunk in size too, to the level of 1988.
• However, the Ozone Hole has again shown a tendency to increase in size in the years 2003 and 2005. This indicates that the monitoring has to continue and the internationally accepted regulatory decision needs to be observed fully.

In Logic, any categorical statement is termed as the Proposition. A proposition consists of a subject (about which something is said), predicate (states something about the subject), and copula (denotes the relation between subject and predicate).

Categorical Proposition:  A proposition concerning quality is either affirmative or negative and concerning the quantity, they are either universal or particular. A categorical proposition can be interpreted as asserting a relation of inclusion or exclusion, complete or partial, between two classes. The standard form of a proposition is Quantifier + Subject + Copula + Predicate.

“Some students are sincere” →  Particular Affirmative

Hence, option 3) is the correct answer.

A teacher interacts with a student to impart or transact a given content or a chunk of learning experiences. In order to transact content or learning experiences, a teacher makes use of different methods and techniques. Methods or techniques alone may not help a teacher to transact the learning experiences. He/she has to take the help of a number of educational technologies to enhance student learning.

Hence, Educational Technology (ET) is increasingly becoming popular in educational institutions. The term educational technology is associated only with the equipment or the hardware part, which they use such as overhead projector, television, computers, etc. But the concept of educational technology should not be confused with electronic gadgetry; it has a wider meaning as wide as education itself.

1. The evolution of educational technology has not taken in a single day. The evolution of technology has not taken place suddenly, it has crossed the phases of audiovisual, social-psychological, cybernetics, information and technology
2. Audiovisual: This phase is designated as extensive use of a variety of devices such as moving pictures, radio, slide films to transmit ideas and experiences, which appeals to the sense perceptions of the learners especially about the abstract concept.
3. Social-psychological: This phase has a long history, which can be traced back to the learning theory on the laws of learning
4. Cybernetics: Consider a situation, when you are browsing an Internet site. Suddenly, a message pops up on the screen, that there is a "Virus" which has entered your computer. Here, the anti-virus software provided you the feedback and as a result, you removed the virus from your computer.
5. Information and technology: we are using Multimedia, E-mail, Internet, intranet, and website to impart instruction. These are telecommunication modes through which instructional materials can be has given to students.

Therefore, on the basis of phases of evolution of educational technology the sequence which is appropriate is Textbook supplementation programmed learning material, modular material, and online method.

A learning outcome is a statement of what a learner is expected to be able to do, know about and what knowledge he has gained out of a unit of study, and how can they achieve those outcomes. It states both the substances of learning and how it can be attained.

In Bloom's Taxonomy, the educational objectives of learning are arranged under three domains in a hierarchy, so that items in each domain are ranked by its importance.

Bloom's Taxonomy identified three domains of educational activities:

1. The cognitive domain

• ​​It is also known as the thinking domain.
• Initially, the six basic objectives in Bloom’s taxonomy are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
• These objectives are considered as a hierarchy, each skill building on those below, but this is not entirely accurate.
• In 2001, a group of educational researchers published the first major revision of the cognitive taxonomy. These are as follows:

1. Remembering: Remembering or recognizing something without necessarily understanding, using, or changing it.
2. Understanding: Understanding the material being communicated without necessarily relating it to anything else.
3. Applying: Using a general concept to solve a particular problem.
4. Analyzing: Breaking something down into its parts.
5. Evaluating: Judging the value of materials or methods as they might be applied in a particular situation.
6. Creating: Creating something new by combining different ideas.

• Remembering, understanding, and applying is considered as the lower level objectives while analyzing, evaluation, and creating are considered as high-level objectives.
• The six processes of remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating acting on four kinds of knowledge—factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive.

2. The affective domain: 

• It is also known as the domain of emotional response.
• These objectives aim to develop certain interests, attitudes, appreciation, and values among pupils.
• At the lowest level, a student simply pays attention to a certain idea. At the highest level, the student adopts an idea or a value and acts consistently with that idea.
• The affective domain has five basic objectives:

1. Receiving: Being aware of or attending to something in the environment.
2. Responding: Showing some new behavior as a result of experience.
3. Valuing: Showing some definite involvement or commitment.
4. Organization: Integrating a new value into your general set of values, giving it some ranking among your general priorities.
5. Characterization by value: Acting consistently with the new value.
6. The psychomotor domain:

• ​​In this domain, learning depends on the mastery of the physical skill.
• It includes demonstrative skills and performing specific tasks, for example, writing, reading, making illustrations, diagrams, and maps, etc.
• The psychomotor domain has five basic objectives:

1. ​​Imitation: It includes a demonstration of a skill by a skilled person and the learner tries to follow the same.
2. Manipulation: A learner tries to experiment on various aspects, like manipulating machinery, equipment, etc.
3. Precision: Accuracy in performing various acts increases with practice.
4. Articulation: Achieving the desired level of efficiency and effectiveness through practice.
5. Naturalization: Skill is internalized and an individual is able to adapt, modify, or design new techniques, methods, or procedures according to the requirements of a situation.

​Hence, Showing the ability to analyze and synthesize, Articulation and naturalization, and Organization and characterization are the higher-level learning outcomes.

Symbol table:

 

                           

Apoorva is Nephew of Vinod.

Hence, option 3) is the correct answer.

Research is a systematic way of investigation, a process of discovering new knowledge. Research is also considered as searching for and gathering information, usually to answer a particular question. Each research study has its own specific purpose.

Action Research: 

• It refers to the application of research to educational problems in a particular classroom setting. Its primary aim is to improve practice.
• According to Kurt Lewin, the founder of the term Action Research, it is an ongoing strategy; the cycle is repeated to form a spiral; reformulated plan, revised action, more fact-finding, reanalysis. Hence, most feminist researchers follow this tool as there is value in building equality of relationship between the researcher and those researched.
• Action Research also means learning by doing.
• It usually emerges out of situational needs and a solution to a problem is also designed with respect to the situation.
• The researcher intends to discover new and alternative ways to achieve the objectives, be it teaching or management sector.
• It is mostly in social situations, such as in educational institutions.

The Cycle of Action Research: Action Research achieves its goal by using a ‘cyclic research process’, where each cycle is made up of four phases - Plan, Act (implementing plans), Observe (systematically) and Reflect. It is a continuous cycle one can circle back to earlier phases within a cycle (e.g., cycle back and forth between reflection and planning).

 

1. Plan: An understanding of the problem is developed and plans are made to make a change in the existing or current set up. For example, a teacher notices that an existing teaching strategy is not yielding the optimum results and plans to introduce a new teaching strategy to overcome this.
2. Act:  The changes which are planned are implemented or carried out in this phase. For example, the new teaching strategy that has been planned is introduced in this phase.
3. Observe: The impact of the change implemented earlier is observed by the researcher. The researcher collects, records, and obtains evidence about the success of actions. For example, the impact of the new teaching strategy on the students’ performance is observed.
4. Reflect: The data and results from the previous phase are reflected upon. The researcher reflects on the results and considers strategies for improvement and future planning begins. For example, the teachers reflect on the impact of the new teaching strategy and if the impact was positive then it becomes part of the teaching strategy, or else the cycle is repeated.

Hence, the steps in action research are cyclic in nature.

1. Fundamental Research:

• It is also called pure or basic research.
• It is concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.
• It aims at the discovery of some basic truths and laws and is not immediately concerned with direct field applications.

2. Applied Research: 

• ​​It is also called field research.
• Fundamental research may propound a theory or discover a law, but applied research is concerned with the testing of such theories or laws in the actual field setting.
• It is almost always done based on fundamental research.

3. Evaluative Research:

• It is usually used for decision-making (that is, it is applied-in contrast to basic-research).
• Evaluative research has a problem-solving orientation, implying movement and adjustment as a program moves from ideation through testing to full implementation and subsequent correction. For example, Family planning scheme, irrigation project, etc.

There are three different levels of teaching and teaching takes place at three levels progressively- memory level of teaching, understanding level of teaching, and reflective level of teaching. 

Important Points

1. Memory level of teaching (MLT): Least thoughtful teaching

• It is the initial stage of teaching.
• It involves the habit of rote memorization. In such type of act, memory plays a key role.
• The teacher presents factual information before the learner. The learner tries to recall and memorize these facts with the least involvement of his/her thinking and reasoning power. It represents the involvement of the least thoughtful behavior.

1. Understanding level of teaching (ULT): thoughtful teaching

• Understanding something is to perceive the meaning, grasp the idea, and comprehend the meaning.
• It focuses on the mastery of the subject.

1. Reflective level of teaching (ULT): Most thoughtful level

• It is a problem-centric approach to teaching.
• Teaching at the reflective level represents the highest level of the teaching activities that can be carried out in the most thoughtful modes of operation providing the desirable quality of teaching situation and experience to the learner for utilizing and enhancing their cognitive abilities to the maximum.

Autonomous Development Level: 

• Morris L. Biggie (1976) has added one more level under the rubric 'autonomous development'.
• It is the first level and is student-oriented and dependent on the learner's feelings and judgment.
• Here, there is no need for any kind of formal teaching.

Hence:

Pattern is as follows:

Hence, "108" is the correct answer.

Alternate Method

Pattern is as follows:

Hence, "108" is the correct answer.

Sampling in research is the process of selection of units (e.g. people, organization) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample may fairly generate results back to the population from which they were chosen. The objective of sampling is to derive the desired information about the population at the minimum cost or with the maximum reliability.

Blalock (1960) indicated that most sampling methods could be classified into two categories: Non-probability sampling methods and Probability sampling methods.

Key PointsCluster sampling 

• In the cluster sampling method used in research, units of the sample are similar and independent in nature.
• It is used more in the survey, where the population is not only large but also scattered over a large area.
• Kerlinger defines cluster modeling in the same sense, saying, "cluster modeling, which is most commonly used in surveys, is a gradual random representation of units or sets or subsets."
• In cluster sampling, there is a successive random sampling of units.
• The first unit to be sampled is large grouping or clusters. For example, in drawing a sample of nursing students, the researcher might first draw a random sample of nursing schools of the country. To draw the schools of nursing, the random selection of the State has to be done. So the usual procedure for selecting a general sample of students is first to select states, cities, districts, then schools and students successively.
• Despite the disadvantage cluster sampling is considered more economical and practical than other types of probability sampling, particularly when the population is large and widely dispersed.

Stage sampling

• It is the taking of samples in stages using smaller sampling units at each stage.
• This can be a complex form of cluster sampling because it involves dividing the population into groups (or clusters). Then, one or more clusters are chosen at random and everyone within the chosen cluster is sampled.

Snowball Sampling

• It is also called a network or chain referral sampling.
• To start with, the researcher identifies a small number of respondents having a set of characteristics of interest to the researcher. After collecting the required data from those respondents, the same respondents are asked to identify others having the same characteristics set. E.g., collecting data from drug addicts, rape victims, etc.
• This is one of the important types of non-probability sampling.
• In snowball 1 sampling, the investigator encourages the respondents to give the names of other acquaintances and it continues growing in size and chains until the research 1 purpose is achieved.

Dimensional sampling 

• It is an extension of quota sampling where the researcher takes into account several characteristics such as gender, residence, education, etc. and ensures that there is at least one individual in the study representing each of the chosen characteristics.
• It is an extended version of quota sampling.
• The researcher considers several characteristics e.g. gender, age, income, residence, and education.
• The researcher ensures that there is at least one person representing each of the chosen characteristics.

​Hence, In cluster sampling, the units comprising the sample are given an equal and independent chance

Research design is a kind of blueprint that you prepare before actually carrying out research. It is a systematically prepared outline stating the manner in which you plan to carry out your research. It is the strategic plan of the project that sets out the broad structure of the research.

Narrative research 

• It is an approach to review the literature.
• It tends to be less focused than a systematic review and seeks to arrive at a critical interpretation of the literature that it covers.
• Narrative research is a type of qualitative research design, in which individual stories to describe the lives of people are explored, narratives can be viewed as a social product, as a form of social interaction as well as an interpretive device.
• It is a social product, produced by people in the context of specific social, historical, and cultural locations. It is a form of social interaction as people tell stories about narratives.
• Narrative analysis is an in-depth analysis of a chronologically told story. The narrative analysis focuses on “the ways in which people make and use stories to interpret the world.”
• It is best used for the exploration of ethical, moral, and cultural ambiguities.

Hence, In narrative research designs, individual stories to describe the lives of people are explored.

Ethnographic method

• The process of studying and describing a culture.
• It provides an insider's picture of a community under study.
• The researcher can go and live in a specific community where the research is going to conduct and study the culture and their educational practices.
• It can be understood as a description and interpretation of a cultural or social group or system. Here the focus of the study remains on examining the patterns of behavior of a group, its customs, and ways of life.
• This method involves prolonged observation of events where the researcher becomes a part and parcel of the day-to-day lives of the people.

Grounded theory 

• It is one of the basic approaches and most prominently used techniques in qualitative research.
• The grounded theory refers to ‘the process of generation of a theory which is based on the collection of data from multiple sources’.
• It is the only method of qualitative research that uses quantitative data also, as and when required.
• The grounded theory approach aims to collect data and interpret the data from the textual base (for example, a collection of field notes or video recordings).
• After the process of interpreting, the database is categorized into different variables and then the interrelationship between these variables are analyzed and studied
• The basic outcomes of the grounded theory are:
• Since the approach consists of a series of systematic steps and the data is collected from more than one source, it assures to provide a ‘good theory’ as the output.
• The grounded theory approach emphasizes the process by which the theory is evaluated. This determines the quality of the theory.
• The grounded theory approach also emphasizes on enhancing the theoretical sensitivity.
• One goal of grounded theory is to formulate hypotheses based on conceptual ideas.
• On the basis of the questions asked the researcher tries to discover the participants’ main concern and how they continually try to resolve it.
• It also aims to generate those concepts which explain people’s actions regardless of time and place.
• In grounded theory, the ground theorist selects one category to be the centre or the major one and then tries to relate the other categories with the selected major category.

Symbolic interactionism focuses on the relationships among individuals in a society. It involves the exchange of meaning through language and various symbols. It is believed to be the way in which people make the social world.

The level of measurement refers to the relationship among the values that are assigned to the attributes, feelings, or opinions for a variable. For example, the variable ‘whether the taste of fast food is good’ has a number of attributes, namely, very good, good, neither good nor bad, bad, and very bad.

Typically, there are four levels of measurement scales or methods of assigning numbers:

1. Nominal scale:

• ​​It is the crudest among all measurement scales but it is also the simplest scale.
• In this scale, the different scores on a measurement simply indicate different categories.
• The nominal scale does not express any values or relationships between variables.
• For example, labeling men as ‘1’ and women as ‘2’ which is the most common way of labelling gender for data recording purposes does not mean women are ‘twice something or other’ than men. Nor it suggests that men are somehow ‘better’ than women.

2. Ordinal scale: 

• ​​It involves the ranking of items along with the quantum of the characteristic being scaled.
• In this scale, the items are classified according to whether they have more or less of a characteristic.
• For example, you may wish to ask the TV viewers to rank the TV channels according to their preference and the responses.

3. Interval scale:

• ​​It is a scale in which the numbers are used to rank attributes such that numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal distance in the characteristic being measured.
• For example, the difference between ‘1’ and ‘2’ is equal to the difference between ‘3’ and ‘4’. Further, the difference between ‘2’ and ‘4’ is twice the difference between ‘1’ and ‘2’.

4. Ratio scale:​

• It is the highest level of measurement scales.
• This has the properties of an interval scale together with a fixed (absolute) zero point.
• The absolute zero points allow us to construct a meaningful ratio. Examples of ratio scales include weights, lengths and times.

Hence:

When the subject and predicate of both the premises are the same but they differ in quality as well as quantity, This differing is called opposition. We shall establish various types of relations among the four classes of categorical propositions. This study is restricted to the categorical proposition.

Contradictories: This relation holds good for four pairs of propositions, which differ in quality and quantity.

The relation between A, O, E and I are always contradictory.

Accordingly, if it is true that ‘All rabbits are herbivorous’ then it is false that ‘some rabbits are not herbivorous and if it is false that ‘All rabbits are herbivorous’, then it is true that ‘some rabbits are not herbivorous’.

Hence, All the students cleared their examination” and “Few students did not clear their examination is an instance of Contradictories.

Contrary: This relation holds good ‘only’ between universal propositions, which differ in quality.                                                   

• For example, If “All bats are mammals” is a premise then its conclusion will be “No bats are mammals”.

Superaltern: When a particular conclusion is deduced from a universal proposition without affecting the quality, then superaltern relation holds good between the universal premise and particular conclusion. In this case, the quality of the proposition is irrelevant.

• For example, If “All metals are hard” is a premise then its conclusion will be “Some metals are hard”.

                        If “No fruits are bitter” is a premise then its conclusion will be “Some fruits are not bitter.”

Subaltern: When the premise and the conclusion in superaltern are reversed we obtain subalterns. In other words, when we deduce universal conclusions from a particular premise, the process results in subaltern.

• For example, If “Some planets are small” is a premise then its conclusion will be “All planets are small”

                       If “Some comets are not dense” is a premise then its conclusion will be “No comets are dense”

Ethics are the moral principles or norms that should be followed by everyone irrespective of time and place. Research ethics focus on the moral principles that are to be followed by the researchers in their respective field of research. Stages of research in which ethical considerations become relevant are :

1. Problem selection: 

• when data are selected by the researchers, various problems and risks of an ethical nature may arise.
• The values which are at play are the risk of harming the research subjects physically or psychologically, or of violating their right to personal integrity and self-determination.
• The major ethical issues while selecting problems in research are:
• Informed consent**,**
• Beneficence- Do not harm,
• **Respect for anonymity and **confidentiality
• Respect for privacy.

2. Data Analysis and Interpretation:

• While performing data analysis and interpretation information collected by researchers personally may be damaging to either individuals or a community if disclosed to a third party for their own benefit.
• Collecting data by unfair means or fake data collection and drawing inferences from it ethically wrong.
• To be accurately presented in the research records change or omission of data, manipulation of research processes should be avoided.

NOTE: Hypothesis formulation and testing are non-ethical stages and are dependent on the research question, so the researcher has the liberty to decide the course of action during these stages. 

Conclusion: The issues of research ethics become relevant in Selecting a problem and Data analysis and interpretation. 

The research process consists of a series of actions and steps needed for conducting scientific research, if the researcher follows certain steps in conducting the research, the work can be carried out smoothly with the least difficulty. 

The steps of the research are as follows: 

1. Identification of the Problem: The first and most important step for identifying a problem is asking a question or identifying a need that arises as a result of curiosity and to which it becomes necessary to find an answer.
2. Review of Literature:​ A researcher needs to focus on the related studies and techniques for the research but creativity is not required to do the review of existing literature.
3. Conceptual framework: After reviewing the related literature a researcher requires attentiveness and dedication for the conceptual understanding.
4. Formulating a Hypothesis: “Hypotheses are single tentative guesses, good hunches – assumed for use in devising theory or planning experiments intended to be given a direct experimental test when possible”.While formulating hypothesis there is a desire to get the intellectual joy of doing some creative work, it involves creative thinking.
5. Identifying, Manipulating, and Controlling Variables: Variables are defined as those characteristics which are manipulated, controlled, and observed by the researcher. The study may have extraneous variables. So, the researcher needs to use the imagination skills to identify the most appropriate variables that can help in formulating and structuring the study.
6. Formulating a Research Design: A research design may be regarded as the blueprint of those procedures which are adapted by the researcher for testing the relationship between the dependent variable and the independent variable
7. Constructing Devices for Observation and Measurement: When the research design has been formulated the next step is to construct or collect and choose appropriate tools of research for scientific observation and measurement.
8. Sample Selection and Data Collection: After deciding the tools for the study the research one must also decide about the participants of the study for which purpose usually a small sample is drawn which represents the population.
9. Data Analysis and Interpretation: After making observation the data collected are analyzed with the help of various quantitative and qualitative statistical techniques that requires no creativity.

A classroom is a place where various activities are going on, where interactions take place, social situations are enhanced, and instructional situations.'' The classroom is an established organization in society. The instructional process that goes on in the classrooms serves the purpose of cultivating learners' minds through significant practices accepted by the teachers. 

Classroom teaching is a process that allows teachers to control the learning and direction of their classrooms. In the classroom, teachers keep students focused on learning while preventing disruption from slowing the learning process. Teaching effectiveness and attitude of teachers are mostly analyzed in the case of classroom teaching. Values, Teacher effectiveness, Attitude of teachers towards classroom teaching are considered as the optimum level of efficiency, and productivity on the part of the teacher. 

• The main objective of teaching-learning is to create a conducive classroom environment so that the students learn and grow in more productive ways.
• In the context of classroom teaching, the foundation on which a warm and nurturing relationship with learners can be built on the effect of the teacher. Teachers have a very significant, lifelong impact on all of their students.
• This impact involves not only the teaching of particular academic skills but as importantly, improving student self-esteem is associated with increased motivation and learning.

​Hence, the foundation on which a warm and nurturing relationship with learners can be built called teacher affect.

• Probing refers to, inquiring closely into something by the teacher when the student does not respond.
• Structured teaching refers to physical/visual boundaries, schedules, routines, work systems, and task-related to teaching.
• Feedback in teaching refers to when students respond to how much they have understood.

• Effective classroom communication ensures learning.
• Hence, all the elements of communication, such as verbal and non-verbal communication within the classroom setting should be observed.
• A good communicator should be able to express non-verbal cues appropriately. non-verbal skills include the awareness of eye contact, facial expression, motion, gestures, physical contact, and silence.

Key PointsMicroexpressions:

• A micro-expression is an involuntary facial display of one's true emotion.
• It is much harder to see because it only lasts for a fraction of a second.
• It can be considered as a fleeting (lasting for a very short time) response in classroom communication because it can be as fast as 1/25^th of a second.
• The person who has expressed a microexpression typically is not aware that they have displayed that emotion through a microexpression, and may even wish to conceal it.
• Microexpressions can incorporate the entire face or body, or just a part of the face or body.
• All people and thus certainly teachers and students use facial expressions to form impressions on others.
• Microexpression can be used for both positive and negative feedback.
• Example of negative feedback: A cold hard stare (a kind of staring) has long been in the repertoire of teacher’s weapons (as it can be used as a meaningful tool to control the notorious class or student).
• Example of positive feedback: Similarly, a smile can be a useful tool in reinforcing desired student behaviours (this time in an affirmative way).

Thus, microexpressions, as part of classroom communication are fleeting.

Confusion Points

• Since micro-expressions can be both positive and negative the correct answer is fleeting.
• Micro-expression is also not manipulative but ingenious in nature.

The summary or conclusion is anything that is given at the end of the class. ​A summary is a shorter version of the original. Such a simplification highlights the major points from the much longer subject, such as a text, speech, film, or event. The purpose is to help the audience get the gist in a short period of time. A summary can be used to provide the background to the topic, set the stage, and illustrate the evidence that is supporting the main theme. But all these should be very brief and not at all too elaborate lest the summary. 

A verbal signpost is a written sign that gives an indication or direction. It gives students signs:

• to make clear during the class when a subtopic ends and a new subtopic starts between the class. it makes clear statements such as "let me recap before I move onto my next point".
• indicates when the teacher switches directions and moving toward something else with key phrases: "now let's look at another aspect...", " this being said we will move on to the next..."
• indicates when the teacher is summarizing the topic in between the class.

​Staggered conclusion:

• means the conclusion of the whole content being taught in the class.
• The conclusion allows the teacher to have the final say on the issues that have been raised in the topic, to summarise the issues pertaining to the topic.
• It is an opportunity for the teacher to make a good final impression and to end on a positive note.

A cliched is a phrase or opinion that lacks original thought. the use of a cliché in writing, speech, or argument is considered aa a sign of inexperience or a lack of originality. so the cliched conclusion is also considered as vague and not accurate.

 A verbal breakup means to break something down and divide it into pieces.

Hence, Mini-Summarise at the end of each class is called verbal signposting.

Reasoning is an instrument that helps a person to understand ‘Unknown’ with the help of ‘Known’. The purpose of using reasoning is to always justify decisions and actions.

Deductive reasoning

• It is a basic form of valid reasoning
• The conclusion is guaranteed to be true if the premises are true.
• The conclusion cannot be more general than the premise.
• The product of two consecutive integers is divisible by 2.

Premise: 3 X 4 X 5 =60

Conclusion: Therefore, 4 X 5 =20 is divisible by 2.

• Given the premise that the product of two consecutive integers is divisible by 2 and 4 X 5 =20, it is logical to assume that 20 is divisible by 2.
• In the above example, three consecutive integers are divisible by 2 is true. This argument is valid. So both the premises are true and hence the conclusion is true.
• The conclusions are based on the premises and one of the premises is not true, it follows that the conclusion is not true, even though it is valid.
• If one of the premises is not true, then the conclusion is also not true.

Hence, The product of two consecutive integers is divisible by 2. Therefore, 4 X 5 =20, is divisible by 2. this is an example of deductive reasoning.

Inductive Reasoning

• It is the process of making generalized decisions after observing, or witnessing, repeated specific instances of something.
• It is a relatively quick way to make decisions.
• Conclusions are drawn from the data.
• In this type of reasoning, we go from the specific to general.
• Even if all of the premises are true in a statement, inductive reasoning allows for the conclusion to be false.
• It is used by scientists to form hypotheses and theories.

Abductive Reasoning

• It starts with an incomplete set of observations and proceeds to the possible explanation for the observations.
• It is based on the hypotheses using authentic information.
• In this type of reasoning, an educated guess is made after observing a phenomenon for which there is no clear explanation.
• It is useful for forming hypotheses to be tested.
• It is often used by doctors who diagnose the patient based on test results.

Informal Reasoning

• Informal reasoning refers to the use of logical thought, and the principles of logic, outside of a formal setting.
• Basically, informal logic uses the application of everyday knowledge, education, and thinking skills to analyze and evaluate information.

First letter of every term is vowel A, E, I, O, U

For second term :

Next term is "UH".

Hence, option 1) is the correct answer.

Assertion and reasoning-type questions have one assertion (A) and one reason (R). We must first determine whether the statement is true. If the statement is true, we must next determine whether the reason correctly explains the assertion. 

First, we will consider the statement of Assertion:

For the success of a teacher and student, the teacher should communicate effectively with students, parents, and colleagues. Teachers must have good communication skills to help their students achieve academic success and to understand his or her students. They also need good communication skills to further proceed with their careers in education. Without good communication skills, teachers will not be able to initiate the learning process as well as their own career mobility.

Hence, the statement provided in the assertion is correct.

Now we will consider the statement of Reason:

it is stated that " The ability to understand students ' intended listening are disjoined propositions." Here, the word disjointed means anything with no common elements, but in actual practice both understandings of the students, as well as their intending listening, are interrelated to each other because the student can understand only when he is willingly and intentionally listening to his or her teacher.

Hence, the statement provided in the reason is not correct

Conclusion: We can say that Both (A) is true. But (R) is false.

Logic: Add + 1 in each letter then write reverse letters of the each letter which we get after adding + 1 to get the code.

DIAGRAM

Similarly,

DIAGRAM

Hence, "QHUNYLV"  is the correct answer.

Given: 

Ratio of a and b number is = 3 : 7

Calculation: 

let the ratio be x 

so, numbers a and b are 3x and 7x repectively.

According to the question, 

⇒ (3x + 9)/(7x + 9) = 9/17

⇒ 17 × (3x + 9) = 9 × (7x + 9)

⇒ 51x + 153 = 63x + 81 

⇒ 51x - 63x = 81 - 153 

⇒ -12x = -72

⇒ x = 6 

so, a = 3x = 3 × 6 = 18 

⇒ b = 7x = 7 × 6 = 42 

∴ Number a and b are 18 and 42

A test is an assessment to measure the individual's knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness, or classification in many other topics. It can be verbal or nonverbal. The performance of individuals can be assessed in various ways. There are a variety of assessment techniques. They range from unstructured interviews to structured psychological tests. The main goal of these techniques is to predict job performance. Each technique has its own relative strengths and weaknesses in this regard.

Achievement test

• An achievement test is designed to evaluate a unit during the teaching-learning process.
• The purpose of an achievement test:
• To measure whether students possess the pre-requisite skills needed to succeed in any unit or whether the students have achieved the objective of the planned instruction.
• To monitor students' learning and to provide ongoing feedback to both students and teachers during the teaching-learning process.
• To identify the students' learning difficulties - whether persistent or recurring.
• To assign grades.

Intelligence test

• Intelligence tests can be defined as a test to evaluate the general level of cognitive functions and intellectual ability.
• Intelligence tests are classified on several bases: Individual and Group tests (Target) and Verbal and Nonverbal tests.
• There are many types of intelligence scales:
• Stanford-Binet Test
• Wechsler Intelligence Scales

Aptitude test

• Aptitude tests aim at measuring the potential of a person in a particular field and are mainly designed and used for career and employment decisions.
• Attitude test assesses an individual’s feelings about an event, person, or object.
• Aptitude tests are administered before training is given.
• Aptitude tests are evaluated in terms of predictive validity, how well they can predict a person’s success in a particular area with training.
• Aptitude tests are used in the field of Career counseling, Clinical service, Personnel selection, On job training, Screening for admission, and Curricular planning.
• Examples of aptitude test:

1. Multiple Aptitude Test Batteries

• Differential Aptitude Test (DAT)
• Multidimensional Aptitude Battery (MAB)
• General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB)
• Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB)

2. Tests Measuring Specific Aptitudes
3. Tests Predicting Academic Success in Colleges
4. Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT)
5. Graduate Record Exam (GRE)
6. Miller Analogies Test (MAT)
7. Professional School Tests

Hence, Intelligence tests, aptitude tests, and achievement tests are maximum performance tests in the context of research because they provide in-depth information including cognitive abilities, the potential of a person, intellectual abilities, and knowledge about the sample during the research.

Personality test:

• Assessment is based on the assumption that each individual differs from another in regard to the personality traits. Even if they possess the same traits their behavior will vary in terms of their experiences to different situations and thus a personality assessment will make this very clear as to what actually contributes to this difference and what are typical of a particular person’s personality.
• A personality test serves two purposes – theoretical and practical.
• Theoretically, the personality test provides knowledge about different dimensions and aspects of personality development and provides information about its nature. It provides impetus to research on personality and helps develop new theories about personality.
• The practical purposes of personality tests are to know the strength and weaknesses of a person. It tells which traits in a person are lacking and what are its implications for his adjustment with the environment? It provides help in developing intervention programs for persons who need help to overcome some of their personality based difficulties.

Projective personality test (Free response measures)

• This test attempts to measure personality based on the theory that individuals tend to project their own unconscious attitudes into ambiguous situations.
• These were developed primarily for their uses in clinical psychology with emotionally disturbed individuals yet their effective role is to assess the candidate for high-level executive positions is also undesirable.
• An example of this would be the Rorschach test, in which a person states what each of the ten inkblots might be.
• Other projective tests include Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), the House-Tree-Person Test, Robert’s Apperception Test, and the Attachment Projective.

Attitude scales

• Attitude tests assess an individual’s feelings about an event, person, or object.
• Attitude scales are used in marketing to determine individual (and group) preferences for brands, or items.
• Typically attitude tests use either a Thurston Scale or Likert Scale to measure specific items.
• The attitude of a person is measured while performing a job. various scales are formulated on the basis of it to know about the responses of the people.

"As language is more than words, communication is more than language than " what he indicates is the importance of those accompanying vocal phenomena that constitute the whole gamut of communication.

• Paralinguistics are the aspects of spoken communication that do not involve linguistics, i.e., that language with its grammar, syntax, and phonetics.
• The paralinguistic elements of communication are analyzed as qualities and noises separable from language itself. As found in normal day-to-day communication, the paralinguistic includes, loudness, tempo, pitch, and intonation playing a crucial role in enhancing the meaning of a particular oral delivery.

For example, The plays, being in the written form of language, need better to be analyzed in terms of those vocal phenomena that add something to meaning than merely the so-called sound attributes, viz. stress, pitch, intonation, intensity, etc. Here, the play includes many clues such as loudness and softness of voice, degrees of drawl and clipping of portions of utterance,

⇒ Other than the above, "Paralanguage also includes laughing and crying "through" speech, the breaking of the voice, and the whole gamut of "tuts", clicks, sniffs, snorts, "uh's", "uh-uh's", as an "uh-huh's", these latter termed~the vocal segregates"

Hence, the Pitch of the teacher’s voice in the classroom is described as Paralinguistic.

Classroom communication consists of the verbal and nonverbal transactions between teachers and students and between/among students.

Key Points 

For effective classroom communication, the key elements are typically:

• Proper employment of redundancy - This allows for the repetition of important information, ensuring that students fully grasp the concepts being taught.
• Immediacy of feedback - Providing students with immediate feedback helps address any issues or misconceptions right away, thereby enhancing learning and understanding.
• Non-verbal cues - Such cues can include facial expressions, gestures, and body language, which often communicate more than words themselves. They help in managing the classroom and keeping students engaged.

Additional Information 

• Over-emphasis on certain words: While emphasis can help highlight key points, over-emphasis can lead to a distortion of the message. It might give undue significance to certain parts of the material, which could potentially confuse students. It could also come across as overly aggressive or unbalanced, and can distract from the main message or learning objectives.
• Use of gobbledygook: Gobbledygook refers to language that is meaningless or hard to understand; it often involves jargon, complex phrases, or excessive words. In a classroom setting, communication should aim to be as clear and understandable as possible. Miscommunication or confusion leads to less effective learning, so using gobbledygook is largely unhelpful.

From the table,

Marks obtained by C in Maths = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (100/100) × 100 = 100

Marks obtained by C in chemistry = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (95/100) × 150 = 142.5 

Marks obtained by C in physics = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (95/100) × 100 = 95 

Marks obtained by C in English = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (85/100) × 100 = 85

Marks obtained by C in Physical Education = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (95/100) × 100 = 95 

Total marks obtained by C in all subject = 100 + 142.5 + 95 + 85 + 95 = 517.5

Total maximum marks in all subject = 100 + 150 + 100 + 100 + 100 = 550 

Percentage of marks obtained by C = (total marks obtained by C/ total maximum marks) × 100

⇒ (517.5/550) × 100 = 94.09

∴ Percentage of marks obtained by C is 94.09%

From the table, 

Marks obtained by A in Maths = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (90/100) × 100 = 90 

Marks obtained by A in chemistry = (percentage/100) × maximum marks =  (80/100) × 150 = 120

Marks obtained by A in physics = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (95/100) × 100 = 95

Marks obtained by A in English = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (80/100) × 100 = 80

Marks obtained by A in physical Education = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (90/100) × 100 = 90

Total marks obtained by A in all subject = 90 + 120 + 95 + 80 + 90 = 475

Marks obtained by C in Maths = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (100/100) × 100 = 100

Marks obtained by C in chemistry = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (95/100) × 150 = 142.5 

Marks obtained by C in physics = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (95/100) × 100 = 95 

Marks obtained by C in English = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (85/100) × 100 = 85

Marks obtained by C in Physical Education = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (95/100) × 100 = 95 

Total marks obtained by C in all subject = 100 + 142.5 + 95 + 85 + 95 = 517.5

Difference between the marks obtained by A and C = 517.5 - 475 = 42.5

∴ Required answer is 42.5

From the table,

Marks obtained by A in chemistry = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (80/100) × 150 = 120 

Marks obtained by B in chemistry = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (75/100) × 150 = 112.5 

Marks obtained by C in chemistry = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (95/100) × 150 = 142.5

Marks obtained by D in chemistry = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (70/100) × 150 = 105

Marks obtained by E in chemistry = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (50/100) × 150 = 75 

Total marks in chemistry obtained by all student = 120 + 112.5 + 142.5 + 105 + 75 = 555

Average marks in chemistry obtained by student = 555/5 = 111

Total maximum marks in chemistry = 150 + 150 + 150 + 150 + 150 = 750 

Average maximum marks in chemistry = 750/5 = 150

Average Percentage obtained in chemistry by all students = (Average marks obtained in chemistry/ Average maximum marks in chemistry) × 100

⇒ (111/150) × 100 = 74%

∴ Percentage obtained in chemistry by all the students is 74%

From the table, 

Marks obtained by A in chemistry = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (80/100) × 150 = 120 

Marks obtained by B in chemistry = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (75/100) × 150 = 112.5 

Marks obtained by C in chemistry = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (95/100) × 150 = 142.5

Marks obtained by D in chemistry = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (70/100) × 150 = 105

Marks obtained by E in chemistry = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (50/100) × 150 = 75 

Total marks obtained in chemistry by all student = 120 + 112.5 + 142.5 + 105 + 75 = 555

Average marks obtained by all student in chemistry = 555/5 = 111

Total maximum marks in chemistry = 150 + 150 + 150 + 150 + 150 = 750 

Average maximum marks in chemistry = 750/5 = 150

Average Percentage obtained in chemistry by all students = (Average marks obtained in chemistry/ Average maximum marks in chemistry) × 100

⇒ (111/150) × 100 = 74%

Marks obtained by A in physics  = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (95/100) × 100 = 95 

Marks obtained by B in physics = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (90/100) × 100 = 90 

Marks obtained by C in physics = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (95/100) × 100 = 95

Marks obtained by D in physics = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (60/100) × 100 = 60

Marks obtained by E in physics = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (65/100) × 100 = 65 

Total marks obtained in physics  by all student = 95 + 90 + 95 + 60 + 65 = 405

Average marks obtained by all student in physics = 405/5 = 81

Total maximum marks in physics = 100 + 100 + 100 + 100 + 100 = 500

Average maximum marks in physics = 500/5 = 100 

Average Percentage obtained in physics by all students = (Average marks obtained in Physics/ Average maximum marks in Physics) × 100

⇒ (81/100) × 100 = 81%

Marks obtained by A in English = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (80/100) × 100 = 80 

Marks obtained by B in English = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (70/100) × 100 = 70

Marks obtained by C in English = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (85/100) × 100 = 85

Marks obtained by D in English = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (65/100) × 100 = 65

Marks obtained by E in English = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (50/100) × 100 = 50

Total marks obtained in English by all student = 80 + 70 + 85 + 65 + 50 = 350

Average marks obtained in English by all the student = 350/5 = 70

Total maximum marks in English = 100 + 100 + 100 + 100 + 100 = 500 

Average maximum marks in English = 500/5 = 100

Percentage obtained in English by all students = (marks obtained in English/ total maximum marks in English) × 100

⇒ (70/100) × 100 = 70%

Marks obtained by A in Physical Education = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (90/100) × 100 = 90 

Marks obtained by B in Physical Education = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (80/100) × 100 = 80

Marks obtained by C in Physical Education = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (95/100) × 100 = 95

Marks obtained by D in Physical Education = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (60/100) × 100 = 60

Marks obtained by E in Physical Education = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (70/100) × 100 = 70

Total marks obtained in Physical Education by all student = 90 + 80 + 95 + 60 + 70 = 395

Average marks obtained in Physical education by all the student = 395/5 = 79

Total maximum marks in Physical Education = 100 + 100 + 100 + 100 + 100 = 500 

Average maximum marks in Physical Education = 500/5 = 100

Percentage obtained in Physical Education by all students = (marks obtained in Physical Education/ total maximum marks in Physical Education) × 100

⇒ (79/100) × 100 = 79%

∴ The student obtained lowest average percentage marks in English

From the table, 

Marks obtained by E in Maths = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (60/100) × 100 = 60 

Marks obtained by E in chemistry = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (50/100) × 150 = 75

Marks obtained by E in physics = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (65/100) × 100 = 65 

Marks obtained by E in English = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (50/100) × 100 = 50

Marks obtained by E in Physical Education = (percentage/100) × maximum marks = (70/100) × 100 = 70

Total marks obtained by E in all subject = 60 + 75 + 65 + 50 + 70 = 320

In ancient times, India was a centre of higher learning as it is one of the oldest civilisations in the world. A large number of centres of learning were established across ancient India, of which Nalanda and Takshashila were the most famous and the oldest universities in the world.

Nalanda University:

• It was a large Buddhist Monastery located in Nalanda, Bihar is one of the oldest learning institutions in India. Its origins date back to the 5^th and the 6^th centuries under the Gupta Empire.
• Gautam Buddha is also believed to have delivered sermons at Nalanda. Tibetan historian Taranath referred to Nalanda as ‘the mine of learning’.
• Almost all sciences, including the science of medicine, were taught as well as the Upanishads and the Vedas.
• The insightful knowledge of the Nalanda teachers attracted scholars from China, Korea, Japan, Tibet, Mongolia, Turkey, Sri Lanka and South-East Asia.
• Most of these scholars have left records of the ambience, architecture and learning of the university. The Chinese scholar Xuan Zang carried back a hundred scriptures which were later translated into Chinese.
• According to Tibetan sources, the library, Dharmaganja, comprised three large multi-storeyed buildings named Ratnasagara (Ocean of Jewels), the Ratnodadhi (Sea of Jewels), and the Ratnaranjaka (Jewel-adorned).
• At the end of the 12^th century, Nalanda was destroyed by an army of the Muslim Mamluk Dynasty under Bakhtiyar Khilji. Later on, it was excavated by the Archeological Survey of India (ASI) in the 19^th century.

In ancient times​, the Admission Process at Nalanda University:-

• In ancient times, the admission of students to Nalanda University was difficult.
• The Entrance test was taken by the scholar from the students who wanted to get the admission.
• Only the students who were successful in the examination had the right to enter the university.
• Students did not have to pay any fee to get admission.
• Interpretation of students' residence, food, clothing, etc. was free.

Key Points

Association of Indian Universities- The formation of the Inter-University Board (IUB) of India as an Apex Inter-University Organization on March 23, 1925, in a meeting of Vice-Chancellors/their representatives at Bombay University, was the culmination of the need to bring together all the universities in India on a common platform through a coordinating body, to protect the interest of the students as well as the universities.

1. The objective was to promote university activities, especially by way of sharing information and increasing co-operation in the field of education, culture, sports, and allied areas. Prior to this, having such an organization in India was recommended by the Sadler Commission in 1919 followed by a resolution, made in the Conference of Vice-Chancellors of the Indian Universities convened at Shimla in 1924.
2. The Inter-University Board acquired a legal status with its registration as a Society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860, on September 29, 1967, and was renamed as Association of Indian Universities (AIU) in 1973.
3. The main objective of the AIU is to protect and promote the interest of universities and facilitate university activities especially by way of sharing information and increasing cooperation in the field of culture, sports, and allied areas and help universities in mutual recognition of degrees.

Hence, the Association of Indian Universities provides a common platform to all universities including institutions of national importance.

1. **University Grants Commission (**UGC) 

• Inquire into financial needs, allocate and disburse grants to the universities;
• Establish and maintain common services and facilities;
• Recommend measures for the improvement of university education; and
• Advise on the allocation of grants, the establishment of new universities.
• Serve as a vital link between the Union and state governments and institutions of higher learning.

2) Distance Education Council:

• The Distance Education Council (DEC) has been established in 1991 in accordance with the Indira Gandhi National Open University Act of 1985 (IGNOU Act 1985) to promote and organize and manage the open-university and distance education institutions.
• It mainly maintained the standard and quality of teaching, evaluation, and research that takes place in the distance education systems and Open Universities of India.
• The Distance Education Council which was the erstwhile regulator of Distance Education programs has been dissolved and all regulatory functions are being undertaken by the UGC.

3) Indian Institute of Advanced Study:

• The Indian Institute of Advanced Study Society was registered under the Society Registration Act of 1860, on 6 October 1964, as a result of the common vision between President S. Radhakrishnan, the remarkable philosopher-state minister, and Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. Exactly 54 weeks later, President Radhakrishnan himself originally inaugurated the Institute.
• The primary objective of the Institute was 'to provide an environment suitable for academic research' in the humanities, and the social and natural sciences.

The correct answer is Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)

Important Points

Assertion and reasoning-type questions have one assertion (A) and one reason (R). 

• We must first determine whether the statement is true.
• If the statement is true, we must next determine whether the reason correctly explains the assertion.

First, we will consider the statement of Assertion:

Internet

• The Internet is a worldwide computer network that interconnects, millions of computing devices throughout the world.
• Most of these devices are PCs, and servers that store arid transmit information such as web pages and e-mail messages.
• The Internet is revolutionizing and enhancing the way we as humans communicate, both locally and around the globe.
• Everyone wants to be a part of it because the Internet literally puts a world of information and a potential worldwide audience at your fingertips.

Hence, the statement provided in the assertion is correct.

Now we will consider the statement of Reason:

World wide web

• The WWW is a distributed hypermedia environment consisting of documents from around the world.
• The documents are linked using a system known as hypertext, where elements of one document may be linked to specific elements of another document.
• The documents may be located on any computer connected to the Internet.
• The word "document" is not limited to text but may include video, graphics, databases, and a host of other tools. It is a collection of hyperlinked documents connected via hyperlinks on the internet.

Hence, the statement provided in the reason is also correct.

Conclusion: We can say that Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).

Below is the explanation of the correct match:

 

Therefore, option 4 is the correct answer.

There have been several initiatives by the governments in different parts of the world to establish world-class universities (WCUs). Such initiatives have been attempted only several times and yielded varied results.

1. Autonomous governance: Maintaining the standard of Indian Higher education at par with world-class universities is a challenge that is directly or indirectly linked to the autonomy of Higher education. An autonomous university typically means an Institution regulated by self-governance which exercises independent control over its internal administration, academic affairs, recruitment of teachers and administrative staff, examination, and evaluation.
2. Focused funding: World-class universities are increasing their spending per student at a faster rate than less prestigious universities (spending increased by 15.7 percent on average during the period studied), although the gap is not particularly large. Far more attention should be paid to exactly how money is spent and how institutions are managed – as more money does not guarantee better results.
3. Independent outcome: Many prestigious universities in the world have full autonomous status. However, universities in developing countries are not self-governed and are controlled by their government systems. Good management of higher education reinforced by a supporting regulatory framework, a visionary leadership team, independent culture of excellence, a high spirit of competition in all aspects, and the ability to make work and academic products in accordance with the needs of the community.

​Hence, For the creation of world-class universities, autonomous governance, focused funding and Independent outcome are essential.

The higher education sector has expanded rapidly in the country. Yet there is inequality in growth, access, and distribution. There are various current challenges in the field of higher education in India, some of them are:

• Equity: Access to higher education has remained poor despite the massive expansion of the sector in the country. This is impressive growth. After sustained efforts, the enrolment in schools has gone up significantly; so there is a significant number of first-generation school-goers who are now in their med-school phase. They are likely to enter the portals of higher education.
• Funds: One of the major challenges in higher education across the globe is the escalation in its cost. Besides the tuition, students have to incur expenditure on hostel and mess (living costs), books, e-resources, and other incidental expenses. As a part of the exercise to recover a higher percentage of costs from students' fees, the same has been hiked by almost every university and college, in some cases, quite steeply.
• Examination Reforms: Regulation of the higher education system has been a cause for concern for a long time.  Overall, the university system has become complex, large, and difficult to govern. UGC has formulated plans and guidelines to grant autonomy to deserving institutions

Hence, equity, funds, and examination reforms are the current challenges in the field of higher education in India

In India, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act came into force in 1981 but was amended in 1987 to include noise as an air pollutant.

• Noise is an undesired high level of sound.
• We have got used to associating loud sounds with pleasure and entertainment not realizing that noise causes psychological and physiological disorders in humans.
• The bigger the city, the bigger the function, the greater the noise!! Brief exposure to extremely high sound level, 150 dB or more generated by take-off of a jet plane or rocket, may damage eardrums thus permanently impairing hearing ability. Even chronic exposure to a relatively lower noise level of cities may permanently damage the hearing abilities of humans.
• Noise also causes sleeplessness, increased heartbeat, altered breathing patterns, thus considerably stressing humans.
• As per the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India, noise standard levels (ambient noise levels experienced due to vehicle at the running stage) recommended (day time) for automobiles are 75 dB in industrial areas, 65 dB in commercial areas, 55 dB in residential areas and 50 dB in silence zones.
• In India, the average Noise level reached between 70-95 dBA which is harmful to people living in the metro cities.

Hence, Average noise levels in heavy traffic zones in major cities in India are generally 70-95 dBA of noise levels.

The Internet has created revolutionary changes in this era of Information Technology. It is a one-stop platform to locate any information one is interested in. Searching for specific information is the main purpose of using the Internet and search engines are one such tool.

Search Engines:

• The exponential growth in information databases on the World Wide Web has made it difficult to locate a particular piece of information. A search engine helps to manage, filter, and retrieve the information for their users.
• Search engines are automated tools to search for information from a collection using metadata stored in the database of search engines. It is an information retrieval system and assists in locating information on the web.
• It is a generic term used for the software that ‘searches’ the web for pages relating to a specific query.
• It can help in locating information of relevance on a particular subject by using various search methods.
• Search engines are also defined as online utilities that quickly search thousands of web documents for a word or phrase being searched.
• Search engines are usually accessed using web clients called web browsers.
• Google, Bing, and Yahoo! are the most popular search engines.

Hence, Bing is a search engine.

• Internet: The Internet is the global computer system that interconnects networks, which communicates between networks and computers through the TCP / IP Internet Protocol Suite.
• Skype: Skype is a telecommunications program that offers video chat and voice calls via the internet between computers, laptops, mobile devices, Xbox One, and smartwatches. Instant messenger services are also offered by Skype. Users can transfer pictures, text, video, or audio.
• Acrobat Reader: Adobe Reader is a desktop and mobile application belonging to the Adobe Acrobat family of software. Adobe Acrobat is a family of application software and Web services developed by Adobe Inc. to view, create, manipulate, print, and manage files in Portable Document Format. The family comprises Acrobat Reader, Acrobat, and Acrobat.com.

The correct answer is To provide technology-driven governance.

Key Pointse- Governance:

• E-Governance refers to the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) to enhance the accessibility and efficiency of public services.
• To provide technology-driven governance.
• It promotes transparency by making information easily available online, reducing the chance of corruption and fostering trust.
• E-Governance provides citizens with a more convenient method to access public services, making them available 24/7.
• It also allows for better communication channels between government and citizens, fostering a sense of involvement and community.
• E-Governance reduces operational costs by digitizing various services, making the public sector more efficient.
• Through it, governments can analyze large volumes of data to make better decisions and policies.
• E-Governance also promotes inclusion, as services can be made accessible to remote areas, marginalized groups, and the physically challenged.
• However, challenges like digital illiteracy, infrastructure issues, and cybersecurity threats need to be addressed to fully leverage e-Governance.
• Overall, e-Governance is a key pillar for building smart, citizen-centric governments in the digital era.

An official language comprising a collection of instructions that produce different kinds of output is a programming language. In computer science, programming languages are used to implement algorithms. Most of the languages of programming consist of computer instructions.

• As we know that computers understand the language of 0s and 1s which is called machine language or low-level language. However, it is difficult for humans to write or comprehend instructions using 0s and 1s. This led to the advent of high-level programming languages like Python, C++, Visual Basic, PHP, Java that are easier to manage by humans but are not directly understood by the computer.
• A program written in a high-level language is called source code.
• Language translators like compilers and interpreters are needed to translate the source code into machine language.
• Python uses an interpreter to convert its instructions into machine language so that it can be understood by the computer.

Python: 

• Python is a high-level language. It is a free and open-source language.
• It is an interpreted language, as Python programs are executed by an interpreter.
• Python programs are easy to understand as they have a clearly defined syntax and relatively simple structure.
• Python is case-sensitive. For example, NUMBER and numbers are not the same in Python.
• Python is portable and platform-independent, which means it can run on various operating systems and hardware platforms.
• Python has a rich library of predefined functions.
• Python is also helpful in web development. Many popular web services and applications are built using Python.
• Python uses indentation for blocks and nested blocks.

Deep learning:

• Deep learning is part of a wide family of machine learning processes focused on artificial neural networks with representational learning, which is also known as deep, structured learning.
• Learning can be supervised, partially-supervised, or unsupervised.
• Deep learning is a class of algorithms used in machine learning, which slowly extracts greater features from the raw data.
• For example, lower layers may identify edges in image processing, whereas higher layers identify human-relevant objects, such as numbers or letters or faces.

Machine Learning:

• The study of computer algorithms that automatedly improve through experience is machine learning (ML).
• The artificial intelligence is considered a subset.
• Machine learning algorithms are used in a variety of applications, such as e-mail filtration or computer vision, in which it is difficult or impossible to build conventional algorithms to carry out the required mathematical models. They are known as "Training Dataset" to make predictions or decisions.

Artificial Intelligence:  

• Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the ability of machines to perform cognitive tasks like thinking, perceiving, learning, problem-solving, and decision making;
• It is inspired by the ways people use their brains to perceive, learn, reason out, and decide the action.
• AI is a form of intelligence; a type of technology and a field of study.
• AI theory and development of computer systems (both machines and software) are able to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence.
• Artificial Intelligence covers a broad range of domains and applications and is expected to impact every field in the future.
• Overall, its core idea is building machines and algorithms which are capable of performing computational tasks that would otherwise require human-like brain functions.