CTET Paper 2 Social Science 6th Jan 2022 (English-Hindi) (Previous Year Paper)

Childhood is generally considered to be either a natural biological stage of development or a modern idea or invention. It is generally referred to as the pre-school or school period.

Key Points Childhood:

• Social Constructionism seeks to understand how children and childhood knowledge is constructed, by whom, why, and most substantially what purpose it would serve.
• It emphasizes the diversity of situations and circumstances in which childhood is experienced.
• According to contemporary socio-constructivist theorists, the concept of childhood is a social construction because it is a theory of knowledge in sociology and communication that evaluates the development of the child based on assumptions of reality.
• Social constructivism is an approach that tells about the importance of social interaction and context in learning. It approaches learning that holds that people actively construct or make their knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of the learner.

Thus by all these references, we can say that childhood is a social construct.

Additional Information

• Early childhood: covers the period from 2 to 6 years. It is also known as the preschool stage. The child who has become mobile is now able to widen the sphere of activities beyond the immediate family. Through interaction with the wider society and the environment, the child learns the rules of appropriate social behavior and develops mental abilities which prepare him/her for formal education and schooling.
• Later childhood: During this stage children develop marked negativism and because of their desire for independence seldom obey their parents. The child begins going to school and learns the rudiments of knowledge essential for successful adult life. The peer group assumes great significance and children of this age 'crowd together, thus earning the name gang age'.

Childhood is generally considered to be either a natural biological stage of development or a modern idea or invention. It is generally referred to as the pre-school or school period.

• The idea that childhood is socially constructed refers to the understanding that childhood is not a natural process. rather it is a society that decides when a child is a child and when a child becomes an adult.

Key Points When sociologists say that ‘childhood is socially constructed’ they mean that the ideas we have about childhood are created by society, rather than being determined by the biological age of a ‘child’.

• There are differences in every culture and society,  which affect childhood.

Some of the aspects of childhood which are influenced by the society include:

• The length of childhood and the moment a child becomes an adult.
• The status of children in society – their rights and responsibilities, what legal protections/ restrictions we place on them.
• The general ideas we have about children – for example, whether we think they are innocent and in need of protection, or resilient and in need of freedom to explore and develop by themselves as far as possible.
• Thus by all these references, we can consider that childhood as culture-specific and socially constructed.

Additional Information Lev Vygotsky is a Russian Psychologist who proposed the theory of Socio-cultural development. In this theory, Vygotsky emphasizes the role of society and culture in the development of the child. 

• According to Lev Vygotsky, the development of children depends on three factors.
• Social interaction- Society plays an important role in the development and knowledge gained by the child.
• Language- Language development in a child should be done by the environment, engagement in family, etc.
• Culture - culture plays an important role in the development of a child, a child behaves as same as they learn from their culture, society, and environment.

The constructivist approach is based on the idea that meaningful learning takes place when learners actively construct their knowledge.

• The central idea of the constructivist frame is that learners learn through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.

Key Points Central ideas of the constructivist frame:

• Children are active explorers or problem solvers of the environment.
• Children are little scientists and markers of meaning.
• Children are builders and creators of new knowledge.
• Children are born to be like 'scientific investigators' and 'problem solvers'.
• Children’s thinking is qualitatively different from that of adults not quantitatively.
• Children learn through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.
• Children are born to construct the meaning of their environment through social interaction.

Thus by all these references, we can consider that, In the constructivist structure, the child is viewed as a problem solver and a scientific investigator.

According to Piaget, cognitive development takes place at different rates at different stages of development. At the elementary level, there is not only an increase in children's capacity to learn but also a qualitative change in their thinking process. Piaget has classified the whole continuum into four stages to elaborate on the process of cognitive development.

• Sensory Motor Period (0-2 years)
• Pre-operational period (2-7 years)
• Concrete operation period (7- 11 years)
• Formal operational period (11-15 years) ​

Key Points The Formal Operational Period: Formal operational period is the fourth stage of Piaget's classification which starts at about the age of 11 years and continues till about the age of 15 years. At the stage of concrete operation (7-11 years), the child requires mainly four important cognitive processes: Mental representation, Conservation, Class inclusion, and Multiple classifications.  

 Characteristics of formal operational period:

• A stage of thinking about the thinking process rather than merely thinking about the context of thought.
• A stage of applying different and flexible ways to think about ideas.
• A stage of real versus possible. Children do not think only about concrete things but start thinking about imaginary things and possible occurrences.
• When children start thinking systematically and methodically.
• At when elementary level children can use deductive logic, and abstract thinking while at the primary level children prefer inductive logic.

Thus by all these references, we can consider that during the **formal operational stage (11 years and above) a child begins to think logically about abstract propositions.**​

Additional Information

Learning may be defined as a relatively durable change in behavior due to experience. Thus, if the change in behavior is temporary, or due to instinct or maturation, it is not learning. The key feature of learning is experience.

• Any change in behavior in the absence of practice or experience does not qualify as learning.

Key Points Observational learning: Observational learning refers to the process of change in the behavior of one person simply by being exposed to another person’s behavior. This second person is known as the model.

• Example: A child watches their parent folding the laundry, Baking cake by understanding the steps from a video or youtube.

Hence we can say that Baking cake by understanding steps from youtube is an observation type of learning because here the learning is based on observing others.

Important Points  Factors affecting the observational learning are:

• attention
• retention
• motor reproduction
• motivation

Additional Information

• The term classical conditioning is defined as learning by association, whereby a neutral stimulus, by virtue of its occurrence in close time and space with a natural stimulus that gives rise to a natural response, becomes capable of eliciting that natural response, even in absence of the natural stimulus.
• Skinner defined operant conditioning as the process of learning that elicits operant behavior. According to Skinner, there are two types of behaviors, namely respondent behavior, and operant behavior.
• Insight learning refers to the sudden realization of a problem’s solution. Kohler proposed that not all kinds of learning depend on trial-error or conditioning, we use our cognitive processes also to learn. Using cognitive processes we visualize the problem and solution for it internally only. Even though this learning takes place implicitly but the change in the behavior is long-lasting.

Jean Piaget studied cognitive development among children of different age groups in different developmental stages, According to Piaget, development is based on Physical environment and Biological abilities, he ignores social Aspects. he categorized it into different developmental stages. These stages are-

• Sensory-motor stage (0 to 2 years)
• Pre-operational stage (2 to 7 years)
• Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years)
• Formal Operational stage (11+ years to adolescence).​

Key PointsPre-operational stage: According to Jean Piaget this is a stage in a child in which a child gains Irreversibility, perceptual centration, language development, Egocentrism, and animism.

• During this period, children are thinking at a symbolic level but are not yet using cognitive operations.
• In this child shows “Centration”. They focus on one characteristic of an object and base their decisions or judgment on that only.
• The child begins to understand that symbols represent certain aspects of reality.
• The children at this stage use a symbolic representation which is the ability to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for something other than itself.
• Children develop memory, curiosity, and imagination.
• They are also able to understand things symbolically (playing house, having a tea party).
• Thinking is egocentric and doesn’t consider others’ viewpoints.

Thus by all these references, we can conclude that child can answer by analyzing the count of wooden weeds in the pre-operational stage.

Additional Information

Lev Vygotsky is a Russian Psychologist who proposed the theory of Socio-cultural development. In this theory, Vygotsky emphasizes the role of society and culture in the development of the child. According to him, there are three main needs for the development of the child and these are- Social interaction, Culture, and Language.

Key PointsVygotsky also proposed three basic needs of students during learning, these are: ZPD (zone of proximal development), Scaffolding, MKO (more knowledgeable others)

• Scaffolding: Scaffolding is the term, given by Vygotsky, in which he proposed that the temporary help given by the teachers, family, friends, etc. to the children in his learning.
• Thus we can conclude that according to Vygotsky, scaffold children’s thinking is a primary role of the teacher.

Important Points

• ZPD (zone of proximal development):  The difference between the learning of a child by self and the learning of a child with the help of others(society, culture, etc).
• MKO (more knowledgeable others)- Vygotsky defined the “More Knowledgeable Other” (MKO) as anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, particularly in regards to a specific task, concept, or process. MKO could be teachers, parents, tutors, and even peers.

Hint

• Learning should not be based on memorization. Memorization makes negative impact on student's learning.

Additional Information  According to Vygotsky, there are three main factors that affect the learning of the child and these are- Social interaction, Culture, and Language:

• Social interaction: ​​Children try to interact with people.
• Example: Peer groups, family members, etc.
• Culture: ​Children adopt the culture by interaction.
• Language: Children can easily intimate their primary language through interaction or communication.

Lev Vygotsky is a Russian Psychologist who proposed the theory of Socio-cultural development. In this theory, Vygotsky emphasizes the role of society and culture in the development of the child. According to him, there are three main needs for the development of the child and these are- Social interaction, Culture, and Language.

Key Points

According to Vygotsky, there are three main factors that affect the cognitive development of the child and these are- Social interaction, Culture, and Language:

• Social interaction: ​​Children try to interact with people.
• Example: Peer groups, family members, etc.
• Culture: ​Children adopt the culture by interaction.
• Language: Children can easily intimate their primary language through interaction or communication.

Hence we can conclude that social interaction is the primary/main factor influencing cognitive development according to Lev Vygotsky.

Hint

• Reinforcement: Reinforcement is something that enhances the strength of the response and prompts repetitions of the behavior that preceded reinforcement.
• Cognitive conflict is a psychological state involving a discrepancy between cognitive structures and experience or between various cognitive structures (i.e., mental representations that organize knowledge, beliefs, values, motives, and needs).
• Maturation refers to the unfolding of an individual's inherent traits or potential. It is a natural process of becoming emotionally, mentally, and physically mature through an Interplay between heredity and environment.

The gradual formation of an individual's concepts of right and wrong, conscience, ethical and religious values, social attitudes, and behavior is called moral development.​

 The theory of a child's moral development is proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg in 1958. he describes the theory on 3 different levels and these 3 levels are further classified into 6 stages.

Key Points

• Stage 6: The Universal Ethical Principle Orientation: Right is defined by the decision of the conscience in accordance with self-chosen ethical principles appealing to logical comprehensiveness, universality, and consistency. These are universal principles of justice, reciprocity, quality of human rights, and respect for the dignity of human beings as individual persons.

Thus the reason of the adolescent "if Heinz does not do everything he can to save his wife, then he is putting some value higher than the value of life" comes under the universal ethical Principle orientation stage of Kohlberg moral development theory.

Important Points Stages of Kohlberg's moral development theory:

• Stage-I: The Punishment and Obedience Orientation: The physical consequences of an action determine whether the action is good or bad regardless of the human value or the meaning of these consequences. Avoidance of punishment and deference to power are valued in their own right, not in terms of respect for the underlying moral order.
• Stage-2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation: Right action consists of that which instrumentally satisfies one's own needs and occasionally the needs of others.
• Stage 3: Good boy - Nice Girl Orientation: Good behavior is that which pleases or helps others and is approved by them. Behavior at this stage is frequently judged by intentions - "he means well", becomes important for the first time. One earns approval by being good to others.
• Stage-4 Law and order orientation: There is an orientation towards authority, fixed rules, and maintenance of social order. Right behavior consists of doing one's duty, showing respect for established or lawful authority, and maintaining given social order for its own sake.
• Stage 5: The Social Contract, Legalistic Orientation:  in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society. Apart from what is constitutional and democratically agreed upon the right is a matter of personal values. The result is based upon a legal point of view but with a Right to Education emphasis upon the possibility of changing the law in terms of consideration of social utility

The meaning of "progressive education" depends on the meaning assigned to the word 'progress'. Progress implies movement and movement involves changes in some direction. 'progressive education, is that body of educational thought nourished in the fertile mind of John Dewey. ​

Key PointsCharacteristics of progressive learning:

• The child already has acquired some experiences from his/her interaction with the environment
• Education plays a role in reconstructing these experiences in the required direction in order to add meaning to those experiences.
• Flexibility in school curriculum, learning process, school organizations.
• ‘Reconstruction of experience’ by themselves results in knowledge which further helps in understanding subsequent knowledge through subsequent experiences.
• Experiment-based activities are the main feature of progressive education children can learn through direct interaction with things, and learn conceptually.
• The values, ideals, goals, mores, traditions, and the culture of a society are inculcated in a child through education in order to make him/her an effective member of the society.

So, flexibility in school curriculum and organization shows that school holidays coincide with festivals and the weekly off is in tune with the local bazaar, so that the learners can enjoy their holiday.

Hint

• Ignorance towards the student's education can not facilitate the learning process of the learners, also this is not a characteristic of Progressive education.
• In progressive education cultural of the school and the home of every individual should be inter-linked so that they can easily understand their concepts.

Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that people are not born with all of the intelligence they will ever have. It includes eight types of intelligence.​

Key Points Intrapersonal Intelligence is the ability to understand oneself and know one’s thoughts, emotions, feelings, motives, and desires, and how these influence their behavior.

• capacity to understand one's own feelings, fears, and desires.
• ability to understand oneself including motivation and emotions.
• potentiality to plan, regulate, and manage one's own life effectively.

Thus, we can consider that Intrapersonal Intelligence is the ability to be aware of one’s own emotional state, feeling, and motivations.

Important Points

• Linguistic Intelligence refers to the ability to use language. It is the capacity to use spoken and written words in a skilled way.
• Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to use logical reasoning and mathematical ability. Individuals high in this intelligence have good abstract reasoning, critical thinking, and good in dealing with numbers.
• Musical Intelligence is the ability to use rhythms, sounds, and patterns to create, compose and perform music. It involves sensitivity to music, and the ability to recognize and manipulate musical patterns.
• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the ability to use and control one’s body movements and actions.
• Spatial Intelligence is the capacity to perceive, understand and use spatial and visual information effectively. Such people are good at spatial orientation, forming visual images and patterns.
• Interpersonal Intelligence refers to the ability to understand others and social interactions. They can understand the emotions and the perspectives of others and relate well to others.
• Naturalistic Intelligence is the ability to recognize and understand the various patterns in nature. It includes sensitivity to nature with all its features including flora, fauna, and biodiversity.

Gender Schema theory is a cognitive-based theory which was introduced by Sandra Bem in 1981. The use of the information processing approach to explain how gender development occurs is called the Gender Schema Theory.

Key Points Gender schema theory:

• It emphasizes the child as an active processor of information and that the gender schemas that guide thinking also influence children's behavior.
• The crucial power of gender schema theory is in the understanding it provides about the continuation and strength of gender beliefs.
• Further, research shows that gender schemas guides children's preferences, toy choices, and play partner choices.

Thus we all these references we can consider that gender schema theory explains that how children learns the gender roles.

Hint

• The psychosexual stages of development is proposed by Sigmund Freud.

First-generation school-goers mean those children who are the first in their generation from a family who are going to school. Their parents have completed formal education till the primary level. They have much belief in school and coaching classes.

Key Points Teachers should have to do of First-generation school goers-

• They have to treat as a family member of the child.
• The teacher should respect the needs and the interest of the students.
• The teacher should respect the culture and environment of the child, and also used different techniques to familiarize the learners with the language and culture of the school.
• Teachers should have to use different methods of teachings such as play way methods, hand-on-activities, etc.
• The environment of the classroom should be according to the children's needs and interests.

Thus we can say that teacher should have to plan activities with respectful considerations of first generation school goer students socio-cultural background.

Hint

• Teacher should never promote the students to take private tuition, they should have to teach all the thinks in the classroom.
• Teacher should not send the first generation school goers to the special school, they should also be taught in the same classroom with others.

National Education Policy 2020- According to NEP 2020, A good educational institution is one in which every student feels welcomed and cared for, where a safe and stimulating learning environment exists, where a wide range of learning experiences are offered, and where good physical infrastructure and appropriate resources conducive to learning are available to all students.

Key PointsSome important fundamental principles of the NEP 2020 are- 

• Full equity and inclusion as the cornerstone of all educational decisions to ensure that all students are able to thrive in the education system.
• It includes the overall development of the leader, it covers all three aspects as Cognitive domain, affective domain, and psychomotor domain.
• Emphasis on conceptual understanding rather than rote learning and learning-for-exams.
• Assessment of the students should be done by using different methods, by different activities including role play, portfolios, etc.
• Promoting self-assessment and the peer assessment done by the student in the classroom.
• Respect for diversity and respect for the local context in all curriculum, pedagogy, and policy, always keeping in mind that education is a concurrent subject.
• Establishment of the linkage of the concepts with the environment or we can say that the linkage of the school with the home.
• Promoting multilingualism and the power of language in teaching and learning.
• Creativity and critical thinking encourage logical decision-making and innovation.
• It emphasizes group work as well as individual work, NEP 2020 links the study to the curriculum.

Thus we can consider that NEP(2020) proposes comprehensive assessment of students using a variety of methods including portfolios and role plays.

Critical thinking means one looks at the available evidence and evaluates it. It is not possible to find an answer to a question just on the basis of the opinions of one’s friends and family which may be quite misleading. Instead, it is important to consider all possible evidence: data gathered through primary research, information available in existing research, and perspectives of different experts and stakeholders.

• For example, if the government has to consider how to prepare for an epidemic.

Key Points The brainstorming method was developed by Alex F. Osborn. It is the oldest and best-known technique for stimulating creative thinking. ​It is the most fruitful exercise to solve complex and critical problems.​

• Within the given time, the student must create ideas using critical thinking which focuses on applying reasoning and logic to new or unfamiliar situations, ideas, and opinions.
• Students present, share and analyze their understanding and look at any issues from different angles and others' points of view.
• It helps to achieve the higher order of cognitive objectives as it just demands the active participation of the child in the learning process by making them think and note the ideas in their own style.
• It makes students able to take others' perspectives as in brainstorming, many creative minds work together and apply their diverse thinking patterns to generate creative ideas on a particular topic.

Hence by all these references we can say that Brainstorming method promotes the critical thinking of the students.

Hint

• Direct instruction based learning method never promotes critical thinking of the students, it can stuck the knowledge of the students at a fix position.
• Copying answer form black board is a type of activity in which child never use their cognition to understand they just see and copied it so it also never promotes critical thinking of the students.
• Writing same thing multiple times is not a conceptual way of learn, it is a another type of rote learning.

Giftedness refers to talent. The gifted students are essentially exceptional and generally show consistency in their performances and exhibit superiority in general intelligence. They are intrinsically motivated with high self-esteem.

Key Points Characteristics of giftedness children:

• They perform tasks extraordinarily when compared with others of their peer group.
• They are independent in their judgments as they possess advanced logical and creative thinking.
• Gifted children are exceptionally curious and have a thirst for knowledge in order to satisfy their own curiosity.
• They always perform their best and always urge for precision.
• Their concepts were fully cleared and they give tries to give their best in all the tasks.

Hence by all these references, we can conclude that gifted children never want to show their absorption of information.

Important Points A gifted child, when compared with same age group children/peers:

• Finds pleasure in intellectual activities.
• Likes to create, invent, investigate, and conceptualize.
• Learns easily and readily.
• Displays great intellectual curiosity and inquisitiveness.
• Explores wide-ranging and special interests often in great depth.
• Uses vocabulary which is superior in both quantity and quality.
• The richness of imagery in informal language and brainstorming.
• Learns to read early ( often well before school age).
• Displays intellectual and physical restlessness. Once encouraged is seldom a passive learner
• Seeks out challenge.
• Shows alertness and quick response to new ideas.

The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 is the disability legislation passed by the Indian Parliament to fulfill its obligation to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which India ratified in 2007.

• The Act replaced the existing Persons With Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995.

Key Points  The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 Act stipulates that all educational institutions funded or recognized by appropriate Government and local authorities should provide inclusive education to the children with disabilities and towards that end shall –

• admit them without discrimination and provide education and opportunities for sports and recreation activities equally with others
• make building, campus, and various facilities accessible
• provide reasonable accommodation according to the individual's requirements
• provide necessary support individualized or otherwise in environments that maximize academic and social development consistent with the goal of full inclusion
• ensure that the education to persons who are blind or deaf or both is imparted in the most appropriate languages and modes and means of communication
• detect specific learning disabilities in children at the attainment levels and completion of the education in respect of every student with a disability
• monitor participation, progress in terms of attainment levels, and completion of the education in respect of every student with a disability
• provide transportation facilities to the children with disabilities and also the attendant of the children with disabilities having high support needs.

Hence by all these references, we can conclude that inclusion is advocated by the Right of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016

Inclusive education ensures that children with special needs are taught in regular schools with their age and grade peers with support services provided within the school system. Thus, it reflects the objective of providing quality education to all children by accommodating their needs and learning styles into the general curriculum.

Key Points  Basic Principles of Inclusive Education:

• It promotes Multiple ways of representation of content.
• Students can engage in the learning process in multiple ways.
• Flexibility in curriculum towards individual differences.
• The classroom is diverse and students and teachers can express their opinions in Multiple ways.
• It should make/modify the system per the needs of the students so that the learners can take an interest to be involved in it.
• It respects multiple languages and cultures.
• Use of specific pedagogical strategies.
• hence we can consider that modifying the curriculum/system can make a way to include learners.

Important Points   The main objectives of inclusive education are-

• All the students of different abilities, differences, and disabilities are treated equally.
• Inclusive education provides barrier-free access for all students.
• All types of students have a right to learn under the same roof, whether they are from backward, marginalized, or disabled classes or they are brilliant, creative, critical thinkers, etc.
• Creating an environment in which the child can learn with diversity, not creating a special environment for learning.
• Equitable education for all, including challenging, backward, disabled children.
• Emphasis on their learning to read instead of emphasizing teaching.
• To use different teaching methods according to the needs of each student, so that every child can have access to the knowledge.

Additional Information Aims of inclusive education-

• Provide equal opportunities to all the students.
• Promotes Unity in diversity.
• Embrace all students irrespective of race, gender, disability, medical or other needs.
• Not categorized the students on the bases of their talent, performance, etc.

Learning Disability is a generic term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition.

• Learning disabilities mean a heterogeneous group of conditions wherein there is a deficit in processing language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself as a difficulty to comprehend, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations and includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, dyspraxia, and developmental aphasia’.

​ 

Key Points Dyscalculia is a mathematical disability. In this disability, the learner has difficulty in learning or comprehending mathematics. There are many signs which would indicate that the learner may have dyscalculia, these are:

• have trouble counting.
• have trouble arranging the things in order or sequence.
• shows the difficulty in understanding fractions.
• Does not understand how to use steps in a mathematical operation.
• have trouble understanding concepts of quantity, place value, and positive and negative values.
• Having trouble in comparing two or, more numbers, connecting numbers and their symbols.
• have trouble understanding the concepts of months, weeks, days, etc.
• have trouble adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing.
• So by all these references, we can consider that dyscalculia is the earning disability in which a learner faces problems related to numbers and their applications.

Additional Information Some Other Common Learning Disabilities in Children:

Inclusion in education means education for all children in school as it refers to the inclusion of all children in the education system, regardless of their differences and disabilities.

• ‘Locomotor Disability’ refers to a person’s inability to execute distinctive activities associated with the movement of self and manipulation of objects resulting from affliction of the musculoskeletal and/or nervous system.

Key Points Characteristics of the inclusive education:

• Inclusive education can help break the cycle of poverty and exclusion.
• It makes the curriculum flexible and easy to access the infrastructure for the students.
• It encourages children to stay with their families and communities.
• The school atmosphere can improve to the benefit of all the learners.
• The practice can help overcome discrimination which is widespread in every sphere of society.
• The evaluation of the students is a comprehensive way, not o a particular ability/disablility.
• No segregation of children with learning/physical disabilities, children who are socially, economically, culturally, marginalized children, gifted, creative, and linguistically disadvantaged.
• The education system will make suitable modifications to suit the needs of children.
• Students are never made to feel inadequate as curricular and co-curricular activities are modified to the requirement of specific.
• All the required support will be made available to the students in the regular classroom.
• **Thus we can say that if a student has a locomotor disability that he can not easily access the infrastructure of inclusive education.**​

Important PointsSome common conditions that can cause locomotor disability are

• Soft Tissues
• Muscular Dystrophies
• Dwarfism
• Spinal Injuries
• Injuries of Head
• Amputation
• Fractures.

The classroom environment is one of the important factors which is responsible for meaningful learning and also learning for mastery. The classroom environment decides the interest and curiosity of the student towards learning and concept. 

Key Points  The classroom environment should be:

• focusing on high student engagement and involvement.
• cooperative and collaborative.
• The learners also know that they are valued as individual if the environment of the classroom is positive.
• providing enough freedom for the students to explore and learn.
• The value is given to all individuals as per their needs not as per their appearances, personalities, and achievements.
• giving more importance to the whole process than only to the product.
• facilitating and free.

Thus by all these references, we can consider that if the classroom climate is positive then the value to all the learners is given on an individual basis.

Additional Information Characteristics of the effective classroom:

• Student Engagement:
• A well-managed classroom will keep the students engaged at all times in the learning process.
• Students are involved in the learning process, which helps foster higher-level thinking skills in students.
• Teaching creatively, i.e interesting lessons, and activities can be a major factor in student engagement.
• Clear Expectations: 
• Expectations such as class objectives are clear in a well-managed classroom.
• Students know the material they will be tested on, as well as the teacher's expectations for the various assignments they will be graded on.
• A good way to ensure that students are clear on what the class objectives are is to write the daily tasks on the board at the beginning of each lesson, as well as write any exam dates in a place that students can see regularly.
• Effective Time Management:
• The students know which areas in the classroom are accessible to them, as well as where items are placed in the classroom.
• Positive Environment:
• A positive classroom environment is one of the main characteristics of a well-managed classroom.
• Students are comfortable asking the teacher questions, and a lively student-teacher interaction is found.
• The classroom environment is also stress-free to ensure a good workflow and positive environment.
• Collaborative and cooperative environments encourage students' mixed abilities.
• Firm Discipline:
• Students have clear and firm guidelines on which behaviors are allowed in the classroom to remain disciplined and encourage an efficient workflow.
• Students should also be given positive reinforcement and praise for appropriate behavior and good work to help encourage them and others in the classroom

Teaching and learning are closely related terms, and, in the teaching-learning process, the teacher, the learner, the curriculum, and other variables are organized in a systematic way to obtain pre-determined goals.

• The objective of the teaching-learning process is to enable students and teachers to create and manage learning situations that provide effective learning experiences in extension and development work.

Key Points These are some objectives that can facilitate the teaching-learning process:

• Allows learners to foster their own strategy of learning to perform a task.
• Provides ample opportunities for learners to make them work at their own pace.
• Prior learning and experiences of the learners can improve the teaching-learning process, by connecting the concepts with the previous concepts.
• The activities are interactive and student-centered and the environment is democratic.
• In this process, the incoming new knowledge and the prior knowledge of the learner pertaining to the topic get integrated, and as a result, knowledge, and skills are constructed.
• The learning can only take place according to the learning aptitude of the learner, the teacher uses innovative methods and strategies to facilitate the positive learning aptitude of the learner.
• Hence  by all these references, we can conclude that connecting concepts with the previous knowledge of the students can facilitate the teaching-learning process;

Learning is a process of continual adaptation to the environment and assimilation and accommodation of new information and knowledge to fit in with pre-existing knowledge structures. It is a process by which behavior is either modified or changed through experience or training. 

• Active learning is a situation where children construct their knowledge by their active engagement in the learning process. It is in contrast to objectivism, where knowledge was supplied by a teacher or a more learned person to a young learner or less knowledgeable person.

Key Points Teachers should encourage active engagement of learners by:

• Making the classroom child-centered.
• Provides many opportunities to all the learners to make their knowledge best.
• Engage the learners in social activities, teamwork, etc.
• Promoting thoughts of the students and encouraging them to ask questions and enquiring about the given concept.
• Promotes learners to share their thoughts.
• Hence by all these references, we can consider that these are the methods of by which a teacher can facilitate the teaching-learning process of the students.

Hint

• Recall-based learning should not be encouraged by the teachers because this can hinders conceptual knowledge.
• Teachers should also engage in the teaching-learning process actively, they should not have to give only instructions to the students.
• Rewards and Punishments are short-term motivation, the teacher should have to use those methods which makes the curiosity in the students intrensically.

A constructivist approach is an approach to learning which gives primacy to collaborative learning by involving learners in discussion and projects related to real-life situations.

Key Points Some important objectives of learning in the classroom:

• Learning is a lifelong process so it should be given to the students based on concepts.
• The curriculum should be designed by the teachers as per the needs and interests of the students.
• Students learn by interaction more than by textbooks, so the environment of the classroom should be socially constructivist.
• Students should be the center of the classroom so that everything in the classroom is done with the reference to students' capabilities.
• The nature of the classroom should be child-centered instead of teacher-centered.
• Various methods of teaching should be taken so that students can learn conceptually.
• The teacher should have to respects all the students and also pay attention to the needs of every individual.
• Learning and knowledge are constructed as well as transmitted so that the nature of the classroom should be collaborative.
• Learning should be of diverse nature, teachers should promote students of different cultures and environments to learn under the same roof.
• Thus we can consider that there are many sources of learning rather than textbooks, learners should also construct their knowledge through collaborative learning also, hence we can consider that Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Thinking is the basis of all cognitive activities or processes and is unique to human beings. It involves the manipulation and analysis of information received from the environment. There are different kinds of thinking styles which include creative, logical, concrete thinking, etc.

Critical thinking is a process that challenges an individual to use reflective, reasonable, rational thinking to gather, interpret, and evaluate information in order to derive a judgment. 

Key Points John Dewey defines critical thinking as “reflective thought” rather than routine though, it’s the process of “active, persistent, and careful consideration” of the credibility and conclusions of supposed knowledge or information.

• Critical thinking develops the logic to solve the problem so that a student can learn conceptually by critical thinking.
• Direct involvement of the students in the problem related to critical problems.
• Critical thinking can be developed by facilitating discussion on real-life examples.
• It encourages divergent thinking among the students, student covers all the possible aspects related to solving the problem.
• Critical thinking can be developed by encouraging students for reflecting on different perspectives.
• The thinkers reach the solution by involvement in different aspects, such as searching, finding, etc.
• Hence by all these references, we can say that connecting concepts with real-life examples and encouraging students for reflecting on different perspectives can improve their critical thinking of the learners.

Hint

• Egocentrism is the inability to differentiate between self and others. The child only thinks about himself and not what other people need or want. That is they cannot take cognizance of other people’s views.
• Misconceptions refer to a wrong or inaccurate idea that takes place due to the mismatch in previously assimilated and the newly accommodated knowledge.

Important Points Few methods that a teacher can think of in order to inculcate the skill of critical thinking in the students:

• Engage students in problem-solving situations by providing problems that have multiple solutions.
• Do reward students who come up with innovative ideas.
• Develop the quality of persistence. Do not get bored while solving problems.
• Develop a risk-taking ability and engage in creative activities.
• Avoid the rigid and fixed patterns of solving problems.
• Promote interaction with teachers and among peers.

Problem-solving is a mental process that constitutes analyzing, discovering, and solving problems. The broad aim of problem-solving is to find the best solution to resolve the issue at hand.

Key Points Barriers to problem-solving include: 

• Confirmation Bias- It focuses on when the learner does not follow the problem-solving method. It can result in missing steps or not using them in the correct order. It can also arise when the solver takes the approach to confirming a preconceived solution (perspective and intellectual blocks).
• Mental Set- This comes when the solver relies heavily on the rule of thumb or common sense rather than making efforts to look for the best solution.
• Functional Fixedness – It is about having a narrow mindset. Here the solver assumes the object just has one function and hence doesn’t make use of the object to solve the problem at hand.
• Affective response - It happens when a solver tries to solve a problem at hand by focusing on the previous emotions or take decisions in the heat of the moment.
• Irrelevant information – It happens when a person focuses too much on irrelevant information and hence diverging themselves from the main problem.
• Thus we can say that functional fixedness can make a barrier to problem-solving.

Hint

• Means-end analysis: It is a problem-solving strategy that refers to envisioning the end or ultimate goal to determine the best strategy to achieve a goal by solving a problem.
• Heuristics is a mental shortcut that makes the process of problem-solving and decision-making quick and efficient.
• Backward explorations: It is a process in which we analyze the previous solutions of a problem, apply them to the problem and check which is the relevant one.

Errors are the faults made by the student during their learning. Errors help students to find out their weak point of view regarding the problem and also make a chance to improve their learning. Errors are made because of the different thought processes of the students regarding the problem.

Key Points Some important points which are helpful for the students to reduce their errors:

• Errors analysis help teachers to understand the weak lesson of the students so that they can improve them by applying different teaching-learning methods.
• Errors can be removed by conceptual learning, meaningful learning, learning by doing, etc.
• Errors can also be reduced by asking the students or engaging them in the process of problem-solving methods of errors.
• Errors are part of the teaching-learning process teacher should respect students and errors and explain the logic behind the errors in a polite way.
• Errors can also be removed by engaging students in different types of activities related to concepts so that students can learn from these activities.
• Teachers should have to provide opportunities to all these students to find errors in their learning by themselves,
• Errors facilitate the teaching-learning process in which a teacher gets to the point where a student makes faulty so that he focuses more on that type of conceptual point.
• Hence by all these references, we can consider that asking them about the process of solving problems is an effective strategy to reduce the errors of the students.

Important Points  Characteristics of errors performed by the children:

• Errors are part of the teaching-learning process and make the thoughts of the students divergent.
• Errors remove boundaries created by the fear of failure.
• Errors are made due to different thought processes of the children from the adults, Adults thoughts are more divergent due to experience so the thinking of the adults and the children are different qualitatively.
• Errors build problem-solving and critical thinking skills in the children.
• Errors analysis helps learners to create connections between ideas and concepts.
• Errors help students to find out the gap in their learning.

Meaningful learning: Meaningful learning results when a person consciously and explicitly ties new knowledge to relevant concepts they already possess. When meaningful learning occurs, it produces a series of changes within our entire cognitive structure, modifying existing concepts and forming new linkages between concepts.

Key Points There are many emotions that facilitate the process of meaningful learning, these are-​ Happiness, Love, Values, Hope, Pride, Curiosity, Enjoyment, etc.

• Love: In a classroom, the teacher and the learner should be connected closely, they have to connect in a good and effective manner, which can increase good behavior towards learning.
• Values: Teachers should provide equal values to all the students, students also feel that they and their thoughts getting respected by the curriculum.

Thus we can say that emotion plays an important role to make learning meaningful.

Additional Information Characteristics of Meaningful Learning:-

• It stresses the ability of the learner to apply what is learned because of the involvement of the learners.
• Meaningful learning is the human mechanism par excellence for acquiring and storing a vast quantity of ideas.
• Meaningful learning is possible only when learners make a deliberate effort to relate new knowledge to the relevant concept they already know.
• It is the active creation of knowledge structures from personal experience.

Motivation: The term motivation has been derived from the Latin word ‘movere’, which means ‘to move. “the factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms”.

Motivation is of two types, which are:

• Intrinsic Motivation.
• Extrinsic Motivation.​

Key Points Intrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation can be defined as “motivation that comes from within a person and includes the elements of challenge, enjoyment, mastery, and autonomy”. Example: There could be an activity that an individual enjoys doing.

• These four components of intrinsic motivation are-
• Challenge- It relates to the extent to which an individual enjoys the excitement that accompanies a new challenge.
• Enjoyment- It relates to the pleasure that an individual may obtain from carrying out the task.
• Autonomy and self-determination- It relates to the autonomy that an individual enjoys while carrying out the task, that is, the freedom with which the individual can determine what is to be done and how is it to be done.
• Mastery- It relates to the sense of pride and accomplishment that an individual may experience when he/ she carries out a difficult task.
• So by all these explanations, we can say that I’ll do it because I enjoy it."  this is a statement that refers to the self-value of learners so this is an example of intrinsic motivation.

Important Points

• Extrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic motivation can be defined as “motivation that comes from outside the person and usually involves rewards and praises”.
• Example: reward, praise, money, feedback.

National Curriculum Framework, 2005, published by NCERT, is quite significant for bringing contemporary changes in school and teacher education curriculum. Keeping in view the changing perspectives and contexts of school education across the globe, necessary curricular changes have been recommended in NCF, 2005.

Key Points The major features of NCF, 2005 have been articulated in five different areas of the School Curriculum, they are ‘Perspectives of Education’; ‘Learning and Knowledge’; ‘Curricular Areas, School Stages and Assessment’; ‘School and Classroom Environment’; and ‘Systemic Reforms’.

School and Classroom Environment:

• The environment of the classroom should flexible. which can improve the learning of the students and also the success of the school.
• Teachers should use different methods as per the needs and interests of the individuals.
• No strict rules and timetables for the learners. so that learners can learn according to their interests and needs.
• No instruction-based learning can be facilitated in the classrooms.
• Assessment of the students should be formative to know the gap in the learning not for judging the learners.
• Learning should be based on direct hands-on experiences.
• Hence we can say that a rigid curriculum can hinder the learning of the students also the success of the school.

Additional Information  A good teacher should -

• create an emotionally pleasant and stimulating environment;
• create a lively environment;
• make the learner have a positive attitude toward the educational program
• Set meaningful goals;
• make the subject matter meaningful.

The correct answer is (A) - (II), (B) - (I), (C) - (IV), (D) - (III)

Key Points

• Gana:
• ​The word 'Gana' is used for a group that has many members.
• It is basically a group or assembly with many members and sometimes with many decision makers or rajas.
• Sangha:
• Sangha means organisation or association.
• It is an organisation or association mostly with members who were Buddhist monks or nuns.
• Shrenis:
• Shrenis were the group of merchants and craftsmen.
• They used to provide training, procure raw materials and distribute the final product.
• Shrenis were the mechants who were responsible to arrange trade.
• They also served as bank, where rich people can deposit their money.
• ​Grama Bhojaka:
• ​Grama Bhojaka was the village headman, and at times happened to be the largest landowner too.
• He was a powerful person of the village who collected taxes from the villagers in the name of the king.
• He also functioned as a judge and enforced the law of the king in the village.

​​Based on the above given points, we can conclude that the correct match the following is:

You are planning a project on 'the earliest cities in the Indian subcontinent'. You would be asking students to find out about the Indus valley.

Key Points

• The Indus Valley Civilization prospered around 4700 years ago.
• The cities of that period flourished mainly in the valley of the river Indus and are the earliest cities in the Indian subcontinent.
• The early cities of the Indian subcontinent are found in present-day Pakistan and in India.
• These cities were found in the Punjab and Sind in Pakistan, and in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and the Punjab in India.
• The excavations carried out at the various sites of the Indus Valley Civilization proved that highly civilized people lived in this region and gave to the world its earliest cities, its first town planning, its first architecture in stone and clay and a drainage system.
• Archaeologists have found a set of unique objects in almost all these cities like red pottery painted with designs in black, stone weights, seals, special beads, copper tools and paralleled sided long stone blades.

Therefore, the correct answer is - Indus Valley.

Additional Information

• John Marshall was the first researcher to use the term, ‘Indus Valley Civilization’.
• The Indus Valley Civilization belonged to the 'Bronze Age'.
• It is also called as the Harappan Civilization because Harappa was the first site to be unearthed and the features of the other sites resemble those of Harappa.
• Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Rakhigarhi, Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Banawali and Surkotada are some of the important sites of Indus Vally Civilization.

Muhammad Bin Tuglaq paid his soldiers with 'token currency' made out of cheap metals not gold and silver. 

Important Points

• Muhammad Bin Tuglaq maintained a large standing army.
• The agricultural produce from a particular area where soldiers were stationed was collected as tax to feed the army.
• Muhammad Tughluq also paid his soldiers cash salaries.
• Due to famine, there was increase in the price of commodities.
• Instead of controlling prices, he used a 'token” currency', somewhat like present-day paper currency, but made out of cheap metals, not gold and silver.
• People in the fourteenth century did not trust these coins.
• They were very smart as they saved their gold and silver coins and paid all their taxes to the state with this token currency.
• Due to this, this policy of 'token currency' was a failure.

Hence, we can conclude that the correct answer is - Muhammad Bin Tuglaq.

The correct answer is C and D

Key Points

• Monuments and forts are important archaeological historical sources that give us a lot of information about the past.
• Some of the things that we get to know about the past from them are:
• Monuments and forts provide an insight into the technological and sophisticated skills that people of that period possessed.
• They help us to know how the buildings were built.
• They reflect the development of the architecture of that particular period.
• They also reflect the quality of art of that particular period.
• Kings were expected to care for their subjects, and by making structures for their use and comfort, rulers hoped to win their praise and appreciation.
• They reflect the cultural influx of that particular period.

Therefore, we can conclude that Monuments and forts provide us an insight into:

C. the importance of construction as a means to gain people's appreciation. 

D. the technological and sophisticated skills possessed by people of that period.

The backbone of the Maratha army was provided by groups of peasant-pastoralists called Kunbis.

Key Points

• The Maratha Empire dominated a large part of the Indian subcontinent in the 17^th century.
• The Marathas rose to power under Chattrapati Shivaji Maharaj.
• Shivaji created a stable kingdom with the support of powerful warrior families called the 'Deshmukhs'.
• He built a formidable army consisting of a group of peasant pastoralists - or cattle herders - called the Kunbis.
• Kunbis were groups of highly mobile peasants who formed the backbone of the Maratha army.
• Using this army, he challenged the Mughals who were trying to gain control of the Deccan.

Therefore, the correct answer is - Kunbis.

Additional Information

• Subedar:
• Under the Maratha administration, the provinces were known as Prants and it was under the charge of a Subedar.
• The Sarsubedar used to control and supervise the work of the Subedar.
• Peshwa:
• The word Peshwa has its roots in the Persian language meaning “foremost”, and was introduced in the Deccan by the Muslim rulers.
• The early Peshwas were the ministers of the Maratha Chhatrapatis who were appointed to assist the rulers in different administrative and political affairs.
• Later Peshwa became more powerful and became the Prime Minister.
• ​Deshmukhs:
• ​They were powerful warrior families who supported Shivaji to establish the Maratha kingdom.

The correct answer is B and C

Important Points

• Nathpanthis:
• ​Nathpanthis were a religious group during the medieval period who criticised the ritualism and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order.
• They advocated renunciation of the world.
• To them the path to salvation lay in meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality and the realisation of oneness with it.
• To achieve this they advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices like yogasanas, breathing exercises and meditation.
• Sufis:
• Sufis were Muslim mystics.
• They rejected outward religiosity and emphasised love and devotion to God and compassion towards all fellow human beings.
• They rejected idol worship and considerably simplified rituals of worship into collective prayers.
• Sufi practice focuses on the renunciation of worldly things and purification of the soul.
• They developed elaborate methods of training using zikr (chanting of a name or sacred formula), contemplation, sama (singing), raqs (dancing), discussion of parables, breath control etc. under the guidance of a master or pir.

On the basis of the above given points, we can conclude that the following commonalities existed between Nathpanthis and Sufis:

B. practising breathing exercises 

C. renunciation of the world

All the statements (A), (B) and (C) are true about the tribals in central India during colonial rule.

Important Points

• The tribals in central India were unhappy with the changes they were experiencing and the problems they were facing under British rule.
• Their familiar ways of life seemed to be disappearing, their livelihoods were under threat, and their religion appeared to be in danger.
• The land policies of the British were destroying their traditional land system, Hindu landlords and moneylenders were taking over their land, and missionaries were criticising their traditional culture.
• Birsa Munda was an Indian tribal freedom fighter, religious leader and a folk hero who belonged to the Munda tribe of Chottanagpur in Jharkhand.
• He wanted to free his people from the British and the local landlords and moneylenders.
• Birsa's followers attacked police stations and churches, and raided the property of moneylenders and zamindars.
• They raised the white flag as a symbol of Birsa Raj.
• The people under Birsa Movement invented their own rituals and symbols of struggle.

Thus, we can conclude that the following statements about tribals in central India during colonial rule are true:

(A) Their livelihoods were under threat 

(B) Birsa wanted to free his people from the British and the local landlords and moneylenders.

(C) They invented their own rituals and symbols of struggle.

In 1927, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar started the temple entry movement against caste prejudices.

Key Points

• Ambedkar was born into a Mahar family.
• As a child, he experienced what caste prejudice meant in everyday life.
• After returning to India from the US in 1919, he wrote extensively about upper-caste power in contemporary society.
• In 1927, Ambedkar started a temple entry movement, in which his Mahar caste followers participated.
• Brahman priests were outraged when the Dalits used water from the temple tank.
• Ambedkar led three such movements for temple entry between 1927 and 1935.
• His aim was to make everyone see the power of caste prejudices within society.

Hence, we can conclude that the temple entry movement was started by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar in 1927 against caste prejudices.

The Veda Samaj was inspired by the ideas of Brahmo Samaj.

Key Points

• The Veda Samaj was established in Madras (Chennai) in 1864.
• The Veda Samaj was inspired by the Brahmo Samaj.
• It worked to abolish caste distinctions and promote widow remarriage and women’s education.
• Its members believed in one God.
• They condemned the superstitions and rituals of orthodox Hinduism.

Hence, the correct answer is - Brahmo Samaj.

Additional Information

• Raja Rammohan Roy founded Brahmo Sabha in 1828, which was renamed as Brahmo Samaj in 1830.
• The Brahmo Samaj prohibited all forms of idolatry and sacrifice, believed in the Upanishads, and forbade its members from criticising other religious practices.
• It critically drew upon the ideals of religions – especially of Hinduism and Christianity – looking at their negative and positive dimensions.

The correct answer is - Only C.

Key Points

• Keshub Chunder Sen was a social reformer from Bengal.
• He was one of the main leaders of the Brahmo Samaj who became a member of it in 1856.
• The leadership of the Brahmo Samaj was taken over by Keshab Chandra Sen in 1858, who persisted the infallibility of the Vedas while reforming the Hindu religion by promoting the worship of one God.
• He was influenced by western civilization and ideas and was of the opinion that western thoughts could better reform Indian society.
• Due to his different views, the Brahmo Samaj was split into two organisation.
• Brahmo Samaj of India led by Keshub Chandra Sen and Adi Brahmo Samaj led by Debendranath Tagore.

Therefore, among the given options the correct match of the social reformer/reformers with their organsations is:

C) Keshub Chunder Sen - Brahmo Samaj of India

Additional Information

• Swami Vivekananda:
• He founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 to propagate the teaching of his guru Ramakrishna Paramhansa.
• He delivered his famous speech at the Parliament of Religions held at Chicago, USA in 1893 which introduced the western world to philosophy of Hinduism.
• Rammohan Roy:
• ​He was considered as the 'Father of Indian Renaissance'.
• With the help of David Hare, he founded the Hindu College at Calcutta in 1817.
• In 1828, he founded a new religious organisation, the Brahmo Sabha, which later came to be known as Brahmo Samaj in 1830.​

The correct answer is (A), (B) and (C).

Key Points

• The people of India were dissatisfied with British rule in the 1870s and 1880s.
• There are various events that led to the Nationalist movement in India against British Rule. Some of them are:
• ​Arms Act:
• ​The Arms Act was passed in 1878, disallowing Indians from possessing arms.
• Vernacular Press Act: 
• In the same year, the Vernacular Press Act was also enacted in an effort to silence those who were critical of the government.
• The Act allowed the government to confiscate the assets of newspapers including their printing presses if the newspapers published anything that was found “objectionable”.
• Ilbert Bill:
• ​In 1883, there was a furore over the attempt by the government to introduce the Ilbert Bill.
• The bill provided for the trial of British or European persons by Indians, and sought equality between British and Indian judges in the country.
• Later the Act was repealed as it was vehemently opposed by the European Community.

Mistake Points

• Child Marriage Restraint Act:
• ​The Child Marriage Restraint Act was a legislative act passed on 28 September 1929.
• The act fixed the marriageable age for girls at 14 years and 18 years for boys.
• It is popularly known as the Sharda Act after its sponsor, Harbilas Sharda.

Based on the above discussion, we can conclude that the following events led to the Nationalist movement in India against British Rule:

(A) Passing the Arms Act and disallowing Indians from possessing arms. 

(B) Enacting the Vernacular Press Act to silence those who were critical of the government. 

(C) Withdrawal of the Ilbert Bill which provided for the trials of British and European persons by Indians.

The correct answer is Only (B) is true.

Important Points

• In 1905 Viceroy Curzon partitioned Bengal.
• At that time Bengal was the biggest province of British India and included Bihar and parts of Orissa.
• The British argued for dividing Bengal for reasons of administrative convenience.
• Clearly, it was for the interests and convenience of British officials and businessmen.
• Even so, instead of removing the non-Bengali areas from the province, the government separated East Bengal and merged it with Assam.
• Perhaps the main British motives were to curtail the influence of Bengali politicians and to split the Bengali people.

Thus, we can conclude that the following statement for partition of Bengal in 1905 is correct:

(B) British wanted to curtail the influence of Bengali politicians and to split the people.

The recommendation for reservation of seats in legislatures and government jobs was originally meant to make amends for the historical oppression and inhuman service provided to the more privileged category of people. 

Important Points

• The discussions of the Constituent Assembly resulted in the framing of the Indian Constitution, which came into effect on 26 January 1950.
• An important feature of the Constitution was that it offered special privileges for the poorest and most disadvantaged Indians.
• After a long debate, the Constituent Assembly recommended that a certain percentage of seats in legislatures as well as jobs in government be reserved for members of the lowest castes.
• It had been argued by some that Untouchable or as they were now known, Harijan, candidates did not have good enough grades to get into the prestigious Indian Administrative Service.
• Along with the former Untouchables, the Adivasis or Scheduled Tribes were also granted reservations in seats and jobs.
• Like the Scheduled Castes, these Indians too had been deprived and discriminated against.

Hence, the correct answer is - to make amends for the historical oppression and inhuman service provided to the more privileged category of people.

The correct answer is Only (A), (B) and (D) are correct.

Key Points

• Plateaus are elevated flat lands.
• A plateau may have one or more sides with steep slopes.
• Plateaus are rich in mineral deposits.
• The lava plateaus are rich in black soil that are fertile and good for cultivation.
• Many mining areas of the world are located in the plateau areas.
• In the plateau areas, there are several waterfalls as the river falls from a great height.
• In India, the Hundru falls in the Chotanagpur plateau on the river Subarnarekha and the Jog falls in Karnataka are examples of such waterfalls.

 Thus, we can say that the above statements are correct.

The correct answer is Both (A) and (R) are true and R explains A.

Key Points

• Meridians are imaginary north-south lines on the Earth's surface that connects both geographical poles.
• All meridians are of equal length.
• Thus, it was difficult to number the meridians.
• So all countries decided that the count should begin from the meridian which passed through Greenwich, where the British Royal Observatory is located.
• This meridian is called the Prime Meridian.
• The Prime Meridian divides the Earth into two equal halves, the Eastern hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere.
• Its value is 0° longitude.

 Thus, we can say that the above statements are correct.

The correct answer is a and c only.

Key Points

• Summer Solstice occurs on 21 June while the winter solstice occurs on 22 December.
• These are the days when the sun's path in the sky is the farthest north or south from the equator.
• A hemisphere's winter solstice is the shortest day of the year and its summer solstice the year's longest.
• On 21 March and 23 September, direct rays of sun fall on the equator.
• At this position, neither of the poles is tilted towards the sun, so the whole world experiences equal days and equal nights.
• This is called an equinox.

Thus, we can say the following is the right pair.

a) Summer Solstice - 21 June 

b) Winter Solstice - 22 December

c) Equinox - 21 March

The correct answer is 10.20 a.m

Key Points 

• As we know that Greenwich Meridian Time (GMT) is located at 0o longitude.
• When we move towards the east of GMT, it takes 4 minutes to cross each degree of longitude.
• i.e: Time taken to cross 1o East longitude = + 4 minutes. (1o West longitude = - 4 minutes)
• It means when we move towards the east of GMT, time increases.
• ​While, when we move towards the west of GMT, time decreases.
• As given, Time at GMT = 12 noon.
• The place is situated at 25° West longitude.
• From the above concept, we know that 1° West longitude = 4 minutes back.
• Therefore, 25° West longitude = 4 × 25 = 100 minutes back.
• Here, 100 minutes = 1 hr 60 min.

Hence, Required time at given place = 12 noon - 1 hr 60 min = 10:20 am.

The correct answer is Tropical Evergreen Forests.

Key Points

• Tropical evergreen forests are restricted to heavy rainfall areas.
• These forests occur in the region near the equator.
• These regions receive heavy rainfall and has no particular dry season.
• They are at their best in areas having more than 200cm of rainfall with a short dry season.
• There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves.
• The trees of these forests appear green throughout the year.

 Thus, we can say that Tropical Evergreen Forests are thick forests that occur in the region near equator and these regions receive heavy rainfall and has no particular dry season.

The Sahara, located in Northern Africa, is the world's largest hot desert.

Key Points

• The Sahara desert is the world's largest desert.
• It has an area of around 9.2 million square km.
• Hence statement (a) is wrong.
• The Sahara desert touches eleven countries:
• Algeria
• Chad
• Egypt
• Tunisia
• Libya
• Mali
• Mauritania
• Morocco
• Niger
• Sudan
• Western Sahara
• A large part of Tunisia is covered by Sahara desert.
• The Sahara desert is covered with gravel plains and elevated plateaus and rocky surfaces too.
• These rocky surfaces are more than 2500 m high at some places.

 Thus, we can say that statements (b) and (c) are correct.

Rainforests are Earth’s oldest living ecosystems, with some surviving in their present form for at least 70 million years.

Key Points Natural vegetation is generally classified into three broad categories as follows:

1. Forests: Grow where temperature and rainfall are plentiful to support a tree cover. Depending upon these factors, dense and open forests are grown.
2. Grasslands: Grow in the region of moderate rain.
3. Shrubs: Thorny shrubs and scrubs grow in the dry region.

Important Points

Vegetation of the rainforest from the lowest to the highest layer is:

1. Ground layer
2. Shrubs layer
3. Young tree
4. Canopy
5. Emergent layer

Thus, the correct answer is a, e, d, c, and b.

Additional InformationRainforest Structure Most rainforests are structured in four layers:

• emergent, (top layer)
• canopy,
• understory, and
• forest floor. (lowest layer)

Each layer has unique characteristics based on differing levels of water, sunlight, and air circulation.

• The growth of vegetation depends on temperature and moisture.
• It also depends on factors like slope and thickness of soil.

Permanent winds blow constantly throughout the year in a particular direction.

Key Points

• The movement of air from high pressure area to low pressure areas are called Winds.
• Winds are classified into three types:
• Permanent winds
• Seasonal winds
• Local winds
• Permanent winds blow throughout the year in a particular direction.
• The trade winds, the westerlies and the easterlies are examples of permanent winds.
• Local winds blow during a particular period of the day in a small area.
• Seasonal winds change their direction in different seasons.
• Monsoon is an example of seasonal winds.

 Thus, we can say that permanent winds blow constantly throughout the year in a particular direction.

The correct answer is Both (A) and (C) are true.

Key Points

• Insolation is the incoming solar energy intercepted by the Earth.
• The insolation received at the surface varies from the tropics to the poles.
• The amount of insolation decreases from the Equator towards the poles.
• The temperature decreases in the same manner.
• Temperature in cities is much higher than the temperature in villages.
• The crowded high rise buildings of the cities trap warm air and thus raise the temperature of the cities.
• Variation in temperature over the sea is less as compared to land.

 Thus, we can say that the above statements are correct.

The correct answer is (a) - (ii), (b) - (iii), (c) - (iv), (d) - (i) 

Key Points

• The major types of vegetation in our country are:
• Tropical Evergreen forests
• Tropical Deciduous forests
• Tropical Thorn forests and scrubs
• Montane forests
• Mangrove forests
• Commercially important trees of the Tropical evergreen forests are ebony, mahogany, rosewood, rubber and cinchona.
• Teak, shisham, neem sandalwod, sal, kusum, arjun and mulberry are commercially important species of the tropical deciduous forests.
• Sundari trees, palm, coconut, keora, agar etc. are grown in mangrove forests.
• In regions with less than 70 cm of rainfall, natural vegetation consists of thorny trees and bushes. Example of this is the Khair.

 Thus, we can say that the above statements are correct.

The term population distribution refers to the way people are spaced over the earth’s surface. Broadly, 90percentt of the world population lives in about 10percentt of its land area.

Key Points

Geographical factors that are influencing the distribution of population:

• Availability of water:
• Water is the most important factor in life.
• So, people prefer to live in areas where fresh water is easily available. Hence, statement A is correct.
• Water is used for drinking, bathing, and cooking – and also for cattle, crops, industries, and navigation.
• It is because of this that river valleys are among the most densely populated areas of the world.
• Landforms:
• People prefer living on flat plains and gentle slopes. This is because such areas are favorable for the production of crops and to build roads and industries. Hence, statement C is correct.
• The mountainous and hilly areas hinder the development of transport networks and hence initially do not favor agricultural and industrial development. So, these areas tend to be less populated. Hence, statement B is incorrect.
• The Ganga plains are among the most densely populated areas of the world while the mountain zones in the Himalayas are scarcely populated.
• Climate:
• An extreme climate such as very hot or cold deserts is uncomfortable for human habitation. Hence, statement D is incorrect.
• Areas with a comfortable climate, where there is not much seasonal variation attract more people.
• Areas with very heavy rainfall or extreme and harsh climates have low populations.
• Mediterranean regions were inhabited from early periods in history due to their pleasant climate.

From the above, we can conclude that Only statements (A) and (C) are true.

Rabindranath Tagore was born in Kolkata to a deeply religious family of Landowners. He believed that education should be aimed not merely to develop the intellect but the complete personality of the child.

Key Points Following statements are correct about Tagore's idea of education:- 

• Creative learning within a natural environment.
• Emphasis on art, music, and dance.
• Self-realization should be one’s goal in education.
• For developing creative faculties, the child should be provided opportunities for self-expression.
• He supported the integral development of human power including physical, intellectual, moral, and religious development.
• He supported harmony with the environment one lives in and to be in harmony with one’s environment.
• Children should not be forced to receive knowledge through books.
• The aim of education is to make the child self-sufficient and earn for livelihood.

Thus, it is concluded that A and B  are the correct options.

​A population pyramid shows

• The total population is divided into various age groups, e.g., 5 to 9 years, 10 to 14 years.
• The percentage of the total population, subdivided into males and females, in each of those groups.

Important Points The shape of the population pyramid tells the story of the people living in that particular country.

• The numbers of children (below 15 years) are shown at the bottom and reflect the level of births.
• The size of the top shows the numbers of aged people (above 65 years) and reflects the number of deaths. Thus, statement B is correct.
• The population pyramid also tells us how many dependents there are in a country.
• There are two groups of dependents - young dependents (aged below 15 years) and elderly dependents (aged over 65 years).
• Those of the working age are economically active.
• The population pyramid of a country in which birth and death rates both are high is broad at the base and rapidly narrows towards the top. Thus, statement C is correct.
• This is because although many children are born, a large percentage of them die in their infancy, relatively few become adults and there are very few old people.
• In countries where death rates (especially amongst the very young) are decreasing, the pyramid is broad in the younger age groups, because more infants survive to adulthood. This can be seen in the pyramid for India.
• Such populations contain a relatively large number of young people and which means a strong and expanding labor force. In countries like Japan, low birth rates make the pyramid narrow at the base.
• Decreased death rates allow numbers of people to reach old age.

Additional Information

• Population pyramids are wider in the middle of the graph as the population has high numbers of middle-aged elderly people, but fewer young people.
• A high dependency ratio indicates that the economically active population and the overall economy face a greater burden to support and provide the social services needed by children and by older persons who are often economically dependent.
• Thus, statement A is incorrect.

Agriculture is an age-old economic activity in our country.

• Over these years, cultivation methods have changed significantly depending on the characteristics of the physical environment, technological know-how, and socio-cultural practices.
• Farming varies from subsistence to commercial type.

Important Points 

Primitive Subsistence Farming:

• This type of farming is practiced to meet the needs of the farmer’s family.
• Primitive subsistence agriculture practices on small patches of land with the help of primitive tools like hoe, dao, digging sticks, and family/ community labor.
• This type of farming depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of the soil, and suitability of other environmental conditions to the crops grown.
• It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.
• Farmers clear a patch of land and produce cereals and other food crops to sustain the families.
• When the soil fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land for cultivation.
• This type of shifting allows nature to replenish the fertility of the soil through natural processes; land productivity in this type of agriculture is low as the farmer does not use fertilizers or other modern inputs.
• Traditionally, low levels of technology and household labor are used to produce on small output. Thus, statement A is incorrect as low levels of technology are used in primitive subsistence farming.
• Shifting cultivation is a type of primitive subsistence farming.
• Shifting cultivation is an agricultural practice in which a piece of land is farmed on, only to be abandoned later after initial use.
• It is prohibited in India as shifting cultivation was believed to be responsible for the alarming rate of deforestation of Indian forests.
• Shifting cultivation, also referred to as Jhum or slash-and-burn cultivation.
• Thus, statements B and C are correct.

Additional Information In mixed farming, the land is used for growing food and fodder crops, and rearing livestock. It is practiced in Europe, eastern USA, Argentina, southeast Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.

United States of America started the Civil Rights Act in 1964 to prohibit different forms of social discrimination.

Key Points

• In the U.S.A., the Civil Rights Movement led to the Civil Rights Act in 1964.
• The Civil Rights Movement fought against racist policies which discriminated the African Americans.
• The Civil Rights Act prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, religion or national origin.
• It also stated that all schools would be open to African-American children and that they would no longer have to attend separate schools specially set up for them.
• However, a majority of African-Americans continue to be among the poorest in the country.
• Most African-American children can only afford to attend government schools that have fewer facilities and poorly qualified teachers as compared to white students who either go to private schools or live in areas where the government schools are as highly rated as private schools.

Hence we can conclude that the Civil Rights Act in 1964 to prohibit different forms of social discrimination was started by United States of America.

Diversity also comes about when people adapt their lives to the geographical area in which they live. For example, living near the sea is quite different from living in a mountainous area. 

Important Points Life near the sea region is quite different from life in the mountain region. Following are the major differences between the lifestyles of the coastal and mountainous area people:

• The mountainous area especially the Himalayas, has a very cold climate therefore people there have to bear extremely cold winters. Hence they live a very tough life whereas coastal areas have pleasant climates therefore they do not have to live a tough life.
• The food habits are different. Mountainous people eat meat and hot food whereas coastal area people eat fish and rice more.
• The dressing styles are different in both these areas. Mountain people wear woolen and warm clothes whereas coastal area people wear cotton and airy clothes.
• They also have different styles. Mountain people do terrace farming and grow tea and apples etc. whereas coastal areas grow coconut and bananas etc.
• The housing styles are different in both these areas. Mountain people have houses made of wood and cold-proof whereas in coastal areas houses are generally made up of bricks or stone and they are made heat proof.

Hence, we can say that statements (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation for (A).

​This idea of people's participation in the Panchayati Raj system extends to three other levels.

1. Zila Parishad
2. Panchayat Samity
3. Gram Panchayat

Important Points

• District Panchayat or the Zila Parishad, actually makes developmental plans at the district level.
• With the help of Panchayat Samitis, it also regulates the money distribution among all the Gram

Panchayats.

• Block level, which is called the Janpad Panchayat or the Panchayat Samiti.
• The Panchayat Samiti has much Gram

Panchayats under it.

• Panchayati Raj institutions in an ascending order or public participation are as follows:
• ​Gram panchayat
• Panchayat Samiti
• Zila Parishad

Additional Information

• Panchayati Raj is the system of local self-government of villages in rural India
• ​Part IX of the Indian Constitution is the section of the Constitution relating to the Panchayats.
• It stipulates that in states or Union Territories with more than two million inhabitants there are three levels of PRIs:
• Zilla Parishad at the District Level
• Panchayat Samiti at the Block Level
• Gram/Village Panchayat at the Village Level

A Municipal Corporation is made up of wards committee.

Mistake Points

• Members are elected to the ward committees on the basis of adult franchise for a term of five years.
• These members are called Ward councillors.
• The Council is headed by a mayor and has one year term.
• Mayor is elected by a majority.

Additional Information​

• Municipal Corporation
• Municipal corporations are established by acts of the concerned state legislatures, and in the union territories by acts of the Parliament of India.
• The councillors are responsible for the running of the municipal corporations. They are elected for a term of five years.

Hence we can say that Ward Councillor is an elected member of a Municipal Corporation.

• The commissioner
• The municipal commissioner is in charge of putting the council's and standing committees' decisions into action.
• As a result, he is the corporation's chief executive officer.
• He is a member of the IAS and is appointed by the state government.
• He is also called the Administrative Chief.

Agriculture labourers, Small Farmers and Big Farmers all engaged in non-agricultural activities.

Key Points

Non-farming activities do not rely on farming for livelihood. These activities are pivotal for establishing a market in rural and suburban areas. These activities provide employment opportunities for landless workers. Non-farming activities include dairy, transporting, agro-processing, etc.

An agricultural labourer can be defined as the involvement of any person in connection with cultivating the soil or in connection with raising or harvesting any agricultural or horticultural commodity, management of livestock, bees, poultry etc.

• Nearly two-fifth of all rural families are agricultural labourers in our country.
• Not being able to earn money throughout the year forces people in many rural areas to travel long distances in search of work.
• Small farmers - Farmers having less than two hectares (five acres) of land are called small farmers and those having less than one hectare (2.5 acres) are called marginal farmers.
• Big Farmers- Farmers owning more than 5 acres of land under farming or agricultural land are usually large farmers. (Various subsidies are given to farmers owning less than 5 acres of land).

Hence we can say that All of the above are engaged in Non-agricultural activities.

People who sell on the street and those who run shops in the market both work on their own and are not employed and Both have no access to social security like annual leave and medical facilities.

Key Points

• The difference between a hawker and a shopkeeper is that a hawker does not have a fixed shop, that is, he sells his products from street to street by roaming around.
• Whereas a shopkeeper has a fixed shop and people come to shop to purchase things.

Hence we can say that they both work on their own (shopkeeper and Hawker) and are not employed and Both have no access to social security like annual leave and medical facilities. Statements (A) and (B) are correct.

Additional Information

• A hawker is a vendor of merchandise that can be easily transported they are temporary. In most places where the term is used, a hawker sells inexpensive goods, handicrafts, or food items.
• A trader who sells goods in a shop, or by retail is distinguished from one who sells wholesale or sells door to door. A person who owns or operates a shop, or small store.
• Both have no access to social security like annual leave and medical facilities.

​Women in the United States of America got the right to vote after First World War.

Important Points 

• In 1848, the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women's rights convention, passed a resolution in favor of women's suffrage despite opposition from some of its organizers, who believed the idea was too extreme.
• The 19^th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution granted American women the right to vote, a right known as women's suffrage, and was ratified on August 18, 1920, ending almost a century of protest.

Additional Information

• Women in America first collectively organized in 1848 at the First Women's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, NY to fight for suffrage (or voting rights). Organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, the convention sparked the women's suffrage movement.
• The women's rights movement, also called the women's liberation movement, diverse social movement, largely based in the United States, that in the 1960s and '70s sought equal rights and opportunities and greater personal freedom for women. It coincided with and is recognized as part of the “second wave” of feminism.

Hence we can say that Women in the United States of America got the right to vote after First World War.

Gender stereotyping is defined as the overgeneralization of characteristics, differences and attributes of a certain group based on their gender.

Key Points

The statement that 'Boys are emotional' challenges gender stereotypes as this statement is,

• implying the idea that an equal balance of men and women is required in all aspects of life.
• putting men in non-traditional roles and will also promote a sense of gender equality among people.
• removing the stereotype that certain activities are only meant to be done by men and not by women and vice versa.
• Hence, it could be concluded that the statement that 'Boys are emotional'  challenges gender stereotypes.

Additional Information 

• When we fix people into one image we create a stereotype.
• Gender stereotypes are the roles that are assigned to men and women from an early age.
• Example:
• “Don’t cry. You are a boy. Boys are brave, and Girls are emotional not boys,  As children grow up they start believing that boys do not cry so that even if a boy feels like crying he stops himself from doing so. He also believes that crying is a sign of weakness.
• This represents gender stereotypes.

The Cultural and Educational Rights are provided under Article 29 and Article 30.

• Article 29- Provides that any section of the citizens residing in any part of India having a distinct language, script or culture of its own, shall have the right to conserve the same.
• Article 30- Provides that all minorities shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
• The protection under Article 30 is confined only to minorities (religious or linguistic) and does not extend to any section of citizens (as under Article 29).

​   

Additional InformationConstitutional remedies- support the protection of fundamental rights and ensure that people whose fundamental rights have been violated can seek relief directly from the Supreme Court or different High Courts of India.

• This right comes under article 32 for Supreme court and article 226 for the high court.
• B.R. Ambedkar described 'The Right to Constitutional Remedy' as the 'heart and soul' of the Indian constitution.

Right to freedom -guarantees freedom for citizens to live a life of dignity among other things. These are given in Articles 19, 20, 21A and 22 of the Indian Constitution.

• Article 19- of the Indian constitution mentions six freedoms that are available to the citizens of India:
• (a) Freedom of speech and expression
• (b) Freedom to assemble peacefully and without arms
• (c) Freedom to form Associations and Unions
• (d) Freedom to move freely throughout the territory of India (e) Freedom to reside
• (f) Freedom to practice any profession.
• Article 20 - of the Indian Constitution prohibits self-incrimination. It says that no person accused of any offense shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.
• Article 21- of the Constitution guarantees the life and personal liberty of all persons. It guarantees the right of persons to life with human dignity.
• Article 21(A) - provides free and compulsory education for all children in the age group of six to fourteen years as a Fundamental Right in such a manner as the State may, by law, determine.
• Article 22- Provides protection against arrest and detention in certain cases, Constitution of India.

The correct answer is only A and B 

• Rosa Parks (1913—2005) helped initiate the civil rights movement in the United States when she refused to give up her seat to a white man on a Montgomery, Alabama bus in 1955.
• In 1999, Lawyers Collective, a group of lawyers, law students and activists, after nation-wide consultations took the lead in drafting the Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Bill. This draft bill was widely circulated. Kusum and Shazia work for a women's organisation.

 Additional Information

• Some organizations started to raise the need for a new law on domestic violence. In 1999, Lawyers Collective, a group of lawyers, law students, and activists took the initiative of drafting the Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Bill; after nationwide consultations.
• The draft was widely circulated among influential people.
• The bill was introduced in Parliament in 2002.
• After the assent from the President, the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act came into effect in 2006.

The Federal Court of India was a judicial body, established in India in 1937 under the provisions of the Government of India Act 1935, with original, appellate and advisory jurisdiction. 

• The Supreme Court of India also came into existence and its first sitting was held on 28 January 1950.

 Additional Information

• The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial court in India and the final court of appeal under the Indian Constitution.
• This is the highest constitutional court, with the power of judicial review.
• The Indian constitution provides Supreme Court provisions under Part V (The Union) and Chapter 6 (The Union Judiciary).
• Articles 124 to 147 in Part V of the Constitution deal with the organization, independence, jurisdiction, powers, and procedures of the Supreme Court.
• Article 124 (1) states that there shall be a Supreme Court of India constituting of a Chief Justice of India (CJI) and, until Parliament by law prescribes a larger number, of not more than seven other Judges.
• Judicial review - the power of the courts of a country to examine the actions of the legislative, executive, and administrative arms of the government and to determine whether such actions are consistent with the constitution.

Marginalization means the communities which are put at the margins of economic and cultural development.

• When a group of people or communities are excluded from the majority because of their language, customs, or religion, it is called Marginalisation.
• In India, women, children, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, persons with disabilities, migrants and the aged are regarded as marginalised or vulnerable groups.
• These people are socially, economically, politically and legally ignored and excluded in Indian society.

Additional InformationThe Constitution of India- provides adequate provisions for the treatment of all equally, prohibits the practice of discrimination and empowers and directs the states for protection and promotion of the rights of vulnerable and marginalised groups in the true spirit of a democratic secular and welfare state.

Hence we conclude that marginalized people experience discrimination and powerlessness.

Marginalized groups and communities are those who experienced discrimination and exclusion (social, political and economic) because of unequal power relationships across economic, political, social and cultural dimensions.

• In India, the women, children, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, persons with disabilities, migrants and aged are regarded as marginalised or vulnerable groups.

Additional InformationSteps was taken by the government to protect marginalized groups:

• The government provides accommodation facilities to students belonging to marginalized groups at a very low cost.
• In order to give equal opportunities to the backward classes of marginalized groups, the government has passed the reservation policies.

Social sciences are the body of knowledge that is concerned with human affairs in the spectrum of broad socio-cultural systems.

Key PointsGoals of social science include:

• promote the right knowledge, attitudes, and dispositions in students to understand their social and physical world.
• Appreciate the cultural heritage in its surroundings.
• Explore and understand the natural, social, and cultural environment.
• Analyze and draw conclusions about problems related to the environment.
• Know and become aware of their environment (social, cultural, and natural environment).
• To make students and active members of society who will contribute to the welfare of their community.

Thus, it is concluded that one of the main goals of teaching Social Sciences in school is to promote the right knowledge, attitudes, and dispositions in students to understand their social and physical world.

Geography is the branch of knowledge that studies the lands, the features, the inhabitants, and the phenomena of the Earth.

Key Points

Geography has its own unit of study of the regions of the world. Each unit interlinked has its own peculiarities. The Geographer studies each region and tries to put forward a geographical explanation for its conditions and vice versa.

Pedagogy of Geography should try to 

• introduce concepts to understand the world we live in.
• sensitize about the conservation of the environment and resources.
• develop the skills of reading maps & globes, develop drawing & measuring skills, and develop the skills of using & manipulating the geographical instrument.
• develop a scientific attitude and develop the ability to draw valid conclusions & interdependent thinking.

Thus, it is concluded that A and C are the correct options.

Teaching-learning resources are tools, which are used by teachers to help learners to learn concepts with ease and efficiency. Teachers use TLMs to illustrate or reinforce a skill, fact, or idea.

Key Points Teaching-learning resources are of various types and thus are classified and categorized in several ways.

• Audio resource
• Visual resource
• Audio Visual resource

Important Points​ Following are the teaching-learning resources:-

• The textbook is a very important basic teaching-learning resource. It is written specifically to satisfy the specific needs of the syllabus. In most cases, a textbook serves as a focal point base for organizing learning activities.
• Maps are a useful tool in every discipline. In social studies, it is very important for learning geographical, historical, and economical concepts. Details in maps at the elementary level are kept simple enabling learners to locate places, and different physical features and to read directions.
• Model is a recognizable imitation of a real thing (eyes) or abstract thing (magnetic). Usually, a model is similar to the original object in every aspect except the size. The size of an object may be reduced or enlarged. When the size is reduced, the object is simplified to show only the essential parts. For example, the globe is a model of earth simplified to show earth’s essential parts only.

 Thus, it is concluded that **Demonstration is not a teaching-learning resource.**​

Additional Information In the demonstration method, the teaching-learning process is carried out in a systematic way. Demonstration often occurs when students have a hard time connecting theories to actual practice or when students are unable to understand the applications of theories. It is a teacher-centered method.

Social Sciences constitute a broad field of knowledge and deal with human beings in relation to their social behavior. Social Sciences study the concepts or issues like culture, tradition, lifestyles, places, environment, power and authority, governance, economy, civic sense, etc. which have social implications.

• Pedagogy refers to the study of teaching methods, including the aims of education and the ways in which such goals may be achieved. The appropriate mix and match of technology and pedagogy make technology better than another.

Key Points

• ​Social Science Pedagogy is the set of principles that influence the approaches to teaching-learning in social science. It consists of a learning environment, teaching-learning arrangements, methods, general educational principles, etc.
• Neutral and Sensitive pedagogy should be followed in social science classrooms because the social sciences carry a normative responsibility to create and widen the popular base for human values, namely freedom, trust, mutual respect, respect for diversity, etc.
• Social science teaching basically should be aimed at investing in a child's moral and mental energy so as to provide her with the ability to think independently and deal with the social forces that threaten these values, without losing her individuality.
• These include the independence of thought and action, sensitivity to others well-being and feelings, learning to respond to new situations in a flexible and creative manner, a predisposition towards participation in democratic processes, and the ability to work towards and contribute to economic processes and social change.

Thus, it is concluded that **Neutral and Sensitive pedagogy should be followed in social science classrooms.**​

Teaching-learning materials (TLMs) are tools, which are used by teachers to help learners to learn concepts with ease and efficiency.

Key Points

• The role of TLMs in the classroom is to make learning real, practical and fun for children.
• Posters are an example of graphic aid which are widely used for teaching content in sciences and social sciences.
• Graphic aids help to simplify, illustrate, and concretize learning experiences for learners.
• The poster is a symbolic representation of a single idea. As a single idea is depicted posters are usually bold, and eye-catching to attract learners for giving a message.
• Posters have both visual and textual components.
• Posters show creativity in their design and development.

Thus, it is concluded that Posters are an example of graphic aid.

Additional Information

• Audio-Visual aids are the projected aids, which use both auditory and visual senses to enhance learning.
• Projected aids are “projected” onto a wall or screen using machines. Projected aids are the visuals shown on a screen using Projectors.
• Three-dimensional aids are used with great effectiveness as teaching aids. All the audio-visual materials or three-dimensional aids are nearest to living experiences. They are contrived experiences where reality is altered or simplified for teaching purposes.

Social Science is a branch of science that deals with human behavior and social relationships, which rely primarily on empirical approaches.

Key PointsUsing charts, diagrams, timelines, and maps in social science classrooms make its teaching 

• more effective and interesting.
• more scientific in nature.
• participative and engaging for students.
• more organized.
• more conducive to the development of concepts and ideas.

Thus, it is concluded that  A, B, D, and E are the correct options.

Additional Information

• A chart is a diagrammatic representation of a system, process, and historical sequence of events.
• Map is a visual representation of an area, drawn on a flat surface.
• Diagram is a symbolic representation of information in the form of graphs, tables, and charts.
• A timeline is a list of important events arranged in the order in which they happened. It is useful in teaching history.

Teaching-learning materials (TLMs) are, therefore, tools, which are used by teachers to help learners to learn concepts with ease and efficiency.

Key Points

• River features can be divided into the upper course, middle course, and lower course features.
• Satellite picture of a flood plain is the best resource to teach river features.
• Floodplains are formed when rivers overflow and soil gets deposited on the river banks. The raised banks are called levees.
• Children will be introduced to the features of a river such as a source, the meander, and the mouth.
• The satellite picture completely shows the features of the river that help the students in understanding it.

Thus, it is concluded that a Satellite picture of a floodplain teaching-learning materials could be used in the class.

A manuscript is a handwritten composition on paper, bark, cloth, metal, palm leaf, or any other material dating back at least seventy-five years that has significant scientific, historical or aesthetic value.

Key Points

• People used manuscripts to write holy texts, chronicles of rulers, letters, and teachings of saints, petitions and judicial records, and for registers of accounts and taxes.
• Manuscripts were collected by wealthy people, rulers, monasteries, and temples. They were placed in libraries and archives. These manuscripts and documents provide a lot of detailed information to historians but they are also difficult to use.
• An archive is a place where documents and manuscripts are stored.

Thus, it is concluded that a teacher will discuss accounts and taxes, letters and teachings of saints, and archives while discussing the topic 'manuscript' in her class.

Critical thinking is a process that challenges an individual to use reflective, reasonable, rational thinking to gather, interpret, and evaluate information in order to derive a judgment. Critical thinking should be the ultimate goal of all education. 

• ​John Dewey defines critical thinking as “reflective thought” rather than routine though; it's the process of “active, persistent, and careful consideration” of the credibility and conclusions of supposed knowledge or information.

Key Points​ Following are the questions that are appropriate in providing greater scope for critical thinking:-

• Rinderpest led to pauperization of many African countries. Examine
• Compare the experience of indentured laborers in the Caribbean with labor in the 21^st century.
• These questions provide scope for critical thinking as these questions encourage students to think in multiple ways. The student thinks, applies reasons, and then justifies his answer.

Thus, it is concluded that Only A and C  are the correct options.

Hint B and D options are factual-based questions. They do not provide scope for critical thinking as they have straightforward answers.

Examinations are a very common assessment and evaluation tool used in universities, for common entrance tests, during job interviews for teachers, for bank entrance, etc; and in India, many people appear for such exams in large volumes.

Key Points Multiple choice questions are composed of one question (stem) with multiple possible answers (choices), including the correct answer and several incorrect answers (distractors).

• Typically, students select the correct answer by circling the associated number or letter or filling in the associated circle on the machine-readable response sheet.

The following is true about assessment based on multiple-choice questions:-

• Allow wide coverage of syllabus.
• Limited assessment of language abilities.
• Limited potential for student development.
• Reduced bias in evaluation.

​Thus, it is concluded that A, C, D, and E are the correct options.

The non-cooperation movement was a mass movement that was launched by Gandhi in 1920. It was a peaceful and non-violent protest against the British government in India.

Key Points While discussing the non-cooperation movement, the teacher would emphasize the following events:-

• When did it happen?
• Where did it have its impact?
• Who were the main participants of the movement?
• What was the outcome of the event?

These all questions help the students in understanding the movement.

Thus, it is concluded that Only A, B, C and D are the correct options.

Teaching is the process of imparting knowledge to the students/learners. The type of lesson being taught may vary but the basic aim of teaching is the same i.e. to share the knowledge with the learners in an effective way so that they could be able to apply the knowledge in the practical world.

Key Points

• The function of teachers is to help students learn by imparting knowledge to them and by setting up a situation in which students can and will learn effectively. So, it is important for the teachers to make the learning environment comfortable.
• If students do not understand what is being taught in a class, the teacher needs to explain the concept again in a different way. 
• To put extra effort to explain the concept. This can be done by clarifying the subject with additional guidance and examples.
• Students should be given some practical exposure or any other type of interactive activity should be done so that students can preserve their interest in the subject as this is the priority action that needs to be taken.

Thus, it is concluded that If students do not understand what is being taught in a class, the teacher needs to explain the concept again in a different way.

Social sciences are the body of knowledge that is concerned with human affairs in the spectrum of broad socio-cultural systems. Social sciences constitute: Understanding Social Science as a Discipline and form an important component of the high school and higher education curriculum.

Key Points Following approaches would be most appropriate for planning to address the students on the subject and its relationship with the nation:-

• Incorporate local perceptions on how people relate with the nation.
• Accommodate within the discussions multiple ways of imagining the nation.

These questions help them in developing an understanding of the nation.

​Thus, it is concluded that Only B and C options are correct.

Both primary and secondary sources are used by historians for historical reconstruction of the past. 

Important Points

Primary source:

• Primary sources are original materials, regardless of format.
• Letters, diaries, minutes, photographs, artifacts, interviews, and sound or video recordings are examples of primary sources created as a time or event is occurring.

Secondary source:

• It is a source that provides non-original or secondhand data or information.
• Secondary sources are usually based on primary sources.
• Books by historians, articles in academic journals, and literature review articles are common secondary sources.
• Example: Richard J. Evans is a historian of modern Germany and Europe, and also writes on the theory and practice of history. 
• He is co-editor of the Journal of Contemporary History, and in 2000 was the principal expert witness in the Holocaust Denial libel action depicted in the film Denial (2016), where he was played by the actor John Sessions.

Key Points

 Primary Sources Examples are as follows: 

• Herodotus is most well known for his historical accounts.
• He is remembered as being arguably the very first historian ever.
• He explicitly states in his introduction that he wishes to preserve the events in order for the Greeks and the barbarians to receive their due.
• He was the first historian to systematically record the events that happened.
• William Adam was a Scottish missionary who created a report on the education system of Bengal and Bihar. 
• He came to India in 1818 and spend nearly 3 decades was an enthusiastic missionary.
• He came to India to spread the propaganda of Christianity and culture, But influenced by Indian culture and knowledge science, he became a great supporter and lover of Indian education.
• Sir Alexander Mackenzie was a British colonial official in India, who served as Chief Commissioner of the British Crown Colony of Burma from 1890 to 1895, and as Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal from 1895 to 1898.
• He have written a book name "History of the Relations of the Government with the Hill Tribes of the North-East Frontier of Bengal".
• This book gives an account of the history of the relations of the government with the hill tribes of the North-East Frontier of Bengal.
• This book is a result of intense research of the ‘Memorandum on the North-East Frontier of Bengal’.
• Reports of the Foreign Department, and a general survey taken of the hill tribes, were also taken into account.

Statistical sources refer to data that is gathered for some official purposes, incorporate censuses, and officially administered surveys.

• Statistical data can be obtained from two sources. The researcher may collect the data by conducting an inquiry. Such data are called Primary Data, as they are based on first-hand information.
• If the data have been collected and processed (scrutinized and tabulated) by some other agency, they are called Secondary Data.

Key Points

• ​State government and union government are some important sources of statistical data that can be used to prepare project reports.
• The data provided from these sources are reliable and authentic and can be used for preparing project reports.

​Thus, it is concluded that Only A and B are the correct options.

Critical thinking is the ability to apply reasoning and logic to new or unfamiliar situations, ideas, and opinions. It refers to the process of judging or analyzing facts, events, etc. It requires proper analysis, evaluation, inference, and explanation.

Key Points 

Following are the questions that provide greater scope for critical thinking:-

• In what ways are present-day elections different from the ways in which rulers were chosen in janapadas?
• You were a member of kammakars, write a letter to your raja to allow you to participate in the ganas.
• What could be the reasons dasas and kammakaras were not allowed to participate in the ganas?
• These questions provide greater scope for developing critical thinking as students would be able to think in multiple ways before answering the question and analyze facts about it.
• Critical thinking is just deliberately and systematically processing information so that you can make better decisions and helps to develop several ideas in multiple respects.

Thus, it is concluded that Only A, B, and C options are correct.

HintAnother given option is the direct question which is factually based.

Knowledge is often considered synonymous with terms like familiarity, understanding, wisdom, education, awareness, etc. Knowledge can be expressed in the form of data, scientific formulae, product specifications, manuals, universal principles, and so forth. Knowledge may be declarative or procedural.

Key Points Procedural knowledge refers to knowing how to do something, or the procedure to do something.

• It is the knowledge of how to perform a specific skill or task and is considered knowledge related to methods, procedures, or operation of equipment.
• How is Gross Domestic Product estimated?
• How is infant mortality ratio different from maternal mortality ratio?
• Describe the process for conducting panchayat elections in India.
• These three questions assess the procedural knowledge of the students as the students would go step by step for answering these questions, these questions are not based on facts. Students will study about these and then answer them.

Thus, it is concluded that A, C, and E are the correct options.

Hint Declarative knowledge enables a student to collect facts in memory. It is also called descriptive knowledge which explains the basic knowledge about something.

• Option B is based on facts that needs only recalling.

Metacognition knowledge- It helps the learner to decide whether to go ahead with learning new information or not.

Key Points 

• Metacognition is defined as one’s knowledge or beliefs about the factors that affect cognitive activities. Metacognition and cognition are mutually interdependent.
• The process involves in the process of the metacognition are
• taking conscious control of learning
• planning and selecting strategies
• monitoring the progress of learning
• correcting errors
• analyzing the effectiveness of learning strategies
• changing learning behaviors and strategies when necessary
• It is strategic or reflective knowledge about how to go about solving problems, and cognitive tasks, including contextual and conditional knowledge and knowledge of self.
• Metacognitive knowledge is directed towards achieving the learning outcome.
• Here, Statements B, D, and E are assessing metacognitive knowledge as they are using their self-thinking while answering.

Thus, statements B, D, and E are correct.

Bloom’s Taxonomy: It is a hierarchical ordering of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains and each domain has some  

Key PointsCognitive domains\process: In this domain, a child deals with knowledge and hence, learns to create, evaluate, analyze, apply, understand, and remember. 

The cognitive domain involves mental skills which are categorized into six levels of learning that serve in the development of intellectual skills and acquisition of power. 

Stages& Subdomains of Cognitive Domain:

• Knowledge: It refers to the process of recognizing and recalling information.
• Understanding: It refers to the process of interpreting and assimilating information.
• Application: It refers to the process of utilizing information in new and different situations.
• Analysis: It refers to the process of identifying the pattern and connection among the given information.
• Synthesis: It refers to the process of combining information and making connections among them to generate a new idea.
• Evaluation: It refers to the process of making judgments and Justifying decisions about the value of information and materials.

Important Points 

 Following are the questions that assess the 'analysis' aspect of the cognitive process:-

• How is the Civil Rights Act 1964 different from the Right to Information Act 2005? In this question, students analyze
• Civil rights and Right to information act.
• Differentiate between economic and non-economic activities:- In these questions, students compare economic and non-economic activities.

​Thus, it is concluded that B and C are correct.