CTET Paper 2 Maths & Science 8th Jan 2022 (English-Hindi) (Previous Year Paper)

Childhood is generally considered to be either a natural biological stage of development or a modern idea or invention. It is generally referred to as the pre-school or school period.

Key Points

• ​The universal notion of child and childhood: It is not possible to define childhood at the universal level because every child is growing up in different backgrounds, and cultures, having different abilities and disabilities.
• Culture differs according to place, time, community, and race and this is natural.
• Understanding of a child improves by direct engagement in society, by following socio-cultural contexts.
• Everyone's life is influenced by the culture that surrounds them and adopts it as the same it is.

Thus we can say that there cannot be a universal notion of a child and that childhood is possible and children can learn from their society and interact with their culture and tradition. 

Important Points Childhood refers to the period of the human lifespan, ranging from birth to puberty. It consists of many developmental stages. It is from two years to the age of 10 or 12 years. It consists of two stages i.e. Early & Late Childhood.

• Early Childhood:
• 'Early childhood' lies between the age of '2 to 7 years.
• It is also known as the toy age, pre-gang age, curiosity age, exploratory age, etc. It is a very crucial period for the overall development of the child.
• Later childhood: 
• Later childhood is the time period from the age of '7 to 12 years.
• The signs of puberty usually begin to appear in this stage. It is also known as elementary school-age, troublesome age, gang age, play age, etc.

The term “development” is generally used to refer to the dynamic process by which an individual grows and changes throughout its lifespan. It is often thought of as the process of qualitative change taking place from conception to death. It deals with all areas including physical, motor, cognitive, physiological, social, emotional, and personality.

Key Points

• Development is shaped by the joint influences of both nature and nurture in a cultural context. Both nature and nurture jointly influence development.
• Nature refers to the hereditary contribution a child receives from parents at the time of conception. Genetics determines several aspects of a person’s physical structure and functioning as well as some psychological characteristics to a certain extent.
• Nurture refers to the influence of the environment on all of those same things and includes parenting style, physical surroundings, economic factors, and anything that can have an influence and development that does not come from within the person.

Thus by all these references, we can conclude that nature and nurture both play an important role in the development of children.

Hint

• Nothing can determine everything whether it is a gene or the environment.
• Both heredity and environment play an important role in the development of the child.

Additional Information  Factors affecting the development of the child are:

• Genetically Determined Factors: most of the inherited characteristics are essentially influenced by the environment.
• For example, a child may be endowed with the hereditary potential for physical growth, but his/her potential may be stunted due to various reasons such as lack of nutrition or illness or being forced to do too heavy work for the body.
• Non-genetically Determined Factors: There are many non-genital factors that affect the development of the child these are- 
• Conditions in the Pre-natal Environment
• Maternal nutrition
• Maternal health
• Nutrition
• Physical  effects and illness
• The Psycho-social Environment of family and Culture, and many more.

Development refers to qualitative changes in an individual. It involves the processes that are genetically programmed as well as those that are influenced by the environment.

• Development takes place in all aspects such as physical, cognitive, language, social, emotional, and others. Development is governed by certain principles which are applicable to all individuals.

Key Points Characteristics of development:

• Each milestone that develops is dependent upon the previous milestone and does not depend on age. Age is only considered as an average.
• Children develop day to day at different rates and reach developmental milestones at different points.
• The developmental process, guided by the interaction of maturation and learning, follows a predictable pattern.
• Every aspect of life, including, intellectual growth, social interactions, and physical health are multidirectional (up, down, constant, or irregular).
• The principle of multidirectional maintains that there is no single, normal path that development must or should take. In other words, healthy developmental outcomes are achieved in a wide variety of ways.

Thus by all these references, we can consider that Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Important Points There are some principles of development, which show the features of development, these are:

• Principle of Continuity: Development follows the principle of continuity which starts with conception and ends with death. It is a never-ending process in life.
• Principle of Individual Differences: It says that every individual is unique in himself/herself as the heredity and environmental factors make him/her different from others.
• Principle of Generality to Specificity:  The development process starts with general responses shown by the child as s/he passes through the later stages s/ he starts exhibiting specific behaviors.
• Principle of Interrelation: The development of an individual is reflected through the balanced interrelation of all the aspects of life. Development in any aspect affects the other aspect also.
• Principle of Interaction: The principle of interaction suggests that an individual is the product of heredity and environment. In other words, the interaction takes place within and outside forces of the child.
• Principle of Integration: The principle of Integration refers to the integration of various aspects of development like physical, mental, emotional, social, and moral.
• Principle of Predictability: Development is predictable i.e. with the help of the uniformity of the pattern and sequence of development, we can predict the behavior to a great extent of a child in one or more aspects in a particular stage of her/his growth and development.
• Principle of Sequentiality: It states that every individual although exhibit difference in change, they follow the same sequence of change.

According to Piaget, cognitive development takes place at different rates at different stages of development. At the elementary level, there is not only an increase in children's capacity to learn but also a qualitative change in their thinking process. Piaget has classified the whole continuum into four stages to elaborate on the process of cognitive development.

• Sensory Motor Period (0-2 years)
• Pre-operational period (2-7 years)
• Concrete operation period (7- 11 years)
• Formal operational period (11-15 years) ​

Key Points The Formal Operational Period: Formal operational period is the fourth stage of Piaget's classification which starts at about the age of 11 years and continues till about the age of 15 years. At the stage of concrete operation (7-11 years), the child requires mainly four imconcrete operation stage: Mental representation, mainly requireslass inclusion, and Multiple classifications.  

 Characteristics of formal operational period:

• A stage of thinking about the thinking process rather than merely thinking about the context of thought.
• A stage of applying different and flexible ways to think about ideas.
• A stage of real versus possible. Children do not think only about concrete things but start thinking about imaginary things and possible occurrences.
• At when elementary level children can use deductive logic, and abstract thinking while at the primary level children prefer inductive logic.
• When children start thinking systematically and methodically.

Thus by all these references, we can consider that the formal operational stage is the stage in which a child can relate logic to this type of question" if All Humans are fish and some fish are intelligent. Are all humans intelligent?"

Important Points

Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, has made a systematic study of cognitive development in his theory that is categorized into four stages. 

• He observed his children and their process of making sense of the world around them and developed a model of how the mind processes new information encountered.

Key PointsPiaget considered that cognitive development is independent of language and thought determines language.​

• According to Piaget, thought emerges first, and; language becomes the intermediary providing the means by which later concepts and conceptual thinking are furthered.
• He emphasizes that "Thought not only determines language but also precedes it".
• According to him, language and cognitive development doesn't base on social interaction. Although Vygotsky explains as language and thought can be developed much by social interaction.

Hence this is a critique of Piaget on language development but it is considered as language and thought are developed by direct interaction with society.

Hint According to Vygotsky:

• Language is essential for cognitive development.

Language plays a powerful role in shaping individuals' thoughts.

• By acquiring; language, a child modifies its higher mental functions.

• In the initial stage, thought & language are independent but merge at around two years of age.

Important Points

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist whose Socio-cultural Theory emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities.

• Vygotsky emphasizes reciprocal learning, participatory learning, collaborative learning, and peer group learning.

Key Points

• Teachers and students collaborate among themselves in learning and practicing four key skills: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher’s role in the teaching-learning process is reduced over time.
• It provides scope for reciprocal teaching in which students play the roles of teacher and when they face difficulties, the teacher helps them as a facilitator.
• It provides learners scope to participate in creative activities and self-organization of ideas.
• It provides scope for new knowledge to be acquired and present knowledge to be expanded by the learner.
• In this approach, the teacher monitors and flexibly guide the students to the correct answer while encouraging critical thinking.
• It encourages teamwork and collaboration.

Thus by all these references, we can consider that reciprocal teaching is the method by which teachers and students collaborate.

Important Points

• Discovery learning is a technique of inquiry-based learning and is considered a constructivist-based approach to education. It can occur whenever the student is not provided with an exact answer but rather the materials to find the answer themselves.
• Expository teaching is a lecture presentation or telling strategy used during instruction. The teacher is in control of presenting the subject matter and directs the students through the lesson.

Lev Vygotsky is a Russian Psychologist who proposed the theory of Socio-cultural development. In this theory, Vygotsky emphasizes the role of society and culture in the development of the child. According to him, there are three main needs for the development of the child and these are- Social interaction, Culture, and Language.

Key Points Vygotsky also proposed three basic needs of students during learning, these are:

• ZPD (zone of proximal development):  The difference between the learning of a child by self and the learning of a child with the help of others(society, culture, etc).
• Scaffolding: Scaffolding is the term, given by Vygotsky, in which he proposed that the temporary help given by the teachers, family, friends, etc. to the children in his learning.
• MKO (more knowledgeable others)- Vygotsky defined the “More Knowledgeable Other” (MKO) as anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, particularly in regards to a specific task, concept, or process. MKO could be teachers, parents, tutors, and even peers.

Thus by all these references, we can conclude that scaffolding is the term given by Vygotsky which entails changing the quantity as well as the quality of the support provided to the child.

Additional Information  According to Vygotsky, there are three main factors that affect the learning of the child and these are- Social interaction, Culture, and Language:

• Social interaction: ​​Children try to interact with people.
• Example: Peer groups, family members, etc.
• Culture: ​Children adopt the culture by interaction.
• Language: Children can easily intimate their primary language through interaction or communication.

The theory of a child's moral development is proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg in 1958. he describes the theory on 3 different levels and these 3 levels are further classified into 6 stages.

Key Points Stage of Kohlberg's moral development theory:

• Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles orientation:  in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society. Apart from what is constitutional and democratically agreed upon the right is a matter of personal values. The result is based upon a legal point of view but with a Right to Education emphasis upon the possibility of changing the law in terms of consideration of social utility.

Thus we can consider that stage 6 of Kohlberg's moral development theory "Universal Ethical Principles orientation" explains individuals base their judgment on individual rights and justice for the greater good.

Important Points Other 5 stags of Kohlberg's moral development theory:

• Stage-I: The Punishment and Obedience Orientation: The physical consequences of an action determine whether the action is good or bad regardless of the human value or the meaning of these consequences. Avoidance of punishment and deference to power are valued in their own right, not in terms of respect for the underlying moral order
• Stage-2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation: Right action consists of that which instrumentally satisfies one's own needs and occasionally the needs of others.
• Stage 3: Good boy - Nice Girl Orientation: Good behavior is that which pleases or helps others and is approved by them. Behavior at this stage is frequently judged by intentions - "he means well", becomes important for the first time. One earns approval by being good to others.
• Stage-4 Law and order orientation: There is an orientation towards authority, fixed rules, and maintenance of social order. Right behavior consists of doing one's duty, showing respect for established or lawful authority, and maintaining given social order for its own sake.
• Stage- 5 The Social Contract: Legalistic Orientation At this stage right actions tend to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society.

Howard Gardner is a developmental psychologist who proposed the theory of multiple intelligence. This theory stated that intelligence is not confined to a particular domain, but rather consists of a variety of factors rather than being dominated by a single factor.

Key Points

• Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence-
• ​This theory states that people are not born with all the intelligence they have.
• He proposed that the traditional concept of intelligence was excessively narrow and limiting and that IQ tests frequently overlooked other intelligence that a person might possess.
• This theory shattered the conventional thinking that there is just one kind of intelligence, frequently referred to as "g" for general intelligence which is solely concerned with cognitive abilities.
• Gardner introduced 8 types of intelligence that are linguistic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, logical, and naturalistic.

Hence, we conclude that Howard Gardner critiques the conventional thinking of intelligence as a fixed trait.

Important Points

National Education Policy 2020- According to NEP 2020, A good educational institution is one in which every student feels welcomed and cared for, where a safe and stimulating learning environment exists, where a wide range of learning experiences are offered, and where good physical infrastructure and appropriate resources conducive to learning are available to all students.

Key Points Some important fundamental principles of the NEP 2020 are- 

• Full equity and inclusion as the cornerstone of all educational decisions to ensure that all students are able to thrive in the education system.
• It includes the overall development of the leader, it covers all three aspects as Cognitive domain, affective domain, and psychomotor domain.
• Emphasis on conceptual understanding rather than rote learning and learning-for-exams.
• Assessment of the students should be done by using different methods, by different activities including role play, portfolios, etc.
• The curriculum/instruction is in the native language or in the mother tongue of the primary students so that they can understand and imply it perfectly.
• Promoting self-assessment and the peer assessment done by the student in the classroom.
• Respect for diversity and respect for the local context in all curriculum, pedagogy, and policy, always keeping in mind that education is a concurrent subject.
• Establishment of the linkage of the concepts with the environment or we can say that the linkage of the school with the home.
• Promoting multilingualism and the power of language in teaching and learning.
• Creativity and critical thinking encourage logical decision-making and innovation.
• It emphasizes group work as well as individual work, NEP 2020 links the study to the curriculum.

Thus by all these references, we can conclude that According to National Education Policy 2020 children at the primary level learn the best when the medium of instruction is their home language/mother tongue.

John Dewey, an American philosopher has proposed the concept of 'Progressive Education' which emphasizes that learning takes place only through a 'hands-on' approach so the students must interact with their environment to adapt and learn.

Key Points Characteristics of progressive education:

• Education for society and democracy.
• Collaborative and cooperative learning.Learning as opposed to rote knowledge.
• Progressive education is based on learning by doing. Everything learned by the children should be related to their curriculum and activities.
• Learners are autonomous, they evaluate themself as per their engagement in the task, work quality, etc.
• Flexible timetable and seating arrangement.Emphasis on lifelong learning and social skills.
• Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units.
• Learners are curious to find new ways to solve the problem by exploring their surroundings.
• Progressive education emphasizes enhancing the skills and understanding of the learners by engaging with the content and experiences.
• Emphasis on problem-solving and critical thinking.
• De-emphasize textbooks, and emphasize multiple resources.

Hence by all these references, we can consider that autonomy and curiosity both are the quality of the learners if they are in progressive education.

Hint 

• Learners in progressive education are active and they are the center of the class, they do not depend on teachers and others.

Socio-constructivism focuses on the collaborative nature of learning. Knowledge develops from how people interact with each other, their culture, and society at large.

Socio-constructivist frame: Students have also to include the social and cultural settings, in which they learn and which also have an impact on students as they change their ideas.

Key Points Characteristics of Socio-constructivist classroom:

• Elicit students’ existing ideas, including any alternative conceptions.
• It views learners as makers of meaning and creators of knowledge through social interaction.
• It emphasizes collaboration with others for learning, work, performance, problem-solving, etc.
• Encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning, and this includes reflecting on their own thinking and learning processes
• It allows learners to foster their own strategy of learning to perform an activity.
• It gives equal opportunity to all the students in all the aspects according to their activities.
• For example: in the classroom, the seating arrangement is changes students by students from the first position to the last position, so that every learner gets an equal opportunity to sit in all the positions, but it depends on the activities and activeness of the learner in the classroom.
• The student performs different tasks which helps them to make their thoughts divergent. There is no repetition of the task in socio-constructivist classrooms.
• Rote memorization, learning based on recalling, and repetition are not allowed in a socio-constructivist classroom,
• Connect learning with everyday contexts. Where possible, organize courses around problems, of local interest and impact, which have been identified by students.
• The classroom should be child-centered, not teacher-centered so that students are allowed to ask questions freely.

Hence we can conclude that seating arrangement changes according to the activity is the main feature of progressive education.

Hint

• Materials and TLMs are not only for display, it is given to the students which help them to learn concept meaningfully.
• Children are the active participants in the classroom, they can learn mostly by doing.

Gender refers to the socially constructed differences between men and women. It refers to the masculine and feminine qualities, behavior, roles, and responsibilities that society upholds. Gender can be changed / re-oriented.

Gender stereotype is an oversimplified and unfair belief or idea that groups of people have particular characteristics or that all people in a group are the same.

Key Points

• Gender stereotype type of thought or belief reduced the ability of the students, and make them the same stereotypes as they are.
• Gender stereotype is the belief that set the limit on the learning of the students and also demotivates them if they are willing to learn some new skills.
• Gender stereotype is a belief of the society that boys have a good command of tools and utensils as compared to the girls, this shows Gender Stereotyping thought.
• It is believed that girls are not much intelligent in mathematics as boys, so in the middle classes, boys should have to choose Mathematics and Science as a subject, and girls have to choose languages and arts.

So this belief that mathematics and Science are good for boys and languages are good for girls is a gender stereotype belief that increases the gap between both sexes.

Important Points Gender stereotypes can be reduced in the classroom by the following:

• Making the environment of the classroom flexible for all, all as treated as students instead of girls or a boy.
• In a classroom, teachers should have to treat boys and girls equally.
• Teachers should provide equal opportunities to both girls and boys.
• To avoid the situation of gender stereotype, a family should start involving boys in household chores that were mainly concerned with girls traditionally which gave rise to gender biasing and stereotyping.

Individual differences are characteristic of all living organisms, variations in individuals of the same age in height, weight, body build, and behavior. Personality, intelligence, and attitudes are also the main focus of individual differences.

• Example: A child is taller than his friend, here 2 children one is dwarf and another one is tall, which shows individual differences between them.

Key Points

 In a classroom a teacher should treat individual differences:

• Teachers should not have to try to reduce or ignore individual differences because it makes the classroom interesting and also opposes the concept of inclusive education.
• The teacher should respect the values, knowledge, and culture of every student.
• Promotes learners to engage in activities and gives them equal opportunities to share their experiences.
• Teachers should analyze the students on an individual basis, they have to plan the education as per the analysis or the needs of the individuals.
• Students of different languages and cultures are admitted into the classroom, which affects the knowledge of all the students, so teachers should have to promote this diversity.
• Labeling should not be done in diverse cultural classrooms.

So by all these references, we can conclude that Catering to individual needs by preparing individualized education plans is the best strategy adopted by the teacher to find out the needs of the learners.

Important Points

 Effective ways for Educators to deal with Individual Differences:

• Knowledge of Individual Personality.
• Adjustment in Curriculum.
• Adjustment of Method of TeachingSpecial Program or Individualizing Instruction.
• Grouping of Learners.

Thinking is the basis of all cognitive activities or processes and is unique to human beings. It involves the manipulation and analysis of information received from the environment. There are different kinds of thinking styles which include creative, logical, concrete thinking, etc.

Critical thinking is a process that challenges an individual to use reflective, reasonable, rational thinking to gather, interpret, and evaluate information in order to derive a judgment. 

Key Points Characteristics of critical thinking:

• Critical thinking develops the logic to solve the problem so that a student can learn conceptually by critical thinking.
• Critical thinking promotes the divergent thinking of the learners, they can think in multiple ways to solve a problem.
• Example: They can suggest various ways of water storage, They can find out another way to solve the same problem by using their skills and divergent thoughts.
• Direct involvement of the students in the problem related to critical problems.
• Critical thinkers can be assessed by observation of their working style, analyzing their interpretation skills, and involving them in various activities.
• It encourages divergent thinking among the students, student covers all the possible aspects related to solving the problem.
• The thinkers reach the solution by involvement in different aspects, such as searching, finding, etc.

So we can consider that finding multiple ways to solve the same problem is the main characteristic of the students having skills in critical thinking.

Additional Information  Few methods that a teacher can think of in order to inculcate the skill of critical thinking in the students:

• Engage students in problem-solving situations by providing problems that have multiple solutions.
• Do reward students who come up with innovative ideas.
• Develop the quality of persistence. Do not get bored while solving problems.
• Develop a risk-taking ability and engage in creative activities.
• Avoid the rigid and fixed patterns of solving problems.
• Promote interaction with teachers and among peers.

Inclusive education essentially refers to the educational philosophy that students with disabilities should be placed in the same classroom environment as other students of their age who do not have special needs.

• Inclusive education in its real sense is nothing but a process of creating a system of education that caters to the needs of all children.

Key Points Barriers to the inclusion of children in inclusive education:

• There are numerous barriers to inclusion: the barriers of architecture, buildings, transportation, and entertainment spaces. We create educational institutions with healthy teachers and students in mind, who can run up a flight of stairs to the library or a classroom. This barrier in architecture perhaps stems from barriers in attitudes that we able-bodied have. The social model of disability often focuses on changes required in society.
• Parental resistance is a strong factor in the barrier to inclusive education.
• The other factors affecting the inclusion of children include large class size, vast curriculum content, lack of awareness to deal disabled, rigid curriculum, and time frame.
• Awareness about issues related to the provisions and policies formulated for Inclusion in the disabled population seems to be very low amongst the general educators.
• Attitudinal barriers to the inclusion of children with disabilities in regular schools include negative attitude to persons with disabilities and to their schooling.

Thus in order to promote inclusive education, the inaccessible building is one of the major barriers for the students.

Hint

• The principle of equity is the main character of inclusive education, where all the students are treated equally and provided equal opportunities.
• Empathic culture, flexible environment and curriculum based on the capacities of the students are the major features of inclusive education.

Inclusive education essentially refers to the educational philosophy that students with disabilities should be placed in the same classroom environment as other students of their age who do not have special needs.

• Inclusive education in its real sense is nothing but a process of creating a system of education that caters to the needs of all children.

Key Points In Inclusive education the main objectives are-

• All the students of different abilities, differences, and disabilities are treated equally.
• Inclusive education provides barrier-free access for all students.
• Creating a culturally friendly environment in which the child can learn with diversity, not creating a special environment for learning.
• Emphasis on their learning to read instead of emphasizing teaching.
• To use different teaching methods according to the needs of each student, so that every child can have access to knowledge.
• Equitable education for all, including challenging, backwards, and disabled children.

Thus by all these references, we can conclude that in inclusive education teachers should not keep high expectations from the selected few learners, teachers provide the learning tasks to all the learners as per their abilities and disabilities.

Important Points  Principles of Inclusive Education:

• Well-constructed educational plan.
• Use of multilingualism as a resource.
• Equity and equal opportunities for all.
• Use of specific pedagogical strategies.
• Sensitization towards individual differences.

The term "Disability" is, generally speaking, a kind of absence or lack of one or more capacities that the majority of human beings possess and without which our physical or mental activities are restricted partially or totally. 

Key Points  Autism refers to a neurodevelopment disorder that is characterized by difficulties with social communication and social interaction and restricted and repetitive patterns in behaviors, interests, and activities.

Characteristics of autism include:

• Autism is a “spectrum condition” that affects people differently and to varying degrees.
• It is an early-onset disorder that is present from birth and can be diagnosed as early as 2 years of age in the developmental stage.
• Severe impairment in basic social skills.
• Presence of repetitive patterns of behavior.
• Problems or delays in the development of communication skills.

Thus by all these references, we can conclude that Autism is the disability in which a child faces problems related to less interaction with society or difficulty in social interaction.

Important Points

• Dyslexia: It is a Reading disability, which is not due to mental retardation, brain damage, or a lack of intelligence. It is caused by an impairment in the brain’s ability to translate images received from the eyes or ears into understandable language.
• Locomotor Disabilities: "locomotor disability" means disability of the bones, joints, or muscles leading to substantial restriction of the movement of the limbs or any form of cerebral palsy.
• The term 'visual impairment' is used to refer to not only those who are blind but also those who have low vision.

The term 'hearing handicap' refers to the effect of hearing impairment on a person's day-to-day life. In the absence of appropriate and early intervention, hearing impairment often turns into a handicap, negatively affecting a person's development and functioning in day-to-day life.

• Hearing impairment is defined as the inability of an individual to hear sounds appropriately or suitably.

Key Points The hearing impairment child can be helped by-

• Providing the child with hearing aids to improve the existing hearing capacity.
• Using titles or subtitles of video lectures, and projector films, so that they can learn the respected concept by reading these titles.
• Provides the training to develop speech.
• Enhancing their skills of lip-reading so that they can learn or understand the concepts by reading the lips of the facilitator.
• Provide more time to understand the lesson, so that they can process the concept in a way in which they can learn properly.
• Teachers can learn some of the techniques that help the child in the classroom.
• The use of expression or non-verbal expressions can also help the students to learn the concept.
• The child will have to be taught lip-reading or sign language and finger-spelling instead of sending him to a special school.

Thus we can consider that students with hearing impairment can not listen properly so the lecture methods are not good for them.

Important Points Need for different Training for Children with hearing impairment:

• Auditory training: In this, the child listens to and discriminates between different sounds. They need help in acquiring effective speech and language skills, in being able to use listening and speaking to interact successfully with others
• Speech Training: In this, the child is trained to understand the speaker without hearing, just by watching the movements of lips and tongue and other facial expressions.
  

Language Training: It is the most important for a child with a hearing disability. The resource teachers should use some strategies to incorporate in the classroom which will help the students to develop language.

Gifted students: Gifted students are those who display evidence of high-performance capabilities, in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership quality, or specific academic subjects, in comparison to others of the same age.

Key Points  A teacher should follow these ways in the classroom where all types of students take part:

• Provide equal opportunities to all the students.
• Respect diversity and multilingualism.
• Set the goal of the students as per their individual needs, interests, abilities, and capabilities.
• Should not allow the standardized curriculum in the classroom.
• Treat all the students equally whether they are gifted, creative, or backward.

Thus by all these references, we can conclude that standard curriculum should not be applied by the teacher in the classroom.

Important Points Some important characteristics of gifted children are-

• Advanced logical thinking, questioning, and problem-solving behavior.
• High speed in processing information
• Superior generalization and discrimination ability
• Advanced level of original and creative thinking
• High level of intrinsic motivation and self-esteem

Learning is a continuous life-long process that is not inherited but can begin right from birth by providing constant interaction and stimulation received from the physical, social, and cultural environment and it does not stop till the end.

Key Points A teacher should give opportunities to students for applying learning to different situations.

• In the teaching-learning process, the teacher should give opportunities to students for applying learning to different situations as it supports deep long-lasting knowledge among learners.
• Students learn by connecting new knowledge with knowledge and concepts that they already know, thereby constructing new meanings.
• Students are better able to apply ideas and knowledge taught in the classroom to real-world situations when they are engaged in hands-on experience and reflection.
• It encourages children to be independent and inquisitive as it focuses on investigation and analysis and also develops critical thinking.
• Helps children to memorize information- When kids are physically and mentally involved in the learning process it will help them to retain information for a long time.

Hence, we conclude that both (A) & (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Any action intended to assess or control one's own cognitions can be referred to as cognitive monitoring. Planning, checking, self-testing, and fixing mistakes are a few examples of cognitive monitoring.

Key Points

• Techniques to facilitate cognitive monitoring skills-
• Identifying what doesn't make sense-​ The teacher should identify what children are not understanding for developing the proper understanding of concepts.
• Making intuitive predictions of answers- Prediction of answers encourages students to use their existing knowledge and experiences and promotes the development of critical thinking skills.
• Self-questioning and self-testing- This method helps children in learning by enabling them to concentrate and engage with the information being provided.

​​Hence, we conclude that the teacher should avoid dismissing errors without discussion.

Hint

• As errors are part of learning the teacher should not dismiss errors without discussion.
• The teacher should address the errors so that they can prevent them from making the mistake in the future.

Failure is the state or condition of not meeting a desirable aim and may be viewed as the opposite of success. There are many cognitive, physical, intellectual, scholastical, emotional, and cultural causes for the failure of students.

Students' failure is defined as the lack of educational success that results in greater education costs as well as social and economic consequences.

Key Points

• Ways to minimize the students' failure-
• Encourage them- The teacher should encourage children as much as possible and let them work at their own pace.
• Provide the opportunity for self-reflection- it helps children to discover where they can grow and improve.
• Making tasks comprehensible for children- It will help children to gain a better understanding of the concept and also boosts engagement.
• Look for the underlying problem- The teacher should look for the cause of their disinterest in learning tasks and when act accordingly.
• Helping students to understand the relevance of learning the task.
• Connecting concepts to real-life situations- The teacher should relate the concept with the everyday experiences of the children so that the children would be more attentive to the topic and it will also generate interest in the concept.

Hence, we conclude that students' failure can be minimized by helping students to understand the relevance of learning the task.

Learning refers to the modification of behavioral patterns as it modifies the behavior and personality of an individual. It is a comprehensive process that refers to a change in behavior, knowledge, and skills as a result of practice and experience. 

Effective learning:- Effective learning describes methods of teaching and learning that make the learning enjoyable.

Key Points Characteristics of effective learning:

• Students are actively involved in learning for learning the concepts or lesson in a meaningful way.
• It helps students to develop language, exploration skills, etc.
• retaining information and concepts for a longer period.
• enhancing skills and a better understanding of the concept.
• nurturing their curiosity and interest in the learning process.
• gaining concrete experience by actively engaging with content.
• assimilating practical knowledge by applying theoretical knowledge.
• It is achieved through teaching methods that allow children to actively participate in learning.

Thus we can conclude that learning can be effective and relevant when students take part in it actively for meaning-making.

Important Points Following are the four elements that are necessary for effective learning:-

• Attention:- Keeping attention or focusing on what we are learning is the key to successful learning. We should focus clearly without any distractions and also optimize our body, mind, and environment to learn effectively.
• Connection:- Next, connecting, associating, and consolidating the facts we have learned to organize what we have learned into meaningful information is highly important for effective learning.
• Emotions:- Emotions affect our cognitive ability of learning. Extreme stress and emotions lead to a lack of attention or focus but at the same time, little positive energy will boost our learning.
• Environment:-In order to remember, or for effective learning environment also plays an important role. It increases students' attention and focuses and promotes meaningful learning experiences.

Knowledge is a highly organized intellectual product of humans that includes personal experience, skills, understanding of the different contexts in which we operate our activities, assimilation of all these, and recording all this in a form that could be communicated to others. 

Anderson (1985) categorized knowledge into two distinct pigeonholes, declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge.

Key Points Procedural knowledge is the knowledge of how to perform a specific skill or task, it is considered as knowledge related to methods, procedures, or operation of equipment.

Procedural Knowledge

• It tells us how to do things.
• It is essentially skill-based; it however does not have the high rigor of declarative knowledge.
• It is largely based on the performance of the right action in the correct sequence.
• Procedural knowledge goes hand in hand with appropriate competencies in a particular area.
• Example: Riding a bicycle is a sequencing process in which a rider took correct action at the correct time, such as first he has to sit, then start riding by balancing, and applying a break when someone and something comes in front of him.

Thus by all these references, we can conclude that riding bicycle is a procedural knowledge.

Additional Information

• Declarative knowledge enables a student to collect facts in memory. It is also called descriptive knowledge which explains the basic knowledge about something.

Cognition is the mental processing of information, which is the function of the human mind that allows perceptions to grow into conceptions. When we have control over our own cognitive functions that are termed metacognition.

Key Points Characteristics of Metacognition:

• Metacognition makes students' thoughts divergent and gives them control over their own functionalities.
• A teacher should promote the development of the metacognition of the students through different activities, experiments, and hand-on-performances.
• Metacognitive strategies include Self-correction as it refers to methods used to help students understand the way they learn in other words, it means processes designed for students to 'think' about their 'thinking'.
• It pertains to the student’s capability of setting goals for learning, estimating the success with which the goals are being met, and selecting alternative strategies to meet the goals.
• It deals with the individual's awareness of the self as a knower and processor of information.
• Metacognitive capabilities are high-order knowledge as a way to access the process and learning. The metacognitive strategies provided teachers with concrete actions and thought processes to reflect upon.
• If a student is able to think about their thinking/way of thinking, it is much more beneficial for their learning, they can improve their learning by changing their thoughts.

Thus by all these references, we can conclude that metacognition is not a lower order knowledge.

Hint

• Metacognition is a process in which learner reflect on their own knowledge through their thoughts or thinking styles.
• Meta-cognition regulates both thinking and learning it can relate the learning with the thinking of the learners.

Problem-solving skills help students determine the source of a problem and find an effective solution. These are skills that help students identify and solve problems effectively and efficiently. Problem-solving is a process of overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere with the attainment of a goal.

Key Points Some basic characteristics of problem-solving skills are-

• These skills don't have rigidity.
• Learners practices different activities, teamwork, and group discussions to improve their skills.
• The curriculum should be regulated as per the needs and the requirement of the students.
• Learners use different ways to gain problem-solving skills, their thoughts are divergent.
• The learner uses their thoughts to solve a single problem in multiple ways.
• Different methods/functions are used by the teachers as well as learners, there is no fixedness in these skills.

Thus we can conclude that fixating on conventional uses for materials hinders the problem-solving process among students.

Important Points  These are the steps to solve the problem:

• Identification of problem -We have to identify the problem before solving it.
• Analyzing the problem-  After the identification of the problem, we have to analyze the problem, so that we can figure out which, methods and steps we have to use to solve it.
• Evaluating-  After analyzing the problem, the evaluation of the correct step is required.
• Implementation- Once the Evaluation is completed execute the steps if the result doesn't come, again start by analyzing the problem.
• It is important to the identification of the problem and ideas which we are going to follow to solve our problems rather than find the solution in the whole problem-solving technique.

When teachers provide instruction on concepts in various subjects, they are teaching students who already have some pre-instructional knowledge about the topic. Student knowledge, however, can be erroneous, illogical, or misinformed. These erroneous understandings are termed alternative conceptions or wrong concepts. 

Key Points Alternative Conceptions:

• These concepts are a normal part of the learning process.
• Through this process, the teacher recognizes that children are capable of thinking and their thinking is different from that of adults.
• Alternative conceptions are meaningful in mediating children's ability to learn. Children can learn much conceptually through their conception skills.
• Alternative conceptions of the students can be formed of any type either based on social or cultural experiences.
• Alternative conceptions of the students should not be discouraged by the teachers, teacher should have to respect these conceptions.
• They naturally form ideas from our everyday experience, but not all the ideas we develop are correct concerning the most current evidence and scholarship in a given discipline.
• Thus by all these references, we can conclude that alternative conceptions are meaningful in mediating children's ability to learn.

Emotions play an essential role in an individual's life. Emotion is a psychological state with four components, a positive or negative subjective experience, bodily arousal, the activation of specific mental processes and stored information, and characteristic overt behavior”.  

Key Points

• There are many emotions that affect the learning of the learners, these are -
• ​Happiness
• Hope
• Hopelessness
• Pride
• shame
• fear
• Curiosity
• Enjoyment
• Hopelessness: Hopelessness is the emotion that did not facilitate learning, this emotion makes a negative impact on the student toward learning.
• Hopelessness is giving no reason to expect good success. This will lead to demotivation among students.​​
• Hopelessness can affect the cognitive approach of the learner so that they can not perform well in their learning.

Thus we conclude that hopelessness makes a negative impact on the learning of the learners.

Hint 

• ​Curiosity: The impulse/emotion or desire to investigate, observe, or gather information, particularly when the material is novel or interesting. It refers students to getting the roots of the problem conceptually.
• Pride: Pride is an emotional response or attitude to something with an intimate connection to oneself, due to its perceived value.
• Joy: A feeling of extreme gladness, delight, or exultation of the spirit arising from a sense of well-being or satisfaction

The attribution theory focuses on how children make sense of events and how this influences their perceptions and actions. 

 Key Points The mechanism that starts, directs, and sustains a goal-oriented behaviour is known as motivation.

• Attribution theory and motivation-
• The attribution theory asserts that it is common for individuals to search for factors that can be connected to either their success or failure.
• The 3 basic types of characteristics that underlie success or failure are as follows-
• Internal or external
• Stable or unstable
• Controllable or uncontrollable
• If the outcome is stable, then it will remain the same for the next time also, so the child will think that no matter how hard he tries he will definitely going to fail. It will result in a decline in students' motivation.
• Uncontrollable external factors are those which cannot be easily altered and they will ensure your failure.

Hence, we conclude that stable and uncontrollable factors can cause a decline in students' motivation and attempts to engage in similar tasks in the future.

Hint 

• If the outcome is unstable it will it can be different on different occasions. For example, a student can succeed if he puts in the extra effort. It results in an increase in motivation.
• Controllable factors are those which can be altered.

Additional Information Motivation: The term motivation has been derived from the Latin word ‘movere’, which means ‘to move. “the factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms”.

Motivation is of two types, which are:

• Intrinsic Motivation.
• Extrinsic Motivation.

Given:

x = ${2 \over 5} \times {{ - 3} \over 7} - {1 \over {14}} - {3 \over 7} \times {3 \over 5},$

 Calculation:

⇒ x = ${2 \over 5} \times {{ - 3} \over 7} - {1 \over {14}} - {3 \over 7} \times {3 \over 5},$

⇒ x = ${{ - 6} \over 35} - {1 \over {14}} - {9 \over 35}$

Take LCM of denominators,

⇒ x = ${- 12 - 5 - 18\ \ \over 70}$

⇒ x = ${-1 \ \ \over 2}$

⇒ 3 x = ${-3 \ \ \over 2}$

Reciprocal of 3 x = - 2 / 3

∴ Option 2 is correct.

Given:

Five digit number is given = 9x34y, which is divisible by 24.

Concept used:

Divisibility rule of 8 and 3 which is factor of 24.

Divisibility rule of 8 is last three digit of number is divisible by 8.

Divisibility rule of 3 is sum of all digits of given number is divisible by 3.

Calculation:

The number is = 9x34y

First we check divisibility rule of 8,

According to this rule, last three digits is divisible by 8,

⇒ 34y is divisible by 8,

⇒ 34y / 8

When we divide 34y by 8 ,for complete divisibisible by 8 y should be 4 ⇒344 / 8 (Let y = 4)

Check the divisibility rule of 3,

According to this rule, sum of all digits is divisible by 3.

⇒ 9 + x + 3 + 4 + y = 16 + x + y is divisible by 3.

Put y = 4,

⇒16 + x + 4 = 20 + x

Which is completely divisible by 3 when x = 1 and 7

We take maximum value because question ask maximum value, x = 7

⇒ 20 + 7 = 27 is divisible by 3.

X = 7 and y = 4  

x + y = 7 + 4 = 11 

∴Option 1 is correct.

Given:

Two fraction values (${5 \over 10}$  +${5 \over 100}$ +${5 \over 1000}$) and ${5 \over 2}$

Concept used:

BODMAS- bracket of division, multiplication, addition and subtraction.

Calculation:

Let the number be added = x 

(${5 \over 10}$  +${5 \over 100}$ +${5 \over 1000}$) + x = $5 \over2$ 

x =  $5 \over2$ - (${5 \over 10}$  +${5 \over 100}$ +${5 \over 1000}$)

x = ${5 \over 2}$ - ${555\over 1000}$ 

x = ${2500 - 555 \over 1000}$

x = ${1945\over 1000}$

x = 1.945

∴ Option 3 is correct.

Given:

Total number of students = 60

Total number of students like to study Hindi = 1/5^th of Total Number of students

Total number of students like to study Mathematics = 3/8^th of The remaining like to study Mathematics and the remaining Like to study Science

Calculation:

Total number of students = 60

Total number of students like to study Hindi = 1/5^th of Total number of students

⇒ 1/5 × 60

⇒ 12

Remaining students = 60 – 12 = 48

Total number of students like to study Mathematics = 3/8^th of The remaining like to study Mathematics and the remaining Like to study Science

⇒ 3/8 × 48

⇒ The total number of students like to study Science =

⇒ 60 – (12 + 18)

⇒60 – 30

⇒30 

∴ Option 4 is correct.

Shortcut Trick

Find the nearest perfect square greater than 1510.

We know 30² = 900 and 40² = 1600.

Check 39² = 1521.

Number to be added = 1521 − 1510 = 11.

∴ The correct answer is 11.

Alternate Method

Given: The number is 1510.

Method: Long Division Method for Square Root.

⇒ 38² = 1444

⇒ 39² = 1521

⇒ Since 1510 lies between 38² and 39², the next perfect square is 1521.

⇒ Least number to be added = 1521 − 1510

⇒ Least number to be added = 11

∴ The correct answer is 11.

Additional Information

Perfect Square Properties

A perfect square never ends with the digits 2, 3, 7, or 8 at the unit place.

Finding Number to Subtract

To make a number a perfect square by subtraction, subtract the remainder obtained from the long division method (1510 − 66 = 1444).

Square of Numbers ending in 9

The square of a number ending in 9 always ends in 1 (e.g., 9²=81, 19²=361, 39²=1521).

Given: 

⇒ 4 + 5 (x - 1) = 34

Calculation: 

⇒ 4 + 5 (x - 1) = 34

⇒ 4 + 5x - 5= 34 

⇒ 5x - 1 = 34 

⇒ 5x = 34 + 1

⇒ 5x = 35

⇒ x = 7 

Put value of x in this,  (4x² - 3x)

⇒ 4 × (7)²   - 3 × (7)

⇒ 4 × (49) - (21)

⇒ 196 - 21

⇒ 175

∴ Option 1 is correct.

Given: 

⇒ (8x - x2 - 4) is subtracted from (3x2 + 5x - 4)?

Calculation:

⇒ (8x - x2 - 4) is subtracted from (3x2 + 5x - 4)?

⇒ (3x2 + 5x - 4) - (8x - x2 - 4)

⇒ (3x2 + x2)+ (5x - 8x) + ( -4 +4)

⇒ 4x2 - 3x + 0

∴ The coefficient of x2  is 4. 

∴ Option 4 is correct.

Given: 

While calculating the value of 95 × 103, a student writes 95 × 103 = 10000 + 10a - 15.

Concept used: 

⇒ (a - b) × (c + d) = (a × c) + (a × d) - (b × c) - (b × d)

Calculation: 

We can write 95 × 103 = (100 - 5) × (100 + 3)

⇒ (100 ×100) + (100 × 3) - (5 × 100) - (5 × 3)

⇒ 10000 + 300 - 500 - 15

⇒ 10000 - 200 - 15

We can write it as,

⇒ 10000 - 20 × 10 - 15 

Compare with given statement, 10000 + 10a - 15.

⇒ a = - 20

∴ Option 3 is correct.

Given: 

⇒ 42 machines produce some articles in 63 days.

Concept used: 

If a : b : : c : d  then, 

⇒ a/b = c/d

Calculation: 

Let the number of machines required = x 

As the Number of machines Increases the Number of Days Decreases 

∴ 42 × 63  =  x × 54 

⇒ x = 42 × 63 / 54 

⇒ x = 49 

⇒ 3x = 49 × 3 = 147 

Hence, the number of machines required is 147

∴ Option 4 is correct.

Given: 

⇒ ${x^4 - (y + z)^ 4 \over x^2 + y^2 + z^2 + 2yz}$

${x^4 - (y + z)^ 4 \over x^2 + y^2 + z^2 + 2yz}$

Concept used: 

⇒ (a² - b²) = (a + b) (a - b)

Calculation: 

⇒ ${x^4 - (y + z)^ 4 \over x^2 + y^2 + z^2 + 2yz}$

⇒ ${[x^2 - (y + z)^ 2] [x^2 + (y + z)^2] \over x^2 + y^2 + z^2 + 2yz}$

⇒ ${[x - (y + z)] [x + (y + z)][x^2 + y^2 + z^2 + 2yz] \over x^2 + y^2 + z^2 + 2yz}$

⇒ (x - y - z) (x + y + z)

∴ Option 2 is correct.

Given:

AB is a line, point P lies on it.∠CPD and ∠BPC are in the ratio 2 ∶ 3. ∠APD = 80°.

Concept:

Two or more angles when combined together form a line or straight angle are known as linear pair angles.

The sum of the linear pair angles is equal to 180°

Calculation:

Let ∠CPD and ∠BPC are 2x and 3x.

∠APD + ∠DPC + ∠CPB = 180° (Linear pair)

80° + 2x + 3x = 180° 

⇒ 80° + 5x = 180° 

⇒ 5x = 180° - 80° 

⇒ 5x = 100° 

⇒ x = 20° 

∠CPD = 2(20°)

⇒ 40° 

∠BPC = 3(20°)

⇒ 60° 

3∠CPD + 2∠BPC  = 3(40°) + 2(60°)

⇒ 120° + 120° 

⇒ 240° 

∴ The value of 3∠CPD + 2∠BPC is 240°.

Given:

PS = $1\over2$QR.

∠R = 24° 

Calcualtion:

In triangle PQR.

S lies at the mid point of QR.

QR = QS + SR

⇒ QR = QS + QS (As QS = SR)

⇒ QR = 2 QS

so, QS = $1\over2$QR    or SR = $1\over2$ QR ---- (1)

PS = $1\over2$QR (Given)      ---- (2)

From 1 and 2

PS = QS or PS = SR

so, PQS and PSR is an isosceles triangle.

In triangle PSR

∠SRP = ∠SPR

24° = ∠SPR (Angle opposite to equal sides of a triangle are equal).

∠SPR + ∠SRP + ∠PSR = 180°

⇒ 24° + 24° + ∠PSR = 180°

⇒ 48° + ∠PSR = 180°

⇒ ∠PSR = 180° - 48°

⇒ ∠PSR = 132°     ----(3)

Similarly, In triangle PQS

∠SQP = ∠SPQ

In triangle PQS

∠SQP + ∠SPQ = ∠PSR (Exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the interior opposite angle of a triangle).

∠SQP + ∠SQP = 132° (From 3)

⇒ 2∠SQP = 132°

⇒ ∠SQP = 66°

∴ ∠Q is 66°.

Given:

ABCD is a quadrilateral in which ∠A = ∠D and ∠B = ∠C.

Calculation:

Isosceles trapezium means bases of the trapezium are parallel and legs are equal.

∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D = 360°

⇒ ∠A + ∠B + ∠B + ∠A = 360° (As ∠A = ∠D and ∠B = ∠C)

⇒ 2∠A + 2∠B = 360° 

⇒ ∠A + ∠B = 180° 

If the sum of the interior angles on the same side of transversal is 180°. Then, the given lines are parallel. Hence, AD || BC.

∴ ABCD is an isosceles trapezium with AD || BC.

Concept:

Linear symmetry means when an object is cut exactly in the middle, to form two similar parts.

Rotational symmetry means when an object moves or rotates, still it looks like before. 

Calculation:

Kite is a figure which has one line of symmetry but no rotational symmetry. Kite has two different pair of adjacents sides that are equal in length. 

∴ Kite have linear symmetry but no rotational symmetry.

Given:

Length of the two sides of a triangle = 13 cm and 19 cm.

Concept:

The sum of the length of the two sides of a triangle is greater than the length of the third side. 

or

The difference between the two sides of a triangle is less than the length of the third side.

Calculation:

As the sum of the length of the two sides of a triangle is greater than the length of the third. so, the third side should be more than 6 cm i.e.(19 - 13) cm.

As the difference between the two sides of a triangle is less than the length of the third side.so, the third side should be less than the 32 cm i.e. (13 cm + 19 cm).

∴ The third side should be lies between the 6 cm and 32 cm.

Given:

Sides of a triangle are 45 cm, 51 cm and 24 cm

Area of triangle = Area of rectangle.

Length of rectangle = 30 cm

Concept:

A triangle is a right angled triangle, if the square of one side is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.

(Hypotenuse)² = (Perpendicular)² + (Base)²

Area of triangle = $1\over2$ × base × height

Calculation:

As given triangle is a right angled triangle because square of one side is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides (51)² = (24)² + (45)²

 ⇒ 2601 = 576 + 2025

⇒ 2601 = 2601

Area of triangle = (1/2) × 24 × 45

⇒ 540 cm²

Area of triangle = Area of rectangle

540  = 30 × b

⇒18 = b

Perimeter of rectangle = 2(30 + 18)

⇒ 96 cm

∴ Perimeter of rectangle is 96 cm.

Given:

Area of circular garden = A

Diameter of a garden = 9.8 m

Formula used:

Area of a circular garden = πr²

where r represents the radius of a garden respectively.

Calculation:

Area of a circular garden = πr²

Radius of garden = 9.8/2

⇒ 4.9 m

A = πr²

A = (22/7) × (9.8/2)²

⇒ A = (22/7) × (4.9)²

⇒A = (22 × 0.7 × 4.9)

⇒A = 75.46

Value of 2A + 4.48 = 2(75.46)+ 4.48

⇒150.92 + 4.48

⇒155.40 m²

∴ The value of 2A + 4.48 m² is 155.40 m².

Given:

Length of a roller = 1 m

Diameter of a roller = 84 cm

Number of revolution complete by a roller = 750

Formula used:

Area of a roller = 2πrh

1 m = 100 cm

Calculation:

Diameter of a roller = 84 cm or 0.84 m

Radius of a roller = 0.84/2

⇒ 0.42 m

Area cover by road roller in one revolution = 2πrh

⇒ 2 ×  (22/7) × (0.84/2) × 1

⇒ 22 × (0.12) × 1

⇒ 2.64 m²

Area covered by road roller in 750 revolution = 2.64 × 750

⇒ 1980 m²

∴ Distance covered by a road roller in 750 revolutions is 1980 m².

Given:

The mean of the range, mode and median of the observations

15, 50, 120, 6, 80, 100, 10, 8, 10, 15, 15 

Formula used:

Mean = sum of observation/Total number of observation

Range = Largest value - Smallest value 

Mode = value or a number that appears most frequently in a data set.

Meadian, If n = odd

((n + 1)/2)th term

Calculation:

Arrange ascending order of data 

⇒ 6, 8, 10, 10, 15, 15, 15, 50, 80, 100, 120

n = 11

Range = 120 - 6 

⇒ 114

Mode = 15, (3 times frequent)

Meadian = ((n + 1)/2)th term

⇒ (11 + 1)/2 = 6th term

⇒ 15

Mean = (114 + 15 + 15)/3

⇒ 48

∴ The mean of the range, mode and median of the observations is 48.

Given:

29, 30, 31, ........, 88, 89, 90.

Formula used:

P(E) = Sum of the favourable outcomes to E/ Total number of outcomes.

E represents the event.

Prime numbers are those numbers which are divisible by its number only.

Calculation:

Let E is the event of the outcomes which are non prime numbers which lies between from 29 to 90.

Prime numbers = 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89

Total outcomes = 62

Not a prime numbers(E) = 62 - 15

⇒ 47

P(E) = 47/62.

∴ 47/62 is the probability of drawing the slip which is not a prime number.

The goal of mathematics teaching at school is to build usable skills notably in the areas of numeracy, number operations, measurements, decimals, and percentages. 

Key Points 

• Conjecture- It refers to a statement that is considered to be true, but has not been scientifically confirmed. It is a statement based on observations that is considered to be true.
• Proof- It refers to a logical argument that attempts to prove the truth of a statement. It proceeds logically from assumptions to conclusions to support the truth of an assertion.
• Axiom- It refers to an unprovable rule which is self-evident. It is a statement that is assumed to be true to serve as a starting point for further reasoning and arguments, but it cannot be proved. For example- zero is a whole number.

Hence, we conclude that the correct answer is option 1.

A mathematics laboratory is a place where students can learn and explore mathematical concepts while also verifying mathematical facts and theorems using a variety of techniques.

Key PointsPurposes of mathematics laboratory-

• ​It allows children to learn mathematics by doing.
• To encourage children to understand basic mathematical ideas through the use of concrete objects and situations. The use of concrete objects, models, charts, graphs, and drawings helps to understand abstract mathematical ideas effectively.
• To help children in developing an interest in the subject as well as the confidence in their ability to learn it.
• To allow students to demonstrate how mathematical concepts connect to everyday life.
• To conduct activities focused on mathematical problem solving using games, puzzles, and models which helps in making the mathematics learning interesting.

Hence, we conclude that giving space for students to prepare for mathematics tests is not the purpose of a mathematics laboratory.

HintThe mathematics laboratory does not play a role in preparing students for tests as it is based on the principle of "learning by doing" and encourages children to make discoveries.

Error is defined as the discrepancy between the correct measurement and what we have measured.

Key Points

• How to measure angles using a protractor-
• Step 1- Place the origin over the vertex of the angle you want to measure.
• Step 2- Align one leg of the angle with the baseline by rotating the protractor.
• Step 3- Up to the measurement on the protractor's arc, follow the opposite leg of the angle.
• The measurement scale might appear confusing at first. Most protractors have 2 ruler grids, one on the inside and one on the outside of the arc. Both scales have the sam

e range from 0° to 180°, however, they run in opposite directions. Use the inner scale if the angle opens to the right side of the protractor and the outer scale if the angle opens to the left side of the protractor.

Hence, we conclude that the most appropriate reason for this error is that the child has not grasped the skill to read and angle in the right direction using a protractor.

The child is able to hold and align the protractor but he is getting confused with the measurement scale having 2 ruler grids.

Additional Information A protractor is a semicircular measuring tool that is used to measure angles.

The inductive approach is the method of arriving at a conclusion based on a series of observations.

Key PointsCharacteristics of inductive approach-

• In an inductive approach, general principles are derived from specific facts.
• It is a technique for building a formula using a large number of concrete, specific examples.
• It is based on the logic that if something is true for a particular case, then it is true for all such cases.
• In induction, students observe the relationship among cases which leads them to guess a common pattern.
• Inductive approach proceeds from particular to general, known to unknown, simple to complex, and example to formula.
• It is a child-centered approach as it encourages the child to discover the truth for himself and conclude after each observation.

Hence, we conclude that the inductive approach is not a teacher-centric approach to teaching mathematics.

Constructivism encourages students to create knowledge through experience rather than merely passing it on from teacher to student.

A constructivist classroom is associated with the constructivist approach to education which prioritizes collaborative learning by engaging students in conversations and projects.

Key Points

• Features of the constructivist approach-
• Students are in charge of their own learning and take the initiative by reflecting on their experiences. As a result of this process, they become experts in their own learning. (Children discover ways to find out areas and volumes of given shapes using concrete objects).
• Problem-solving is the primary activity in a constructivist classroom. Students ask questions study a topic and use a variety of resources to find answers.
• It places a strong emphasis on collaboration among students.
• Children are active participants rather than passive listeners.
• In a constructivist classroom, the activities are engaging and child-centered and the teacher fosters the learning process in which children are encouraged to be self-reliant and autonomous.

​Hence, we conclude that the best illustration of the constructivist approach in teaching mensuration is helping the learners discover ways to find out areas and volumes of given shapes using solid shapes and everyday objects. ​

Whereas introducing formulas, solving examples from the textbook, and using applications to teach the concepts are not effective techniques of teaching mensuration as they do not involve children being an active participant in the learning process.

The major purpose of mathematics education in schools according to the National curriculum framework is the mathematization of a child's thought process. Logic, reasoning, problem-solving, creativity, and mathematical mindset are all used in mathematics.

Key PointsObjectives of mathematics curriculum-

• According to NCF 2005, the higher goal of mathematics is to develop the children's ability to mathematization.
• Connecting concepts to the real-life situation- By relating the concept with the everyday experience of the children the teacher can make the connection between students' life and concepts which boosts students' engagement.
• Encouraging problem solving and problem posing skills.
• To develop an interest of students in mathematics and assist them in comprehending and mastering fundamental mathematical ideas and computational skills.
• To develop creativity and the ability to think, communicate and solve problems.

Hence, we conclude that developing rigour in algorithms is not an objective of the mathematics curriculum as per the national curriculum framework 2005.

 HintDeveloping rigour in algorithms is not effective when teaching more abstract concepts and when it is used too often it's hard for students to focus and concentrate on the subject.

Algebraic equations are mathematical expressions that use alphabets or letters to express integers with unknown values. for example x + 5 = √16

Key Points

• Algebraic equation - An expression is a number, a variable, or a combination of numbers and variables, and operation symbols. whereas An equation is made up of two expressions connected by an equal sign.
• For example, in the equation (x + 5= **√**16) the equals to symbol ( = ) denote the equation.

Hence, we conclude that the concept of algebraic equations can be explained using the given illustration.

Additional Information

• A constant value in an algebraic expression is a value or number that does not change in expression, it remains constant. For example, in the above equation, 5 and **√**16 are constants as their face values are 5 and **√**16 respectively.
• The cube root of a number is the value that when multiplied by itself 3 times gives the original value. For example, the cube root of 8 is 2 (8=2 X 2 X 2).

Misconception refers to the gap in children's knowledge. If they are not addressed properly, they can recover and build over time.

Key PointsThe misconception in understanding the denominator-

• In the above question, children know that 5 is greater than 4. And it is true, so they think that 1/5 is greater than 1/ 4. This misconception arises due to the large value of the denominator.
• This misconception should not occur if they will grasp the role of the denominator.
• Following are the steps to understand the denominator-
• Use a square or rectangular paper to make the fraction
• Cut the pieces out
• Make a comparison between the pieces and the given fractions.
• Now the children will be able to make the connection between the number of parts required to construct a whole and the size of the pieces.
• Once they have established the link and understand the role of the denominator, they will notice that 1/5 is less than 1/4.

Hence, we conclude that this misconception arises due to the large value of the denominator.

Hint

• 6th graders can easily understand fractions.
• Memorization should be discouraged in the classroom.
• The drill and practice approach is not effective when teaching more abstract concepts and when it is used too often it's hard for students to focus and concentrate on the concept.

Activity is a method designed or deployed by the teacher to bring about the conditions for learning.

Key Points

Activity to find the formula for the area of the circle- 

• Step 1- Cut a circle into equal sectors.
• 

Step 2- Just one of the sectors should be divided into 2 equal pieces.

• Step 3- Rearrange the sectors to form a rectangle.
• Step 4- The height of the rectangle represents the radius of the circle and the breadth is about half of the circle's circumference.
• We know that circumference = 2 π r
• So the breadth = π r
• Area = height X breath = (πr) X (r) = πr²

​​Hence, we conclude that this activity illustrates a way to derive the formula for the area of the circle.

Teaching and learning resources are referred to as any spoken, written, or visual content or activity utilized in a classroom. For example- textbooks, plays, stories, flashcards, etc.

Key PointsCultural Resources in the mathematics classroom-

• Stories and anecdotes- These aid in the development of several skills in students, including reasoning, communication, analogical reasoning, visualization, and logical-mathematical reasoning.
• Artifacts- Artefacts are human-made objects used for teaching and learning. They can help students manipulate and think about ideas making mathematics more accessible and comprehensible.
• The mathematical skills used by shopkeepers should be discussed by the teacher in the classroom as an alternate strategy for solving related problems. So that children can carry out activities to solve problems in a way that reflects the nature of such tasks in the real world.

Hence, we conclude that techniques of rote memorization may be the least contributing to the pedagogy of mathematics.

HintMemorization should not be promoted in the classroom as it does not lead to a deeper understanding of the information and there is no scope for developing logical thinking and investigation.

The correct answer is C and D.

Concept:

• Metal activity series: The metal reactivity series is an array of metals arranged in descending order of their reactivities. It is also known as the metal activity series.
• The top metals in the series (K, Na, Ca, Mg, and Al) are so reactive that they are never found as free elements in nature.
• The metals at the bottom of the activity series are the least reactive.
• Some of these metals can be found in their natural state in the earth's crust.

Explanation:

• A displacement reaction occurs when an atom or a group of atoms in a molecule is displaced by another atom. When an element replaces another element in a compound, a single displacement reaction occurs.
• A metal can only substitute for another metal, and a nonmetal can only substitute for another nonmetal. The other element can only be replaced by a more reactive element in the compound with which it reacts.

CuSO₄(aq) + Fe  → FeSO₄(aq) + Cu(s)

• This is a type of displacement reaction.
• In this reaction, the highly reactive metal iron replaces the copper in copper sulphate by donating two electrons, oxidises, and forming a compound known as ferrous sulphate.

CuSO₄ (aq) + Zn (s) → Cu (s) + ZnSO₄ (aq) 

• Above reaction is an example of displacement reaction.
• In this reaction, Zn is added to the copper sulphate solution, and Zn displaces Cu from its salt solution. This is because zinc is a more reactive metal that displaces less reactive metals from its solution.

Additional Information

Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + Zn(s)

• No reaction will take place in the above reaction, because zinc is less reactive than aluminium. Zinc is less reactive than aluminium in the metal reactivity series. As a result, it will not displace aluminium in the solution.

Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + Fe(s)

• No reaction will take place in the above reaction, because iron is less reactive than aluminium. As a result, it will not displace aluminium in the solution.

The correct answer is Sulphur.

Concept:

• Metals:
• Metals are electropositive elements that donate electrons, form positive ions, and become stable.
• Metals are good conductors because they are made up of lattices of atoms with free electrons.
• Non-metals:
• Non-metals are electronegative and form bonds by gaining electrons.
• Nonmetals are poor conductors of electricity because they do not have enough free electrons to efficiently pass electricity.
• Litmus paper:
• Litmus paper is used to determine whether a solution is acidic or alkaline.
• When blue litmus turns red, it indicates an acidic solution.
• When red litmus turns blue, it indicates a basic solution.
• Litmus paper is an excellent natural indicator.
• Litmus paper can have the properties to change its colour in the presence of acids and bases.

Explanation:

• Sulphur is a non-metal.
• Sulphur is a poor conductor of heat and electricity because electrons are not free to move, it is a poor conductor of heat and electricity.
• An element that transforms into an ion must have enough free space for its electrons to move and generate an electric charge.
• When Sulphur is burned in the presence of oxygen it produces Sulphur dioxide gas.

S + O₂ → SO₂

• Also, when Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) is mixed with water (H₂O), it produces Sulphurous acid (H₂SO₃).

SO₂ + H₂O → H₂SO₃

• Electrons of sulphur are very tightly bound and cannot move, making it more of an insulator.
• Sulfur dioxide gas acts as a bleaching agent because it is oxidized to sulphuric acid in the presence of water, resulting in the release of nascent hydrogen and the reduction of colouring matter to colourless.

Additional Information

• Properties of sulphur dioxide gas -
• SO₂ is a colourless gas or liquid with a strong, choking odour.
• SO₂ is non-metallic oxide and generally, the oxides of non-metal are acidic in nature. This means it can turn blue litmus red.

The correct answer is b, a, d, e, c.

Concept:

Nitrogen cycle:

• The nitrogen cycle describes the movement of nitrogen among various components such as plants, animals, bacteria, soil, and air.
• The various processes involved in the nitrogen cycle are nitrogen-fixation, nitrification, assimilation, ammonification and denitrification.

Explanation:

Nitrogen-fixation:

• It is the initial step of the nitrogen cycle.
• Here, Atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) which is primarily available in an inert form, is converted into the usable form ammonia (NH₃).
• Nitrogen fixation can occur either through atmospheric fixation, which involves lightning or through industrial fixation, which involves the production of ammonia under high temperature and pressure conditions.
• During the process of Nitrogen fixation, the inert form of nitrogen gas is deposited into soils from the atmosphere and surface waters, mainly through precipitation.

Nitrification:

• The presence of bacteria in the soil converts ammonia to nitrate during this process.
• Nitrites are formed through the oxidation of ammonia by Nitrosomonas bacteria species. Nitrobacter then converts the nitrites produced into nitrates.
• The following is the reaction involved in the nitrification process:

2NH₃ + 3O₂ → 2NO₂– + 2H⁺ + 2H₂O

2NO₂^- + O₂ → 2NO₃^–

• The nitrate thus, formed is absorbed by plants and then transported to the leaves where it gets reduced to ammonia that finally forms an amino group of amino acids.

Assimilation

• Plants use their roots to absorb nitrogen compounds from the soil, which are available in the form of ammonia, nitrite ions, nitrate ions, or ammonium ions and are used in the formation of plant and animal proteins. When the primary consumers eat the plants, it enters the food web.

Ammonification

• When plants or animals die, the nitrogen in the organic matter returns to the soil. Organic matter is converted back into ammonium by decomposers, which are bacteria or fungi found in the soil. This decomposition process generates ammonia, which is then used in other biological processes.

Denitrification

• Denitrification is the process in which the nitrate present in the soil is reduced back to free nitrogen (N₂). The process of denitrification is carried out by denitrifying bacteria.

The correct sequence of steps is

(b) Lightning strikes atmospheric nitrogen

(a) Rain washes down the gaseous nitrogen compounds to soil

(d) Plants uptake the nitrogen compounds

(e) Animals eat plants and excrete nitrogen compounds

(c) Bactria turns compounds of nitrogen into gaseous nitrogen

The correct answer is Copper sulphate, caustic soda.

Concept:

• Proteins are the most important biomolecules.
• Proteins are made up of hundreds or thousands of smaller units called amino acids that are linked together in long chains.
• They are large macromolecules that play an important role in growth and development, which is why they are referred to as the building block of the body.
• It is important to determine the proteins in order to understand their functions. It helps in characterising protein binding to other proteins, nucleic acids, or too small molecules. It is also important in drug discovery.

Explanation:

• The Biuret protein test detects the presence of protein.
• The Biurette reagent, made of sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and copper (II) sulphate, helps in the detection of protein in a sample.
• Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is also called caustic soda.

Biuret Test:

1. Take a clean and dry test tube for the biuret test.
2. Fill the test tubes with the food samples of your choice.
3. Add 2ml sodium hydroxide solution and 5–6 drops of copper sulphate solution.
4. Allow the mixture to stand for 4 – 5 minutes after gently shaking the test tube to thoroughly mix the ingredients.
5. The presence of protein is indicated by the appearance of a bluish-violet colour.

The correct answer is Loudness ∝ (amplitude)2

Concept:

Sound

• Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our ears.
• Sound is produced by vibrating objects. The matter or substance through which sound is transmitted is called a medium. It can be solid, liquid or gas.
• It travels in the form of longitudinal waves (Compression or rarefaction)

Explanation:

• Loudness of sound is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the vibration producing the sound.
• Loudness ∝ (amplitude)²
• For example, if the amplitude becomes twice, the loudness increases by a factor of 4.
• The loudness is expressed in a unit called decibel (dB).
• The following table gives some idea of the loudness of sound coming from various sources.

• The loudness of sound depends on its amplitude.
• When the amplitude of vibration is large, the sound produced is loud.
• When the amplitude is small, the sound produced is feeble.
• Greater the amplitude, the greater is the loudness.

Additional Information

• The frequency determines the shrillness or pitch of a sound.
• If the frequency of vibration is higher we say that the sound is shrill and has a higher pitch.
• If the frequency of vibration is lower, we say that the sound has a lower pitch.

The correct answer is (a) - (ii), (b) - (iv), (c) - (i), (d) - (iii).

Concept:

The sun, eight planets, satellites and some other celestial bodies known as asteroids and meteoroids form the solar system.

Explanation:

• Asteroids
• Apart from the stars, planets and satellites, there are numerous tiny bodies which also move around the sun.
• These bodies are called asteroids.
• They are found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
• Comets 
• Comets are also members of our solar system.
• They revolve around the Sun in highly elliptical orbits.
• However, their period of revolution round the Sun is usually very long. A Comet appears generally as a bright head with a long tail.
• The length of the tail grows in size as it approaches the sun.
• The tail of a comet is always directed away from the sun. Many comets are known to appear periodically.
• One such comet is Halley’s comet, which appears after nearly every 76 years. It was last seen in 1986.
• Meteors
• The small pieces of rocks which move around the sun are called meteoroids.
• Sometimes these meteoroids come near the earth and tend to drop upon it.
• During this process due to friction with the air they get heated up and burn.
• It causes a flash of light. Sometimes, a meteor without being completely burnt, falls on the earth and creates a hollow.
• Artificial satellites
• Artificial satellites are man-made.
• They are launched from the Earth. They revolve around the Earth much closer than earth’s natural satellite, the moon.
• India has built and launched several artificial satellites. Aryabhata was the first Indian satellite. Some other Indian satellites are INSAT, IRS, Kalpana-1, EDUSAT, etc.
• Artificial satellites have many practical applications.
• They are used for forecasting weather, transmitting television and radio signals. They are also used for telecommunication and remote sensing.

The correct answer is Sugar solution.

Concept:

• Good conductors of electricity are materials that allow an electric current to pass through them.
• Materials that do not easily allow an electric current to pass through them are poor conductors of electricity.
• Common salt (NaCl) conducts electricity in aqueous solution or molten state.

NaCl (aq) → Na⁺ + Cl^-

• Due to the mobility of ions, common salt conducts electricity.

• Sugar is sucrose which is a non-electrolyte and does not give ions to the solution.

Explanation:

• ​Electricity cannot be conducted by all liquids. However, some of them are considered good conductors of electricity, while others are considered poor conductors of electricity.
• Water with dissolved salts and minerals always conducts electricity. For example, water obtained from taps, hand pumps, wells, and ponds.
• Electricity cannot be conducted by distilled water that does not contain any salts.
• Any acid or base solution can conduct electricity.
• During electrolysis, Sugar solution will not deflect the magnetic needle kept in its vicinity in a closed circuit.

NaCl (aq) → Na+ + Cl-

NaOH (aq) → Na+ + OH-

Lemon Juice - Weak acid (H⁺) ions

Additional Information

Good/Poor Conducting Liquids :

The correct answer is 13.8 m/s.

Concept:

• Speed determines how slowly or quickly an object moves. It describes the distance travelled divided by the time taken to complete the distance.
• Speed is directly Proportional to Distance and Inversely proportional to Time.
• Speed = Distance/Time
• As a result, Distance = Speed X Time, and
• Time = Distance/Speed, as speed increases, time taken decreases, and vice versa.
• Average Speed: Since the body does not always have the same speed, So we use the concept of average speed. It is the ratio of total distance covered to total time taken by the body.
• $Average;Speed = \frac{{Total;Distance}}{{Total;Time}}$

Explanation:

Distance travelled by bus = 4150 km - 4000km

                                         = 150km

                                         = 150,000m

Given: 

Time = 3hr

Time = 3 x 60 x 60 = 10800  sec

Average speed = Total Distance / Total Time

                          = 150,000/10800

                          = 13.8 m/s

Thus, the average speed of the bus is 13.8 m/s.

Alternate MethodTotal distance = 150 Km

Total Time = 3 hrs

Avg Speed  = 150/3 = 50 km/hr

Conversion of km/hr to m/s - multiply by 5/18

⇒ 50 × 5/18 = 13.8 m/s

The correct answer is B and C.

Concept:

• Wheat is the second most important cereal crop in the world.
• It is the primary food crop in the north and northwestern regions of the country.
• It requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall distributed evenly throughout the growing season.
• A good crop of wheat requires 12 to 15 inches of water.

Water holding capacity:

• The ability of a particular soil texture to physically hold water against the force of gravity is referred to as its water holding capacity.

Explanation:

• For the best growing of wheat the water retaining property is high and moderate also contain particle property like large number of fine and big paticles which is same in number.

Thus, B and C (Clayey soil and loamy soil) is the best for growing wheat.

Additional Information

Soil is of different types: clayey, loamy and sandy.

The soil is classified on the basis of the proportion of particles of various sizes.

• Sandy soil:
• If soil contains greater proportion of big particles it is called sandy soil.
• Percolation rate of water is highest in the sandy soil.
• Sand particles are quite large. They cannot fit lose together, so there are large spaces between them. These spaces are filled with air. Thus, the aeration in sandy soil is good.
• Due to the good aeration in soil water can drain quickly through the spaces between the sand particles. Thus, the water holding capacity of sandy soil is low.
• Clayey soil:
• If the proportion of fine particles is relatively higher, then it is called clayey soil.
• Percolation rate of water is least in the clayey soil.
• Clay particles, being much smaller, pack tightly together, leaving little space for air. Thus, the aeration in clayey soil is poor.
• Clayey soil are heavy so they hold more water as compared to other soils.
• It is also harmful to many plants. It is only suitable for crops that require a lot of water, such as wheat.
• loamy soil:
• If the amount of large and fine particles is about the same, then the soil is called loamy.
• Percolation rate of water is slow to medium in the clayey soil.
• Loamy soil is made up of roughly equal parts clay, sand, and silt. Thus, the aeration in loamy soil is moderate.
• The water holding capacity of loamy soil is moderate.
• Crops such as wheat, sugarcane, cotton, jute, pulses, and oilseeds grow in loamy soil.

The correct answer is (a) - (iv), (b) - (iii), (c) - (ii), (d) - (i).

Concept:

• Respiration is a catabolic process. It breaks organic molecules and releases their body energy.
• So, the exchange of gases occurs in all organisms, at all times by their respiratory organs.
• Like human beings, animals and plants are also required to respire.
• Different animal groups have a different mechanism of breathing for the exchange of gases.
• Lower animals like sponges, cnidarians, Platyhelminthes and free-living roundworms exchange O₂ by simple diffusion through body surface. For example- Earthworms respire through skin and insects have spiracles.
• Special vascularised structures called gills are used by most of the aquatic, arthopods and molluscs.
• The highly vascularised bags called lungs are used by the terrestrial forms for the exchange of gases, e.g., reptiles, birds and mammals. Amphibians (frog) respire through their skins as well as lungs.

Explanation:

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Cockroach: 

• Cockroaches have small openings on the sides of their bodies. Other insects have similar openings as well. These openings are known as spiracles.
• For gas exchange, cockroaches have a network of air tubes called tracheae.
• Oxygen-rich air rushes through the spiracles into the tracheal tubes, where it diffuses into body tissue and reaches every cell. Similarly, carbon dioxide from the cells enters the tracheal tubes and exits via spiracles.

Earthworm: 

• Earthworms breathe through their skins.
• The skin of an earthworm feels moist and slimy on touching.
• They begin to suffocate if their skin dries. Gases can easily pass through them.

Frog: 

• Frogs, like humans, have a pair of lungs, but they can also breathe through their moist and slippery skin.
• On land, frogs breathe only through the lungs as the air reaches the buccal cavity through the nostrils and then through the lungs.

Fish:

• Fish make use of a special respiratory organ known as gills to breathe underwater.
• Gills are projections of the skin.
• Gills are well supplied with blood vessels for the exchange of gases.

The correct answer is option 4 (In a forest, trees form the uppermost and shrubs form the lowest layer of vegetation).

Explanation:

Forests protect the soil from erosion. (TRUE)

• The term "forest" refers to a large area dominated by trees.
• Many animals need forests to live and survive.
• They are important for preventing soil erosion and retaining water on the earth's surface.
• Roots of trees hold the soil strongly. This prevents wind and water from eroding the soil. The presence of forests improves the overall quality of land.
• They protect the soil and provide habitat for a variety of animals.

Forests help in bringing good rain fall in neighbouring areas. (TRUE)

• Forests help to keep the surrounding air cool and bring rain.
• Forests, as we all know, have a diverse range of plants and trees. Plants lose water in the form of water into the atmosphere every day through transpiration. Every day, a tree loses more than 30 litres of water.
• As a result, forests release a large amount of water into the atmosphere. This increases the amount of moisture in the atmosphere, resulting in more frequent rains.

Forests influence climate, water cycle, and air quality. (TRUE)

• Forests play an important role in climate change and the water cycle because they provide fresh air to people.
• Forest trees have a very positive effect on climate, water cycle, and air quality. Trees absorb harmful gases, improving both air quality and climate. The water cycle is improving as a result of climate change.

In a forest, trees form the uppermost and shrubs form the lowest layer of vegetation. (FALSE)

• In forests, the uppermost layer is formed by trees, the second layer is formed by shrubs
• And the lowest layer is formed by herbs of the vegetation.

The correct answer is They have long legs.

Concept:

• The biological mechanism by which organisms adjust to new environments or changes in their current environment is known as adaptation.
• Deserts are the driest places on earth and sometimes go for months, or even years, without rain.

Explanation:

Camels have several adaptations that help them to survive in the deserts.

The following adaptations are found in camels:

• Its hooves are covered by a large sole that allows it to move through the hot, slick sand.
• Camels have long legs to keep the body away from heat of sand.
• It excretes very little water from its body through dry dung.
• The humps help the camels to survive in the desert, by acting as storage containers which are filled with fat. This food is used when the camel does not have anything to eat.
• Water is distributed evenly throughout its body rather than in a specific pocket or organ.
• They have a thick hair coat that rotectps them from the sun.

The correct answer is (a) - (iii), (b) - (i), (c) - (ii), (d) - (iv).

Concept:

In the human body, glands are of two types endocrine and exocrine glands.

Endocrine gland:

• The glands which do not have ducts, i.e., lack ducts are endocrine glands.
• Example: Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pineal gland, etc.

Exocrine gland:

• The glands which have ducts are known as the exocrine gland.
• Example: Salivary gland, digestive gland, sweat gland, etc.

Explanation:

Thyroid gland:

• The thyroid gland is also known to be the largest endocrine gland.
• It is endodermal in origin.
• Due to the irregular functioning of thyroid gland goitre is caused.
• Goitre is the enlargement of the thyroid gland.
• Goitre is caused by a lack of iodine in our diet.
• Iodine is required by the body to produce thyroid hormone.
• If you don't get enough iodine in your diet, your thyroid enlarges (goitre) to try to capture as much iodine as possible so that it can produce the proper amount of thyroid hormone.

Pancreas:

• It is a composite gland that acts as both endocrine and exocrine glands.
• It originates from the endoderm of the embryonic germ layer.
• The pancreas gland secretes glucagon and insulin hormone in which insulin stimulates the conversion of glucose to glycogen in the target cells.​
• Diabetes develops when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin or when the body does not use insulin properly.

Adrenal gland:

• Our body has a pair of adrenal glands. Each is located i the anterior part of the kidney.
• Adrenal glands produce hormones that help in the regulation of metabolism, immune system, blood pressure, stress and anger response, and other vital functions.
• Due to the irregular functioning of the adrenal gland stress and anger occurs.

Pituitary gland

• The pineal gland is the smallest endocrine gland.
• It directly or indirectly controls almost all other endocrine glands of the body. It is also known as the master gland.
• Pituitary gland secretes many hormones like Growth hormone (GH), Prolactin, Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), Gonadotrophin hormone, Luteinising hormone (LH), and Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), etc.
• Growth hormone stimulates the body's growth, protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism.

The correct answer is option 4 (Yeast reproduces by fragmentation).

Explanation:

Yeast is single-celled. (TRUE)

• Yeasts are eukaryotic, single-celled (organisms with only one cell) microorganisms that belong to the fungus kingdom.
• It is high in protein and vitamins, particularly the B-complex vitamins.
• Their morphological size of yeast is 0.075 mm in diameter and with multiple forms and shapes.

Yeast produces carbon dioxide during respiration. (TRUE)

• During fermentation, yeast rapidly reproduces by using the sugars in the growth medium and converting them to carbon dioxide and alcohol via anaerobic respiration.
• Anaerobic respiration is the breakdown of carbohydrates into water and carbon dioxide in the absence of oxygen.

Yeast can remain dormant for a long time. (TRUE)

• Dry yeast is not dead; it is simply dormant. It will die eventually because it cannot remain dormant indefinitely, but it can survive in dormancy for a very long time.
• When the yeast get warm water and some food to eat (in the form of sugar), they will become active. And as they eat the sugar and break it down for food, they release carbon dioxide.

Yeast reproduces by fragmentation. (FALSE)

• Yeasts cannot be reproduced by fragmentation.
• Yeast is an asexually reproducing organism that only reproduces when certain conditions are met.
• Yeast reproduces through a process known as budding.
• It is a mode of asexual reproduction in which one or more outgrowths (buds)are produced which initially remain attached to the parent cell and eventually get separated from it to grow into a new independent individual.

The correct answer is Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Concept:

Physical Change:

• It is a type of change in the matter without changing the chemical composition of matter.
• It is usually reversible.
• In the physical change, no new products are formed.

Chemical Change:

• It is a change in the chemical composition of matter.
• It is usually irreversible.
• In the chemical change, new products are formed.

Explanation:

• The process of burning a substance in the presence of oxygen is referred to as combustion.
• Because it involves a chemical change in the substance, burning paper is considered a combustion reaction.
• This is because when we burn paper, it undergoes the combustion reaction, and the state of substances changes from solid to liquid to gaseous during the combustion reaction.
• As a result, burning paper is considered a chemical change because the paper after burning transforms into ashes and gas fumes evolve. When white paper is burned, it transforms into brownish-black ash by releasing gases.
• When reactants are subjected to a chemical reaction in order to form products, the reaction will take place either by absorbing energy or by releasing energy by forming the product.
• Chemical changes are irreversible in nature.

Thus, the Burning of a piece of paper is an irreversible change.

The correct answer is Both A and B.

Concept:

Conductivity in aqueous solutions:

• It is a measure of the ability of water to conduct an electric current.
• The more ions there are in the solution, the higher its conductivity.

Electrolyte:

• Electrolytes are salts or molecules that ionize completely in solution. As a result, electrolyte solutions readily conduct electricity.
• A strong electrolyte is one where many ions are present in the solution and a weak electrolyte is one where few ions are present.

Non-electrolytes:

• They do not dissociate into ions in solution.
• Therefore, they do not conduct electricity.

Explanation:

• The tester can be used to determine whether a liquid allows an electric current to pass through it or not.
• Before using the tester, We will also test whether it is working or not
• When the fluid between the two ends of the tester allows an electric current to flow through it, the circuit of the tester is complete.
• A current flows through the circuit, and the bulb lights up.
• When a liquid does not allow the electric current to flow through it, the circuit of the tester is broken and the bulb does not light up.
• Even if the liquid is a conductor, it is possible that the bulb will not light in some cases, indicating that the electric current in the tester is very weak.

Since the bulb in the tester did not glow -

(A) The circuit of tester remained incomplete - True

(B) The current through the tester was too weak - True

The correct answer is same type of roots and leaf venation.

Concept:

Roots:

• In plants, root is the non-green (due to the absence of chlorophyll), cylindrical and descending part that normally grows downwards into the soil.
• It helps in the absorption and conduction of water and minerals.
• Roots are mainly of two types:
• Taproots:
• A taproot develops from the radicle of the embryo of a seed where other lateral roots arise.
• They are dicots. Example- Mustard
• Fibrous roots:
• Fibrous roots originate from the base of the stem.
• They are monocots. ​Example- wheat.

Venation:

• Venation is the arrangement of veins and the veinlets in the lamina of the leaf.
• When the veinlets form a network, the venation is called reticulate.
• When the veins run parallel to each other within a lamina, the venation is termed as parallel.

Monocotyledonous plants:

• In monocotyledonous plants, the primary root is short-lived and is replaced by a large number of roots.
• These roots originate from the base of the stem and constitute the fibrous root system, as seen in the wheat plant.
• And in monocotyledonous plants, the venation of leaves is parallel venation.

Dicotyledonous plants:

• In the majority of the dicotyledonous plants, the direct elongation of the radicle leads to the formation of a primary root which grows inside the soil.
• The primary roots and its branches constitute the tap root system, as seen in the mustard plant.
• And in dicotyledonous plants, the venation of leaves is reticulate venation.

Explanation:

• Wheat and grass are monocot plants.
• Monocotyledons are grass and grass-like flowering plants (angiosperms) with seeds that typically contain only one embryonic leaf or cotyledon.
• As they are both monocot plants, they have the same type of roots and leaf venation.
• The leaves of monocot plants have parallel venation and their roots are fibrous roots.
• The leaves of dicot plants have reticulate venation their roots are taproots.

The correct answer is Only B.

Concept:

• A fuse is thus a safety device which prevents damages to electrical circuits and possible fires.
• An electrical fuse is a circuit protection device that breaks the connection in the event of a short circuit to protect electrical circuits.
• An electrical fuse serves as a protective barrier between the electric circuit and the human body.

Explanation:

• The material used for fuse elements must have the following properties:
• Low melting point
• Low ohmic loss
• High resistivity
• Low cost
• Free from detraction
• According to the question, Material B have low melting point (240) and high resistance (11.2 × 10-8).
• Fuse wire is made of Tin (Sn) and Lead (Pb) alloy because of its high resistance and low melting point.

The correct answer is (The motion of the needle of a sewing machine is oscillatory as well as rectilinear).

Concept:

Motion and Its Types 

• Motion is the change in the position of an object with time.
• Examples of motion include a flying bird, a moving car, a running boy, a child sliding, motion of spinning top etc.
• There are different types of motion. Some of them are Straight line motion, circular motion, periodic motion, vibratory motion and rotatory motion

Explanation:

The motion of a ball rolling on the ground is rectilinear as well as rotational. (CORRECT)

• The centre of mass of the ball exhibits translational (rectilinear) motion while rolling on the ground, whereas the ball exhibits rotational motion in the centre of mass frame.
• Thus, rolling a ball on the ground is an example of both rectilinear and rotational motion.

The motion of a child on a swing is period as well as oscillatory. (CORRECT)

• A child on a swing moves in a periodic motion. Periodic motion is defined as motion that repeats itself at regular intervals.
• Because the motion of a swing repeats at regular intervals, the movement of a child on a swing is periodic as well as oscillatory.

The motion of a point on the blade of an electric fan is circular as well as periodic. (CORRECT)

• The blades of a fan revolve in a circular motion before returning to their original position.
• Though the blade takes very little time to return to its initial position after a complete motion, it is considered a periodic motion.

The motion of the needle of a sewing machine is oscillatory as well as rectilinear. (INCORRECT)

• The motion of a sewing needle is oscillatory in nature because the needle moves in a to and fro motion between its rest and mean positions.

The correct answer is refraction, violet, minimum, red, minimum.

Concept:

Refraction:

The bending of a wave as it travels from one medium to another is known as refraction. The bending is caused by density differences between the two substances.

• After rainfall, small droplets of water are present in the atmosphere.
• The ray of light coming from the sun after raindrops follows reflection and then reflects internally.
• Finally, seven colours of white light form a band which is a rainbow.

Explanation:

• When sunlight falls on the boundary of two mediums it bends from its normal path. The bending of light is refraction and if the boundary is 'tiny droplets of water prism' then visible light separates into different colours is known as dispersion.
• The order of colour is red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
• Different colours bent by a different amount, depending on speed.
• Violet travels slowest (minimum speed) so it deviates maximum, and also has a maximum frequency that travels fastest (maximum speed) so red colour deviates least and also has the minimum frequency.

So, A = refraction, B= violet, C= minimum, D= red, E= minimum​

Additional InformationReflection:

• The reflection of light occurs when a light ray approaches a smooth polished surface and bounces back.
• The incident light rays that hit the surface are reflected back. The ray that bounces back is called the reflected ray.

Scattering:

• When light passes from one medium to another, such as air or a glass of water, a portion of the light is absorbed by medium particles, followed by subsequent radiation in a specific direction. This phenomenon is known as light scattering.
• The intensity of scattered light is determined by particle size and light wavelength.

Dispersion:

• Dispersion is the separation of white light into different colours when it passes through a prism.
• When white light passes through a glass prism, it splits into its spectrum of colours (in order violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red), and this process of splitting white light into its constituent colours is known as dispersion.

Textbooks are collections of standardized material that must be taught to the students.

• They help in the teaching-learning process as well as, maintenance of previously acquired knowledge and the correlation of theoretical knowledge with real-life situations.

Key PointsImportance of anecdotes, stories, and facts in textbooks-

• Anecdotes are frequently portrayed as true stories about real people and events. It makes the subject matter interesting and also helps in understanding the nature of science.
• Short stories between chapters help in introducing new ideas into a student's world and also help in the generation of students' interest in the subject.
• Strange facts are the extra information provided about different concepts in a particular chapter. It makes up for the paucity of additional reading material for children and also draws the children's interest and curiosity towards the subject.

Hence, we conclude that the statement that is not correct regarding the presence of stories, anecdotes, and strange facts in the books is that these are helpful in evaluating the students.

• Anecdotes, short stories, and strange facts present in textbooks have no role in the evaluation of students whereas they provide additional information to children and also develop their critical thinking.

Good science education is one that is true to the child, true to life, and true to science. 

Key Points

• Process validity- It requires that the curriculum engage the learner in acquiring the methods and processes that lead to the generation and validation of scientific knowledge, and nurture the natural curiosity and creativity of the child.
• It is an important criterion since it helps in learning to learn science.

Hence, we conclude that the process validity of a science curriculum requires involving the learners in acquiring the methods by which scientific knowledge is generated and validated.

Additional Information

A simple pendulum is an ideal pendulum with a point mass hanging by a weightless inextensible fully flexible thread that can oscillate freely without friction.

Key PointsA simple pendulum consists of a small metallic ball or a piece of stone suspended from a rigid stand by a thread. The metallic ball is known as Bob of the pendulum.

• The to and fro motion of the simple pendulum is an example of periodic or oscillatory motion.
• For setting up a simple pendulum we should use the inextensible material so, the teacher can use a cotton thread.
• The simple pendulum can be built by tying a one-meter long thread to a small metal ball and suspending it from a sturdy support, allowing the Bob to swing freely. The Bob of the pendulum is in the mean position when it is at rest.

Hence, we conclude that the teacher can use cotton thread as the strings of a simple pendulum.

HintSpring cannot be used for making the string of a simple pendulum as it is extensible.

A divergent question is one that does not have a definite answer and instead tests one's capacity to think extensively about a topic.

Key PointsCharacteristics of divergent questions-

• It requires children to analyze, synthesize, evaluate a knowledge base and then predict different outcomes. (children will think about the judicious use of electricity)
• It encourages children to stretch their thinking beyond what they know to be true. It promotes divergent thinking. These are also known as open-ended questions.
• These questions encourage children to think independently. They are encouraged to use their higher-order cognitive abilities to create new ideas or explanations by combining original and known ideas (assessing students' familiarity with alternative sources of energy).

Hence, we conclude that this question is least suitable for assessing the general awareness of students.

Open-ended questions are one that does not have a definite answer and instead test one's capacity to think extensively about a topic.

 Key Points

Hence, we conclude that "what would happen if the force of friction ceased to exist" is an open-ended question.

Activities are the tasks designed or deployed by the teacher to bring about the conditions for learning.

Key Points

A plane mirror refers to a mirror with a flat reflective surface.

• Activity for teaching image formation by plane mirrors-
• For introducing the topic of image formation by plane mirror the teacher should ask students to place different objects at different locations in front of a plane mirror and observe the characteristics of their images.
• For example- Ask the students to place a lighted candle in front of a plane mirror and see the flame of the candle in the mirror. Then moving the candle to different positions and observing the image in each case.
• It shows that the image formed by the plane mirror is of the same size as the object and will always be virtual and erect.
• This activity will help children to develop a deeper understanding of the concept and encourage them to be independent and inquisitive as it focuses on investigation and analysis and also develops critical thinking.

Hence, we conclude that placing objects at different locations and observing the characteristics of the images is the most helpful activity for the introduction of the topic.

Hint

• Ray diagrams will be difficult for understanding the concept of image formation for the students of class 7.
• Studying the diagram of the periscope will not involve the children in the learning process actively.

Science process skills are the procedures that scientists employ when carrying out research. Observing, classifying, communicating, measuring, predicting, and inferring are some common process skills.

Key Points

• Observing- It is defined as obtaining or gathering information about an object or event through the use of senses.
• Hypothesizing- It refers to providing explanations with available observations. In lack of complete evidence, a hypothesis is a temporary solution.
• Predicting- It is an educated guess based on accurate observations and inferences regarding an observable occurrence or past information.
• Communicating- It refers to the skill through which scientific knowledge is being shared and communicated among the scientific community. In scientific communication, all observations are recorded and communicated with accuracy.
• Finding patterns- It refers to putting the pieces of information together to understand the complete situation.

Hence, we conclude that the correct answer is option 3.

Pressure is defined as force per unit area and volume refers to the space occupied by a substance.

Key PointsActivity for demonstrating the relationship between pressure and volume-

• When we partially fill a syringe with air the syringe has the volume of air at a constant temperature. The gas in the syringe is compressed into a smaller volume and its pressure increases if we push the piston.
• When we pull out the piston, the volume increases and the pressure decreases.
• When the volume of gas is reduced, the pressure rises, and when the volume is increased the pressure falls. It means that pressure is inversely proportional to the volume.
• This example shows the relationship between pressure and the volume of a given amount of air.

Hence, we conclude that pushing the piston of a syringe inwards demonstrates the relationship between pressure and volume.

Scientific attitude is defined as the desire to know and comprehend, the questioning of all statements, search for data and their significance, and the hunt for verification and examination of repercussions.

Key PointsIndicators for assessing scientific attitude in students**-**

• Cause-effect relationship- It refers to the relationship between two things that occur when one thing causes another to occur. It allows us to draw conclusions and reason about events that occur around us. It helps in assessing the critical thinking of the children.
• Identifying patterns and relationships in observation- Logical thinking requires the children to concentrate on the observation and organize them thoroughly through reasoning before coming to any conclusion. Identifying patterns uses students' innate curiosity and observational skills to encourage greater inquiry and engagement.
• Searching for explanations for everyday phenomena- Scientific explanations of phenomena must be founded on events or mechanisms that can be observed in the natural world.

Hence, we conclude that watching science fiction films is not an indicator for assessing scientific attitude in students as they will not be involved in expressing their views and thoughts about a concept.

Scientific literacy refers to the person's ability to seek, locate or determine answers to questions arising from everyday experiences.

Key PointsGoals for the development of scientific literacy-

• People should get the information they need, avoid wrong information and contribute more effectively to scientific dialogue and decision making.
• The goal of scientific literacy is for children to comprehend and interpret the natural systems that exist in their environment.
• Developing a functional understanding of science among people
• To help people in being better informed and making the best judgments possible based on the information available.
• Science literacy is crucial because it sets the stage for solving societal issues.

Hence, we conclude that imparting necessary knowledge and skills to the scientific profession is not associated with the development of scientific literacy.

The correct answer the friend could not be left alone at home

Key Points 

• Let's refer to the following line of the passage:
• "I came readily enough, and as he could not neglect his patients to keep me company, he took me on his rounds - thirty miles or so of an afternoon, sometimes."
• It is clear that the doctor wanted to be in the company of his friend so he could not leave his friend alone.
  

*Hence, it can be concluded that the correct answer is option 2).*​

Additional Information 

• Comprehension questions can be answered easily by:
• Reading the passage carefully.
• Identifying the purpose of the passage.
• Going through the questions correctly with correct implied meaning.

The correct answer is very friendly and jovial

Key Points 

• Let's refer to the following line of the passage:
• "He had a big, hearty laugh that would have fitted a man twice his size, a brisk manner, a bronzed face, and a pair of grey, profoundly attentive eyes. He had the talent of making people talk to him freely and an inexhaustible patience in listening to their tales."
  

*Hence, it can be concluded that the correct answer is option 2).*​

Additional Information 

• Comprehension questions can be answered easily by:
• Reading the passage carefully.
• Identifying the purpose of the passage.
• Going through the questions correctly with correct implied meaning.

The correct answer is (a) is right and (b) is wrong

Key Points 

• Let's refer to the following lines of the passage:
• "He had the talent of making people talk to him freely and an inexhaustible patience in listening to their tales." - (a) is right.
• "I waited for him on the roads, and, sitting in the dogcart I could hear Kennedy's laugh through the half-open door, left open of some cottage." - (b) is wrong.
  

*Hence, it can be concluded that the correct answer is option 1).*​

Additional Information 

• Comprehension questions can be answered easily by:
• Reading the passage carefully.
• Identifying the purpose of the passage.
• Going through the questions correctly with correct implied meaning.

The correct answer is (b) is right and (c) is wrong

Key Points 

• Let's refer to the following line of the passage:
• "I had no time to see her dull face, red, not with a blush that covered it but as if her flat cheeks had been vigorously slapped, and to take in the squat figure, the scanty, dusty brown hair drawn into a light knot at the back of the head. She looked quite young. With a distinct catch in her breath, her voice sounded low and timid." - (b) is right.
  

*Hence, it can be concluded that the correct answer is option 2).*​

Additional Information 

• Comprehension questions can be answered easily by:
• Reading the passage carefully.
• Identifying the purpose of the passage.
• Going through the questions correctly with correct implied meaning.

The correct answer is Sometimes his friend went with him as far as thirty miles.

Key Points 

• Let's refer to the following line of the passage:
• "I came readily enough, and as he could not neglect his patients to keep me company, he took me on his rounds - thirty miles or so of an afternoon, sometimes."

*Hence, it can be concluded that the correct answer is option 2.*​

Additional Information 

• Comprehension questions can be answered easily by:
• Reading the passage carefully.
• Identifying the purpose of the passage.
• Going through the questions correctly with correct implied meaning.

The correct answer is deeply

Key Points 

• Profoundly generally means 'characterized by the intensity of feeling or quality ( अत्‍यधिक )'
• Ex: She was profoundly relieved to hear the news.
• Marked option 'deeply' means 'characterized by depth of feeling or quality ( गहराई से )'
• Ex: The act has been deeply revised.
• It's clear that 'Profoundly' and 'Deeply' are similar in meaning.
  

Therefore the correct answer is option 3).

Additional Information Let's understand the meaning of other options as well:

• Overtly: in a way that is open, straightforward, or obvious ( प्रकट या प्रत्‍यक्ष रूप से )
• Cleverly: mentally quick and resourceful ( चतुराई से )

The correct answer is shortened

Key Points 

• Streched generally means 'to pull something so that it becomes longer or wider ( किसी वस्‍तु को अधिक लंबा या चौड़ा करने के लिए खींचना )
• Ex: The traveler stretched the cloth tightly on the tent.
• Marked option 'Shortened' means 'to become shorter or to make something shorter ( छोटा हो जाना या कर देना )'
• Ex: The syllabus has been shortened now.
• It's clear that 'Streched' and 'Shortened' are opposite in meaning.
  

Therefore the correct answer is option 2).

The correct answer is Principal

Key Points 

• A clause is a part of a sentence that contains a subject and predicate of its own.
• A Principal clause can exist independently without a subordinate clause.
• ​Ex: I saw the boy who snatched the bracelet.
• 'I saw the boy' itself is complete and can exist independently in the sentence.
• In the above sentence, 'I had no time to see the dull face' is a Principal clause as it can exist without the remaining part of the sentence.
  

Therefore, the correct answer is option 1).

Additional Information 

• A subordinate clause depends on the principal clause and cannot exist without it.
• Hence, its also known as the dependent clause.
• Ex: I played out until it started raining.
• 'Until it started raining' is the subordinate clause.